anatomy 1 exam 2

blast cells

"Blast" cells •Secretes ground substance and ECM fibers •Fibroblasts found in connective tissue proper• fibroblast- produces materials in connective tissue proper Chondroblasts found in cartilage• chondroblast- produces extracellular matrix of cartilage Osteoblasts found in bone •Hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow blast= immature cell blast create extracelluar matrix, growing, example osteoblast is an immature cell found in the bone

2 layers in the dermis

*Papillary dermis • Reticular dermis

Stages in the healing of a bone fracture

1. Clotted blood forms hematoma, inflammation occurs 2. Phagocytes clear debris. Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers. Bone reconstruction begins 3. New trabeculae appear. Callus becomes bony callus of spongy bone 4. Compact bone is laid down on shaft walls. Continues for several months BONE REMODELING OCCURS

connective tissue proper think concept maps

2 levels loose connective tissue, and dense connective tissue in the loose we have - areolar, adipose, and reticular dense- Regular, irregular, and elastic

Classification of Epithelial

All epithelial tissues have two name -First name indicates number of cell layers -Second name indicates shape of cell first name -simple Epithelial is a single layer thick -stratified Epithelial is 2 or more layers thicks and involved in protection (think skin) second name -Squamous: flattened and scale-like -Cuboidal: box-like, cube -Columnar: tall, column-like In stratified epithelia, shape can vary in each layer, so cell is named according to the shape in apical layer (meaning you look at the top layer shape and that how you classify which shape it is)

Mucous Membrane

Also called mucosae Line body cavities that are open to the exterior Moist membranes bathed by secretions (or urine) May secrete mucus

Cutaneous Membrane

Another name for skin Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) attached to a thick layer of connective tissue (dermis) Dry membrane organization levels skin epidermis dermis subcuatneous

CT Proper: Dense - Regular

Can withstand high tension and stretching Thick collage fibers resist pulling but also stretch Very few cells and ground substance, mostly fibers Poorly vascularized (poor blood supply?) Example: tendons and ligament FUNCTION: attaches muscle to bone, and bone to bone location: tendon and ligaments

Compact and Spongy Bone

Compact: dense outer layer of bone • Spongy: honeycomb bone --> trabeculae • Open spaces filled with red or yellow bone marrow (yellow = Fat) spongy - open sacs filled with red and yellow bone marrow yellow = fat spongy = trabecule

Body Membranes

Composed of at least two primary tissue types: an epithelium bound to underlying connective tissue proper layer Three types Cutaneous membranes (skin) Mucous membranes Serous membranes (serous fluid)

Apocrine Sweat Glands

Confined to axillary (armpitt) and anogenital areas • Secrete viscous milky or yellowish sweat that contains fatty substances (acid) and proteins • Larger than eccrine sweat glands with ducts emptying into hair follicles • Begin functioning at puberty • Modified apocrine glands ( 2 type) • 1) Ceruminousglands: lining of external ear canal; secrete cerumen (earwax) • 2) Mammary glands: secrete milk

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial Tissue •Sheet of cells that covers body surfaces or cavities

Structural Elements of Connective Tissue

Ground Substance gel-like material that fills space between cells •Components •Interstitial fluid •Cell adhesion proteins •Proteoglyca

All connective tissues have three main element

Ground substance •Fibers •Cells

cyte cell

Helps maintain health of matrix cyte cell- are mature cells mature help maintain health

Muscle Tissue

Highly vascularized (yes blood supply) Responsible for most types of movement Muscle cells possess myofilaments = (muscle contractions) made up of actin and myosin proteins that bring about contraction Three types of muscle tissues: Skeletal muscle (bone to bone) Cardiac muscle (heart) Smooth muscle (lines internal organs)

Mast cells

Initiate local inflammatory response against foreign microorganisms they detect THEY PREVENT BLOOD CLOTS

Skin Functions: Body Temp Regulation

Insensible perspiration --> sweat glands produce about 500 ml/day of unnoticeable sweat • sensible perspiration -->cools body; dilation of dermal vessels can increase sweat gland activity to produce 12 L (3 gallons) of noticeable sweat VASOCONSTRICTION --> blood vessels constrict (compress) to conserve heat !!!! • Cold external environment • Dermal blood vessels constrict • Skin temperature drops to slow passive heat loss

Stratified Epithelium

Involve two or more layers of cells •New cells regenerate from below •Basal cells divide and migrate toward surface •More durable than simple epithelia because protection is the major role tougher, more protection

Which cells regenerate?

Lots of regeneration: Epithelial tissues, bone , areolar connective tissue , dense irregular connective tissue , blood-forming tissue A little regeneration: Smooth muscle dense regular connective tissue No regeneration: Cardiac muscle nervous tissue of (brain and spinal cord)

Multicelluar Exocrine Gland Structure Mode of Secretion

Merocrine: most secrete products by exocytosis as secretions are produced (sweat, pancreas) •Holocrine: accumulate products within, then rupture (sebaceous oil glands) •Apocrine: accumulate products within, but only apex ruptures (maybe mammary cells?)

Growth in Length of Long Bones

Near end of adolescence, epiphyseal plate start getting thiner and thinner until and is replaced by bone tissue • Epiphyseal plate closure occurs when epiphysis and diaphysis fuse (combine) • Bone lengthening ceases • Females: occurs around 18 years of age • Males: occurs around 21 years of age

Elastic fibers

Networks of long, thin, elastin fibers that allow for stretch and recoil protein : elastic allows for stretchy , flexible movement

White blood cells

Neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes •Tissue response to injury

Chemical Composition of bone

ORGANIC: Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, bone-lining cells, osteoclasts, and osteoid • Osteoid: which make up 1/3 of the matrix include ground substance and collagen fiber which both are secreted by osteoblasts • Ground substance and collagen fibers co= high tensile strength and flexibility of bone • Resilience of bone is due to sacrificial bonds in or between collagen molecules that stretch and break to prevent fractures sacrifical bond- collagen fiber wrapped/ unwrapped/ stretches bone and allows flexibility. INORGANIC: (mineral salt) hydroxyapatites which is 65% bone mass • 65% of bone by mass • Consist mainly of tiny calcium phosphate crystals in and around collagen fibers • Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression • Lasts long after death because of mineral composition

Step 2: Organization restores blood supply

Organization begins as the blood clot is replaced with granulation tissue (new capillary-enriched tissue) Epithelium begins to regenerate Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge the gap until regeneration is complete Any debris in area is phagocytized (ingested)

Macrophages

Phagocytic cells that "eat" dead cells, microorganisms; function in immune system

Fracture Classification

Position of bone ends after fracture • Nondisplaced: ends retain normal position • Displaced: ends are out of normal alignment • Completeness of break • Complete: broken all the way through • Incomplete: not broken all the way through • Whether skin is penetrated • Open (compound): skin is penetrated • Closed (simple): skin is not penetrated

calcitonin

Produced by the thyroid gland and decreases the blood calcium levels by stimulating calcium deposit in the bones. The antagonist of the parathyroid hormone

Fibrocartilage

Properties between hyaline and dense regular tissue Strong, so found in areas such as intervertebral discs and knee LOCATION: knee, intervertebral disk

Hematopoietic Tissue in Bones

RED BONE MARROW • Trabecular cavities of spongy bones of long bones and diploe of flat bones contain red marrow • In newborns, medullary cavities and all spongy bone contain red marrow • In adults, red marrow is located in heads of femur and humerus, but most active areas of hematopoiesis are flat bone diploë and some irregular bones (such as the hip bone) • Yellow marrow can convert to red, if person becomes anemic RED BONE MARROW FOUND IN THE EPIPHYSIS = SPONGY BONE

Stratified Cuboidal•

Rare •Found in some sweat and mammary glands

Step 1: Inflammation sets stage

Release of inflammatory chemicals causes: Dilation of blood vessels Increase in blood vessel permeability Clotting of blood occurs

Tissue Repair

Repair can occur in two major ways: Regeneration: same kind of tissue replaces destroyed tissue, so original function is restored Fibrosis: connective tissue replaces destroyed tissue, and original function lost

Epiphyseal Plate Zones

Resting (quiescent) zone • Area of cartilage on epiphyseal side of epiphyseal plate that is relatively inactive 2. Proliferation (growth) zone • Area of cartilage on diaphysis side of epiphyseal plate that is rapdily dividing , • New cells formed move upward, pushing epiphysis away from diaphysis, causing lengthening 3. Hypertrophic zone • Older cartilage cells are enlarging 4. Calcification zone • Surrounding cartilage matrix calcifies; chondrocytes die and deteriorate 5. Ossification zone • Chondrocyte deterioration leaves calcified cartilage at epiphysisdiaphysis junction • Cartilage is eroded by osteoclasts and are covered with new bone by osteoblasts ---> ultimately replaced with spongy bone • Medullary cavity enlarges

CT Proper: Dense- Irregular

Same elements as dense regular, but bundles of collagen are thicker and irregularly arranged Forms sheets rather than bundles Resists tension from many directions Found in: Dermis Fibrous joint capsules Fibrous coverings of some organs FUNCTION: strength, and withstand tension, and provides structural strength location: dermis, capsule of joint, digestive tract question : The deeper reticular layer, which accounts for about 80% of the thickness of the dermis, is composed of dense irregular connective tissue.

Reticular fiber

Short, fine, highly branched collagenous fibers •Branching forms networks that offer more "give" found in the capilary

Simple Cuboidal

Single layer of cells •Involved in secretion and absorption •Forms walls of smallest ducts of glands and many kidney tubule located in kidney tubule, ovary structure, small ducts of gland

Simple columnar epithelium•

Single layer of tall, closely packed cells •Some cells have microvilli,(finger-like absorption from surface ) and some have cilia(movement) •Some layers contain mucus-secreting goblet cells ( goblet cells help with lubrication) •Involved in absorption and secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances •Ciliated cells move mucus •Found in digestive tract, gallbladder, ducts of some glands, bronchi, and uterine tube

Skin Functions: Blood Reservoir

Skin can hold up to 5% of the body's total blood volume • Skin vessels can be constricted to shunt (transport) blood to other organs, such as an exercising muscle

Skin Functions: Excretion

Skin can secrete limited amounts of nitrogenous wastes, such as ammonia, urea, and uric acid • Sweating can cause salt and water loss

CT Proper: Dense- Elastic

Some ligaments are very elastic Also found in walls of many large arteries FUNCTION: allows tissue to recoil blood flow LOCATION: large arties, ligaments, and lungs

Dermis

Strong, flexible connective tissue • Cells --> fibroblasts (connective tissue proper immature cell ), macrophages (eaters), mast cells and white blood cells • Contains nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels • Contains epidermal hair follicles, oil glands, and sweat glands the dermis is located underneath the epidermis which means its connective tissue and it contains blood and blood vessels

epithelial tissue part 3 characteristic

There are nerve fibers, but *no blood vessels* are found in epithelial tissue •Nourished by diffusion from underlying connective tissue, basically they obtain blood , nutrient from connective tissue

Layers of the Epidermis

Thick skin --> high-abrasion areas (5 layers) thick skin = palms, fingertips, and soles of the feet Thin skin -->rest of the body (4 layers) Five layers of skin 1. Stratum basale (deepest layer) 2. Stratum spinosum 3. Stratum granulosum 4. Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin) 5. Stratum corneum ( the outer most superior layer) basically what people what we call our skin

this 3 things make connective tissue different from the primary tissue

Three characteristics make connective tissues different from other primary tissues connective tissue has :•All have common embryonic origin (mesenchyme) (they all come from mesenchyme ) •Have varying degrees of vascularity (cartilage is avascular, bone is highly vascularized) ( either can have blood or no blood) •Cells are suspended/embedded in extracellular matrix (ECM) (cells have embedded in extracelluar matrix (outside the cell) •Matrix supports cells so they can bear weight, withstand tension, endure ab

Spongy Bone

Trabeculae add strength to bone • No osteons are present, but trabeculae do contain irregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi • nutrient reach the osteocytes of spongy bone by diffusing through the canaliculi from the Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrient

Transitional Epithelium

Transitional Epithelium •Forms lining of hollow urinary organs •Found in bladder, ureters, and urethra •Cells can change shape when stretched cells have the ability to change their shape, stretching occurs in the transitional E.

Fracture Treatment and Repair

Treatment involves reduction, the realignment of broken bone ends • Closed reduction: physician manipulates to correct position • Open reduction: surgical pins or wires secure ends • after the broken bone is reduction it is Immobilization of bone by cast or traction is needed for healing

skeletal cartilage

a skeletal cartilage is made of some variety of cartilage tissue molded to fit its body location and function. cartilage consist primarily of water, which account got its resilence that is its ability to spring back to its original shape after being compressed.

tissue

are GROUPS of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function tissues work together

Bone Markings

bone marking - is the external surface (attachment on external surface) are rarely smooth and feature- less. Instead they display projection, depression, and opening Bone marking serve as sites of muscle, ligament, and also Areas involved in joint formation or conduits for blood vessels and nerves • Three types of markings: • Projection: *outward bulge of bone* bulge outward from the surface • Head, facet, condyle, ramus, tuberosity, crest, trochanter, line, tubercle, epicondyle, spine, process • Depression: groove that can serve as passageways for vessels and nerves, or plays a role in joints • Groove, notch, fossa • Opening: hole or canal in bone that serves as passageways for blood vessels and nerves • Fissure, foramen, meatus, sinus

chapter 6

bones and skeleton tissues

Connective tissue fibers

collagen, elastic fiber, and reticular

chapter 5 The Integument System

composed of Skin Hair Nails Sweat glands Sebaceous (oil) glands however keep in mind that skin in the main component but also the hair, nails, sweat and sebecaeous gland take place.

Muscle tissue:

function : Allows Contracts to cause movement • Muscles attached to bones (skeletal) (voluntary we do this with a conscious) • Muscles of heart (cardiac) (involuntary) • Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth) (involuntary)

Nervous tissue

function : allows Internal communication composed of the: • Brain• Spinal cord• Nerves nervous tissue embryonic originates : ectoderm

Connective tissue:

function : they Supports, protects, and binds other tissues together • Bones • Tendons *and ligaments • Fat and other soft padding tissue connective tissue embryonic originates: mesoderm

Types of Cartilage 3 type

hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage

4 types of tissue

nervous, muscle, epithelial, and connective tissue

parathyroid hormone

produced by parathyroid glands. Raises bl. calcium level when it falls below a critacal threshold level, by releasing calcium from the bone tissue & increasing the rate of reabsorption of calcium from the kidneys. Also promotes vit. D synthesis.

CT Proper: Loose - Reticular

resembles areolar tissue, but fibers are thinner reticular fibers Fibroblast cells are called reticular cells Secrete reticular fibers made up of thin collagen Reticular fibers form a mesh-like stroma that acts as a support for blood cells in lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow FUNCTION: support other cells LOCATION: lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow

Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones

spongy bone= diploe = trabecula diploe= short, irregular, flat trabecula= long bone Thin plates of spongy bone covered by compact bone (diploe) • Connective tissue membranes • Periosteum (outside ) & Endosteum ( inside) • Bone marrow is scattered throughout spongy bone • Hyaline cartilage covers movement of area of bone that is part of a movable joint BOOK NOTES IMPORTANT AF! : short, irregular, and flat bone share a simple design: they all consist of thin plates of spongy bone (diplo) covered by compact bone the outside bone is covered by the compact bone and inside by the connective tissue membrane which consist of periosteam, and endosteum. no shaft no ends. they contain bone marrow ( between trabeculae). they form movable joint where they have neighboring hyaline cartilage covers on the surface.

Fat cells

store nutrition

Reticular lamina

your reticular lamina is underneath the basal lamina•Consists of network of collagen fiber

2 main form of Epithelial tissue

•Covering and lining epithelial- (get deeper) which basically forms the outer layers of the skin ; dips into and lines the open cavities of the digestive, respiratory system. •Glandular epithelial- (get deeper) they are known for fashions of the gland of the body. Main functions include protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception

Basement membrane

•Made up of basal and reticular lamina •Reinforces epithelial sheet •Resists stretching and tearing •Defines epithelial boundary - basement membrane separates epithelial and connective

Papillary Layer

Areolar connective tissue with loose collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessels • Loose fibers allow phagocytes to patrol for microorganisms • Dermal papillae: fingerlike projections of dermis into epidermis • Projections contain capillary loops, free nerve endings, and touch receptors • In thick skin, dermal papillae are on dermal ridges -> epidermal ridges • For gripping! • Sweat pores in ridges leave unique fingerprint pattern collagen fiber are loose allows phatocytces (ingestion ) to control microorganism dermal papillae = allows capillary to reach further in the epidermis epidermal ridges- is tough texture to allow for griping sweat pores = ridge leave unique fingerprint pattern.

Growth of Cartilage

Calcification of cartilage occurs during normal bone growth in youth, but can also occur in old age calcification - The process of depositing calcium salts within a tissue calcified- (hardened due to deposit of calcium salt) • Cartilage grows in two ways: • Appositional growth • Cells in perichondrium secrete matrix on surface of CARTILAGE (A. G grow on the surface ) • Interstitial growth • Chondrocytes within lacunae divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within (I.G grow within the cartilage)

Melanoma

Cancer of melanocytes • Treated by wide surgical excision accompanied by immunotherapy • Key to survival is early detection: *ABCD rule* • A: asymmetry; the two sides of the pigmented area do not match • B: border irregularity; exhibits indentations deeper ( pigmented spot possesses notches and indentations) • C: color; contains several colors (black, brown, tan, sometimes red or blue) • D: diameter; larger than 6 mm (size of pencil eraser) Melanoma Malignant (cancerous) yes (spread) orginates in the stratum bascale bc of the melanocytes treated: surgical excisions, and immunotheraphy

Hair (pili)

Flexible strands of dead, keratinized cells, produced by follicles dead hair made of hard keratin • None on palms, soles, lips, nipples, and portions of external genitalia • Hard keratin (soft found in skin) • Functions: • Warn of insects on skin • Hair on head guards against physical trauma • Protect from heat loss • Shield skin from sunlight • Regions: • Shaft: area that extends above scalp, where keratinization is complete • Root: area within scalp, where keratinization is still going on scalp- what we see root- deep

Smooth Muscle

Found mainly in walls of hollow organs (other than heart) Involuntary muscle (just happens you can't control) Has no visible striations Spindle-shaped cells with one nucleus

Cardiac Muscle

Found only in walls of heart Involuntary muscle (just happens you cant control) Like skeletal muscle, contains striations; but cells have only one nucleus Cells can have many branches that join branches of other cardiac cells Intercalated discs are special joints where cardiac cells are joined

Cartilage

Matrix secreted from chondroblasts (cartilage immature cells) (during growth) and chondrocytes (cartilage mature cells) (adults) Chondrocytes (cartilage mature cell) found in cavities called lacunae 80% water, with packed collagen fibers and sugar proteins Tough yet flexible material that *lacks nerve fibers* Avascular: receives nutrients from membrane surrounding it (perichondrium) Periochondrium-gives rise to chondroblasts and chondrocytes

Hyaline cartilage

Most abundant Found at tips of long bones, nose, trachea, larynx, and cartilage of the ribs

Burns

Tissue damage caused by heat, electricity, radiation, or certain chemicals • Immediate threat is dehydration and electrolyte imbalance • Classified by severity • First degree: epidermal damage only • Second degree: epidermal and dermal damage • Third degree: entire thickness of skin damaged

Hair Structure

• Three parts of hair shaft: • Medulla: central core of • Cortex: layers of cells surrounding medulla • Cuticle: outer layer • Hair pigments are made by *melanocytes* in hair follicles • Combinations of different melanins (yellow, rust, brown, black) create all the hair colors • Red hair has additional pheomelanin pigment

Stratified Columnar

•Rare •Small amounts found in pharynx, in male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts •Usually occurs at transition areas between two other types of epithelia

2 regions of the skins

1. Epidermis (superior) ( is the epithelial tissue)(no blood vessels) 2. Dermis (inferior) (below) (connective tissue) (yes blood vessels) Hypodermis = subcutaneous layer which has a lot of apex tissue which function as insulation, energy storage, absorb shock, fat

Functions of Bones

1. Support 2. Protection 3. Movement 4. Mineral (store calcium and phosphate) and growth factor storage 5. Blood cell formation ( hematopoiesis " occurs in the red marrow " BLOOD FORMATION ) 6. Triglyceride storage ( lipid= long term energy storage ) 7. Hormone production (hormones help regulate insulin secretion, and format glucose with a special hormones called ostecalcin.

Classification of Bones

206 bones in adult skeleton--> axial and appendicular • Classified by shape • Long: limb bones examples humerus, femor, tibia, radius, ulna, fiblia • Short: cube-shaped (carpals and tarsals) • Sesamoid bones form within tendons (patella) • Flat: thin, flat and curved examples of flat bones are ... sternum • Sternum, scapulae, ribs, most skull bones • Irregular: vertebrae and hip bones

Epithelial Tissue, characteristic

ALL EPITHELIAL ARE COMPOSED OF -Apical surface- which is the upper free surface exposed to the body exterior (outside) or the cavity of an internal organ *polarity occurs in the apical surface* -basal surface- is the lower attachment, it attaches to basal lamina, the basal is open to the outside organs, also the basal is the boundaries between epithelial and connective tissue. All epithelial sheets are supported by connective tissue Basal lamina / reticuluar fiber --> make up the basement membrane and they keep it from stretching /

Sudoriferous (sweat) Glands

All skin surfaces except nipples and parts of external genitalia contain sweat glands • About 3 million per person • Two main types • Eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands • Apocrine sweat glands • Contain myoepithelial cells • Contract upon nervous system stimulation to force sweat into ducts

Simple Squamous

Cells are flattened laterally, and cytoplasm is sparse •Function where rapid diffusion is priority ----------------------> occur in the kidney, lungs •Two special simple squamous epithelia are based on locations •Endothelium: lining of lymphatic vessels, blood vessels, and heart •Mesothelium: serous(think fluid) membranes in the ventral body cavity

Stratum Basale

Deepest --> firmly attached to dermis • Actively dividing stem cells that produce two daughter cells each time (mitosis) • One daughter cell journeys from basal layer to surface, taking 25- 45 days to reach surface • Cell dies as it moves toward surface • Other daughter cell remains in stratum basale as stem cell • 10-25% of layer also composed of *melanocytes*

Long Bones

Diaphysis: forms long axis of bone "shaft" • Compact bone surrounding central medullary cavity that is filled with yellow marrow (fat) in adults called yellow marrow cavity • Epiphyses: ends of long bones that consist of compact bone externally and spongy bone internally Epiphysis - majority is composed of spongy bone proximal - closer to the origin distal- away from origin • Articular cartilage covers articular (joint) surfaces • Between diaphysis and epiphysis is epiphyseal line in adults long bone • Remnant of childhood epiphyseal plate where bone growth occurs epiphyseal plate- a disc of hyaline cartilage that grows during childhood to length bones children = epiphilineal plate allows for growth

Endocrine Glands

Ductless glands •Secretions are released into surrounding interstitial fluid •Secrete (by exocytosis) hormones •Target organs respond in some characteristic wa

Glandular Epithelia

Gland: One or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid called a secretion Classified by: •Site of product release: (2 type ) •Endocrine: internally(inside) secreting(produce hormones no ducts) •Exocrine: externally(outside) secreting (release external, have ducts, picture sweat glands) •Relative number of cells forming the gland •Unicellular (example: goblet cells) or multicellular (example: salivary)

Bone Membranes Periosteum and Endosteum

MEMBRANE Periosteum: a glistening white, double layer periosteum covers the external surfaces except joint • outer Fibrous layer: Sharpey's fibers that secure to bone matrix ( is dense irregular connective tissue) • Osteogenic layer: inner layer; contains primitive osteogenic stem *cells that gives rise to most all bone cells* the periostem is richly supplied with nerves fibers and blood vessels which pass through the shaft to enter the marrow cavity nutrient foramen. perforating sharpey fiber- collagen fiber that extend from its fibrous layer into the bone matrix - secure the bone • Contains many nerve fibers and blood vessels that continue on to the shaft through nutrient foramen opening is the anchoring point of the tendons/ ligament • Anchoring points for tendons and ligaments • Endosteum: covers internal bone surface examples include (trabeculae & spongy bone) • Lines canals that pass through compact bone • Has osteogenic cells that can differentiate into other bone cells

Nervous System

Main component of nervous system (brain, spinal cord, nerves) function: Regulates and controls body functions Made up of two specialized cells: Neurons: specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve impulses and Supporting cells that support, insulate, and protect neurons

Stratum Corneum

Many rows of flat, anucleated, keratinized dead cells • Though dead, cells still function to: • Protect deeper cells from the environment • Prevent water loss • Protect from abrasion and penetration • Act as a barrier against biological, chemical, and physical assaults

Connective Tissue

Most abundant and widely distributed of primary tissues •Major functions: binding and support, protecting, insulating, storing reserve fuel, and transporting substances (blood) •Four main classes •Connective tissue proper •Cartilage •Bone •Blood

Step 3: Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair

The scab detaches Fibrous tissue matures Epithelium thickens and begins to resemble adjacent tissue Results in a fully regenerated epithelium with underlying scar tissue, which may or may not be visible

CT Proper: Loose- Adipose

White fat Similar to areolar tissue but greater nutrient storage Cells are called adipocytes Richly vascularized (contains blood) Functions in shock absorption, insulation, and energy storage Brown fat Use lipid fuels to heat bloodstream rather than to produce ATP, as does white fat KEYFACTOR brown vs. white brown- converts lipid for energy thur heat white- store nutrition, use ATP FUNCTION: INFLAMMATION, SHOCK ABSORPTION (that why it doesn't hurt that much if you get punished in the face because you have fat on your face ), ENERGY STORAGE LOCATION- subcutaneous tissue

Bone Disorders

• Caused by imbalances between bone deposit and bone resorption (the process of being reabsorbed) • Osteomalacia --> bones are poorly mineralized • Osteoid is produced, but calcium salts not adequately deposited • Results in soft, weak bones • Rickets (osteomalacia of children) • Results in bowed legs and other bone deformities because bones ends are enlarged and abnormally long • Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium • Osteoporosis ---> bone resorption (BREAKING DOWN) exceeds deposit • Matrix remains normal, but bone mass declines • Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur most susceptible (MORE VULNERABLE ) QUESTION : creates pores in bone, loss of density Answer: Osteoporosis OSTEOPOROSIS- IS THE "BONE PROBLEM FOR OLD AGE" EXAMPLE WOMEN HUNCHED OVER!!

BONE

Also called osseous tissue functions: Supports and protects body structures Stores fat and synthesizes blood cells in cavities Has more collagen compared to cartilage Has inorganic calcium salts Osteoblasts produce matrix (growing) (so they produce) Osteocytes (mature cells) maintain the matrix ( so they maintain ) Reside in cavities in matrix called lacunae location: lacunae (osteocytes) Osteons: individual structural units Richly vascularized ( they have blood supply )

Serous Membrane

Also called serosae Found in closed ventral body cavities (think fluid) chapter 3 Simple squamous epithelium (called mesothelium) resting on thin areolar connective tissue Parietal serosae line internal body cavity walls Visceral serosae cover internal organs Cavity between layers is filled with slippery serous fluid, so these are moist membranes

Skeletal Muscle

Attached to and causes movement of bones Also called voluntary muscle b/c Consciously controlled Cells = muscle fibers Contain multiple nuclei Appear striated or banded

Intramembranous Ossification

BONE DEVELOPE BY FIBROUS MEMBRANE AND THE BONE IS CALLED MEMBRANE BONE • INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION Forms the cranial frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, (cranial) and clavicle bones MOST BONE FORMED BY THIS PROCESS ARE FLAT BONES at about week 8 ossification begins within fibrous connective tissue membrane formed by the mesenchymal cell. • Four major steps are involved: 1. Ossification centers are formed when mesenchymal cells cluster and become osteoblasts (location in a bone where ossification (bone forming) begins) 2. Osteoid is secreted, then calcified 3. Woven bone is formed when osteoid is laid down around blood vessels, resulting in trabeculae 4. Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, and red marrow appears

Stratum Granulosum

Cells flatten, nuclei and organelles disintegrate • Keratinization begins • Cells accumulate keratohyaline granules that help form keratin fibers in upper layers • Cells also accumulate lamellar granules, a water-resistant glycolipid that slows water loss • Cells above this layer die • Too far from dermal capillaries to survive cells are keratinized = tough layer, prevent water loss

Exocrine Glands

Exocrine Glands •Secretions are released onto body surfaces, such as skin, or into body cavities via ducts •More numerous than endocrine glands •Unicellular: mucous and goblet cells •Found in epithelial linings of intestinal and respiratory tracts •All produce mucin, a sugar-protein that can dissolve in water to form mucus, a slimy protective, lubricating coating •Multicellular: duct and a secretory unit •Usually surrounded by supportive connective tissue that supplies blood and nerve fibers to gland •Classified by: •Structure•Mode of secretion

Basal Cell Carcinoma

• Least malignant and most common • Stratum basale cells proliferate and slowly invade dermis and hypodermis • Cured by surgical excision in 99% of cases IN CLASS NOTES IMPORTANT AF BASCAL CELL CARCINOMAS benign (non cancerous) not often but can (does it spread) orginated in the stratum bascal how is it removed ? Surgical exicisions

Skeletal Cartilage

*No blood vessels or nerves* IMPORTANT AF NOTES: the cartilage which contains no nerves, and no blood vessels is surrounded by a layer of dense irregular connective tissue the perchondrium acts as a gridle to resist outward expansion when the cartilage is compressed. • Perichondrium: layer of dense connective tissue surrounding cartilage perichondrium- is the outer covering cartilage dense tissue. the perichondrium is responsible for the blood supply. • Helps cartilage resist outward expansion • Contains blood vessels for nutrient delivery to cartilage • Chondrocytes --> cells encased in lacunae within extracellular matrix • Three types: • Hyaline cartilage • Provides support, flexibility, and resilience • Most abundant type; contains collagen fibers only • Articular (joints) cartilage they prevent friction , ( which cover the ends of most bones at moveable joints) costal cartilage (ribs), (connects the rib to the sternum) respiratory cartilage which forms the skeleton of (larynx), (voice box) and reinforces other respiratory passageway nasal cartilage which supports the external nose • Elastic cartilage • Similar to hyaline cartilage, but contains elastic fibers that are way more stretchhhyyyy • found in the External ear and epiglottis • Fibrocartilage • Thick collagen fibers: highly compressible with great tensile strength; fibrocartilage • found in the Menisci of knee; vertebral discs

Bone Remodeling

About 5-7% of bone mass is recycled each week • Spongy bone replaced ~ every 3-4 years • Compact bone replaced ~ every 10 years • Bone remodeling consists of both bone deposit and bone resorption • Occurs at surfaces of both periosteum and endosteum • New bone matrix is deposited by osteoblasts • Resorption is function of osteoclasts so osteoblast, and osteoclast work together in remodeling • osteoclast Break down matrix and secrete lysosomal enzymes that digest matrix • Osteoclasts also phagocytize (ingest) matrix and dead osteocytes • Digested products are transcytosed across cell and released into interstitial fluid and then into blood • Once resorption is complete, osteoclasts undergo apoptosis.( the death of cells that occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or development)

Epithelial tissue:

Function : Forms boundaries between different environments, also it protects, secretes, absorbs, and filters • Lining of digestive tract organs and other hollow organs• -Skin surface (epidermis) epithelial tissue is embryonic originates: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm

Bone Growth

Long bones grow lengthwise by interstitial (longitudinal) growth of epiphyseal plate bone length by intersitital growth (within cartilage) • Bones increase thickness through appositional growth • Bones stop growing during adolescence • Some facial bones continue to grow slowly through life • Epiphyseal plate (intersectional growth) consists of five zones: 1. Resting (quiescent) zone (is the area of cartilage that is inactive) 2. Proliferation (growth) zone (cartilage =mitosis= growths= dividing cells) 3. Hypertrophic zone (site of enlarging older cartilage) 4. Calcification zone (matrix occurring) (cartilage cells die) (blood vessels invade) 5. Ossification (osteogenic) zone (new bone forms) epiphyseal plate------> after growth is your epiphyseal line

Blood

Most atypical connective tissue because it is fluid Consists of cells surrounded by matrix (plasma) Red blood cells are most common cell type Also contains white blood cells and platelets Fibers are soluble proteins that precipitate during blood clotting Functions in transport and in carrying nutrients, wastes, gases, and other substances

Eccrine Sweat Glands

Most numerous type • Abundant on palms, soles, and forehead • Ducts connect to pores • Function in thermoregulation (temperature regulation) • Regulated by sympathetic nervous system • Their secretion is sweat • 99% water, salts, vitamin C, antibodies, dermcidin (microbe-killing peptide), metabolic wastes

CT Proper: Loose - Areolar

Most widely distributed CT Supports and binds other tissues Universal packing material between other tissues Contains fibroblasts (connective tissue proper immature cell) that secrete loose arrangement of mostly collagen fibers Loose fibers allow for increased ground substance, which can act as water reservoir by holding more interstitial fluid FUNCTION: SUPPORT AND BIND -HOLD BODY FLUID LOCATION: UNDER SKIN

Stratified Squamous•

Most widespread (more diverse spread throughout our whole body) •Located in areas of high wear and tear (example: skin) also its extended in areas of the skin with opening examples include nose. •Keratinized( = protein makes more stronger rigid) keratinized cells are found in skin; nonkeratinized cells are found in moist lining

Elastic cartilage

Similar to hyaline but with *more elastic fibers* Found in ears and epiglottis (think pig and killing it)

Reticular Layer

Thickest • Coarse, dense fibrous connective tissue • Elastic fibers = stretch-recoil properties • Collagen fibers = strength and resiliency • Cutaneous plexus: network of blood vessels between reticular layer and hypodermis • Cleavage (tension) lines in reticular layer = collagen fibers • Important to surgeons because incisions parallel to cleavage lines heal more readily • Flexure lines of reticular layer are dermal folds at or near joints deepest layer of the dermis thickest help with water cutaneous plexus- help nourish reticular layer cleavage: image , surgeon, cutting them following those lines leads to a better healing process (surgery) flexure lines - dermal folds example would include the back of your knee.

Skin Color

Three pigments contribute to skin color: melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin 1. Melanin: skin color • Only pigment made in skin; made by melanocytes • Packaged into melanosomes -> sent to keratinocytes to shield DNA from sunlight • Sun exposure stimulates melanin production • Freckles and moles = melanin 2. Carotene • Yellow to orange pigment • Most obvious in palms and soles • Accumulates in stratum corneum and hypodermis 3. Hemoglobin • Pinkish hue = low levels of melanin example having fair skin with pink tone is an example of hemoglobin KEEP IN MIND WE ALL HAVE THE SAME MELANOCYTE IT JUST DEPENDS ON THE AMOUNT BEING PRODUCED HOW DARK YOU ARE.

Bone Tissue Cells

five major type cell type of bone tissue; osteogenic cells, osteoblast, osteocyte, bone lining cells, and osteoclast all of this orginate in the embryonic connective tissue execpt oestoclast Osteogenic cells --> active stems cells in periosteum and endosteum • Differentiate into osteoblasts or bone-lining cells 2. Osteoblasts --> bone-forming cells that secrete the bone matrix (osteoid) - bone matrix 3. Osteocytes--> mature bone cells in lacunae that no longer divide • Maintain bone matrix; help initiate bone remodeling process 4. Bone-lining cells --> maintain bone matrix bone -lining on the surface • Periosteal cells: external bone surface • Endosteal cells: internal bone surface 5. Osteoclasts--> bone resorption (breakdown) • Ruffled borders increase surface area for enzyme degradation of bone

Glial

supporting cell (provide nutrients to neurons) ex: think of class when Mrs. Patterson was talking about Einsteins I.Q level because he had alot of Glial = supporting cells

Skin Functions: Protection

• Chemical barrier: sweat, sebum, and cells kill microbes/bacteria • Acid mantle: low pH of skin retards bacterial multiplication • Melanin fights UV radiation damage • Physical barrier: Flat, dead, keratinized cells of stratum corneum, surrounded by glycolipids, block most water and water-soluble substances • Biological barrier: Epidermis contains phagocytic cells, dermis contains macrophages • Both engulf foreign antigens (invaders) and present to white blood cells, activating the immune response

hair structure part 2

• Extends from epidermal surface to dermis • Hair bulb: expanded area at deep end of follicle • Hair follicle receptor: sensory nerve endings that wrap around bulb hair bulb --> followed by hair follicle receptor how you tell movement • Wall of follicle composed of: • Peripheral connective tissue sheath • Glassy membrane • Epithelial root sheath • Hair matrix: actively dividing area of bulb that produces hair cells • Arrector pili: smooth muscle attached to follicle • Responsible for "goose bumps" arrector pili - example allows hair to stand up another example "goosebump" • Hair papilla--> supplies nutrients to growing hair

Endochondral Ossification

• Forms all bones inferior to base of skull, except clavicles SOOOOO EVERYTHING BELOW THE SKULL !!!!!! • Begins late in month 2 of development • Uses previously formed hyaline cartilage models weeek 9 -------> child adolscene gro • Five main steps in the process of ossification (BONE FORMATION/ GROWTH): THE STEPS YOU HAVE TO KNOW !!! 1. Bone collar forms- bone collar form around the diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage model - (osteoblast of the newly converted perosteum sercretes osteoid against hyaline cartilage 2. Central cartilage calcifies, then develops cavities MORE DEEPER in the 2nd stage cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies (harness) and then develops cavity 3. Periosteal bud invades cavities, leading to formation of spongy bone 3rd step: the periosteal bud (which contain nutrient artery, vein, nerve fiber, red bone marrow elements, osteogenic cells and osteoclast) invade in the internal cavities and spongy bone forms 4. Diaphysis elongates, and medullary cavity forms step 4: the diaphysis enlongated and a medullary cavity is formed . second ossification (bone formation ) center appears in the epiphyses. b/w the diaphysis and epiphyses. area where epiphyseal plate/line is located ANSWER : mataphyses 5. Epiphyses ossify step 5: the epiphyses ossify (turns into bone) when complete hyaline cartilage remains only in epiphyses plate and articular (joint) cartilage • Hyaline cartilage remains only in epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages IMPORTANT AFFFF !!!!!! and allows the growth in length of long bones.

Stratum Lucidum

• Found only in thick skin • Consists of flat, dead keratinocytes (protein mature cells) they are dead cells because the capillary can no longer nourish them and also they are getting closer to the epithelial which they have no blood vessels = as-vascular which means no blood supply

Growth in Width of Bones

• Growing bones widen as they lengthen through appositional growth (get thicker) • Can occur throughout life • Bones thicken in response to increased stress from muscle activity or added weight (think gym) • Osteoblasts beneath periosteum secrete bone matrix on external bone • Osteoclasts remove bone on endosteal surface of the diaphysis

Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth

• Growth hormone: most important hormone in stimulating epiphyseal plate activity in infancy and childhood • Thyroid hormone: modulates activity of growth hormone, ensuring proper proportions • Testosterone (males) and estrogens (females) at puberty: promote adolescent growth spurts • End of growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure • Excesses or deficit (not having so much) of any hormones cause abnormal skeletal growth

Cells of the Epidermis

• Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (which is being constantly rubbed off the epidermis) Four cell types: 1. Keratinocytes • Produces keratin (protein ) • Tightly connected by desmosomes 2. Melanocytes (produce pigment, and melanin) melanocytes found in the stratum bascale melanin- gives us our skin color , our hair color, and eyes color melanin - allows protects not only our skin but our DNA when our sun exposure increases our cell melanin increases as well to protect us / DNA • Produce melanin--> melanosomes --> keratinocytes 3. Dendritic (Langerhans) cells • Immune system macrophages (eaters) they EAT the pathogen microorganism. 4. Tactile (Merkel) cells • Sensory receptors that sense touch tactile cells are the receptor of touch

Skin Cancer

• Most skin tumors are benign (not cancerous) and do not spread (metastasize) • Risk factors • Overexposure to UV radiation • Frequent irritation of skin • Some skin lotions contain enzymes that can repair damaged DNA • Three major types of skin cancer • Basal cell carcinoma • Squamous cell carcinoma • Melanoma

Bone Development

• Ossification --> process of bone tissue formation question: The process by which cartilage is slowly replaced by bone as a result of the deposition of minerals ANSWER: OSSIFICATION • Formation of bony skeleton begins in the 2nd month of development • Up to about week 8, fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilage of fetal skeleton are replaced with bone tissue • Endochondral ossification • Bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage • Bones are called cartilage or called (endochondral) bones • Form most of skeleton except clavicles • Intramembranous ossification • Bone develops from fibrous membrane • Bones are called membrane bones

Compact (lamellar) Bone

• Osteon ---.> structural unit of compact bone • Cylinder of bone matrix (lamellae) - collagen fibers and bone salts (strength) AKA Concentric rings made up of groups of hollow tubes of bone matrix THINK IMAGE • Central Canal ---> blood vessels and nerves • Perforating Canals --> Connect blood vessels and nerves of periosteum, medullary cavity, and central canal • Lacunae --> cavities that contain osteocytes (bone mature ) • Canaliculi ---> canals that connect lacunae to each other and to central canal • Interstitial Lamellae--> not part of osteon • Circumferential Lamellae ---> extend around diaphysis; resists twisting in bone (provide structural support, tree trunk example)

Skin Functions: Cutaneous Sensory Receptors

• Receptors are part of the nervous system • Exteroreceptors respond to stimuli outside body, such as temperature and touch • Free nerve endings sense painful stimuli

Nails

• Scale-like modifications of epidermis that contain hard keratin • Nail bed: epidermis underneath keratinized nail plate • Nail matrix: responsible for nail growth • Nail folds: skin folds that overlap border of nail • Eponychium (cuticle): nail fold that projects onto surface of nail body • Hyponychium: area under free edge of plate that accumulates dirt • Nails normally appear pink because of underlying capillaries • Lunule: thickened nail matrix, appears white nail bed-epidermis on which the nail rests nail root-proximal region of the nail, embedded in the skin

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

• Second most common type; can metastasize • Involves keratinocytes of stratum spinosum • Usually is a scaly reddened papule on scalp, ears, lower lip, or hands • Good prognosis if treated by radiation therapy or removed surgically IN CLASS NOTES SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMAS MALIGANT YES (SPREAD) Keratinocytes stratum spinosum (orignated) treated : radiation theropy or removed surgically

Stratum Spinosum

• Several cell layers thick • Cells contain weblike system of intermediate prekeratin filaments attached to desmosomes • Allows them to resist tension and pulling • Scattered among keratinocytes are abundant melanosomes and dendritic cells (immune cells longhorne)

Skin Functions

• Skin is first and foremost a barrier • Its main functions include: • Protection • Body temperature regulation • Cutaneous sensations • Metabolic functions • Blood reservoir • Excretion of wastes

Skin Functions: Metabolic Functions

• Synthesize vitamin D calcium absorption in intestine • Chemicals from keratinocytes can disarm some carcinogens • Keratinocytes can activate some hormones • Skin makes collagenase, which aids in natural turnover of collagen to prevent wrinkles

Sebaceous (oil) Glands

• Widely distributed, except for thick skin of palms and soles • Most develop from and secrete into hair follicles • Relatively inactive until puberty • Stimulated by hormones, especially androgens • Secrete sebum= (oil) functions • Oily holocrine secretion • Bactericidal (bacteria-killing) properties • Softens hair and skin / moisture skin

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

•Cells vary in height and appear to be multi-layered and stratified, but is single-layered simple epithelium •"Pseudo" means false •Many cells are ciliated •Involved in secretion, particularly of mucus, and also in movement of mucus via ciliary sweeping action •Located mostly in upper respiratory tract, ducts of large glands, and tubules in testes

Epithelial Tissue, characteristics pt 2

•Epithelial cells have high regenerative capacities one of the reasons is because epithelial are exposed to frictions and their surface cells rub off an example would include your skin, sometimes on your skin you have dead skin cells, the skin cells that rub off are now regenerated so therefore because they have high regenerative capacities they are susceptible to damage •Replacement of cells requires adequate nutrients and cell division Keyfactor : when a cell is able to regenerate it is able to go faster./ and spread thur diffusion of nutrient quicker

Multicellular Exocrine Gland structure

•Simple exocrine glands = unbranched ducts •Compound glands = branched ducts •Tubular gland= secretory cells form a duct •Alveolar glands=secretory cells form sacs •Tubuloalveolarglands have both type

Collagen• fiber

•Strongest and most abundant type •Tough; provides high tensile strength