Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 9

Based on their degree of freedom (number of axes of rotation), ball-and-socket joints are ______.

multiaxial

What type of synovial joint is found at the base of the thumb (the trapeziometacarpal joint)?

saddle

Which type of synovial joint consists of two bones at the base of the thumb, one with a surface that is concave and the other convex?

saddle

A ________ is trauma to a joint that causes a tear, or a partial tear to a ligament or tendon.

sprain

A movement that turns the palm forward or upward is called ______.

supination

What is another term for a fibrous joint?

synarthrosis

A bony, immovable joint is called a(n)

synostosis

The ankle joint is also referred to as the _______ joint.

talocrural

What causes a sprained ligament or tendon?

tearing

third-class lever system

the effort is located in between the fulcrum and the resistance

a second-class lever

the load is between the fulcrum and the effort

How many articulations are found within the talocrural joint capsule?

two

When describing musculoskeletal movement from the perspective of anatomical position, joints that have not yet begun to move are said to be in the _________ position.

zero

Select all that apply Which describes locking the knees? Select all that apply. 1. It occurs during flexion. 2. It permits a conservation of energy. 3. It occurs at full extension. 4. It requires an expenditure of energy.

2. It permits a conservation of energy. 3. It occurs at full extension.

Select all that apply Which two characteristics describe retraction? 1. Movement along the frontal plane 2. Movement along the transverse plane 3. A posterior movement of a bone 4. An anterior movement of a bone

2. Movement along the transverse plane 3. A posterior movement of a bone

Select all that apply Which describes a suture? 1. Immobile or slightly mobile 2. Fibrous joint 3. Cartilaginous joint 4. Highly mobile

1. Immobile or slightly mobile 2. Fibrous joint

Select all that apply Identify the two terms that describe a point where two bones meet. 1. Joint 2. Endosteum 3. Articulation 4. Cartilage 5. Periosteum 6. Growth plate

1. Joint 3. Articulation

Select all that apply Which two bones articulate to form the jaw joint? 1. Temporal 2. Zygomatic 3. Palatine 4. Maxilla 5.Mandible

1. Temporal 5.Mandible

Which two characteristics describe adduction? 1. A movement away from the midline of the body 2. A movement along the frontal plane 3. A movement along the sagittal plane 4. A movement towards the midline of the body

2. A movement along the frontal plane 4. A movement towards the midline of the body

elevation

A bone is raised vertically

Axes of Rotation Notes

A moving bone has a relatively stationary axis of rotation that passes through the bone in a direction perpendicular to the plane of movement Multiaxial joint—shoulder joint has three degrees of freedom or axes of rotation Other joints are monoaxial or biaxial

What is moving a body part in the frontal plane away from the midline of the body called?

Abduction

Abduction and Adduction

Abduction—movement of a body part in the frontal plane away from the midline of the body •Hyperabduction: raise arm over back or front of head Adduction—movement in the frontal plane back toward the midline •Hyperadduction: crossing fingers, crossing ankles

The calf muscles cause plantar flexion of the foot via the _________ tendon.

Achilles

What is moving a body part in the frontal plane toward the midline of the body called?

Adduction

What is a joint in which a hard object, such as a tooth, is held in a bone cavity called?

Gomphosis

Gomphoses Notes

Gomphosis (fibrous joint)—attachment of a tooth to its socket Held in place by fibrous periodontal ligament •Collagen fibers attach tooth to jawbone •Allows the tooth to move a little under the stress of chewing

Hyperextension at the knee is prevented by which ligament?

Anterior cruciate

Arthritis and Artificial Joints Notes

Arthritis—a broad term for pain and inflammation of joints Most common crippling disease in the United StatesRheumatologists—physicians who treat arthritis and other joint disorders Osteoarthritis (OA)—most common form of arthritis •"Wear-and-tear arthritis" •Results from years of joint wear •Articular cartilage softens and degenerates •Accompanied by crackling sounds called crepitus •Bone spurs develop on exposed bone tissue causing pain Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)—autoimmune attack against the joint tissues •Misguided antibodies (rheumatoid factor) attack synovial membrane, enzymes in synovial fluid degrade the articular cartilage, joint begins to ossify •Ankylosis: solidly fused, immobilized joint •Remissions occur, steroids and aspirin control inflammation Arthroplasty—replacement of diseased joint with artificial device called prosthesis

What is the hyaline cartilage found at the end of the bones within a synovial joint called?

Articular cartilage

General Anatomy of Synovial Joints Notes

Articular cartilage—layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the facing surfaces of two bones •Usually 2 or 3 mm thick Joint (articular) cavity—separates articular surfaces Synovial fluid—slippery lubricant in joint cavity •Rich in albumin and hyaluronic acid •Gives it a viscous, slippery texture like raw egg whites •Nourishes articular cartilage and removes waste •Makes movement of synovial joints almost friction free Joint (articular) capsule—connective tissue that encloses the cavity and retains the fluid •Outer fibrous capsule: continuous with periosteum of adjoining bones •Inner, cellular, synovial membrane: composed mainly of fibroblast-like cells that secrete synovial fluid and macrophages that remove debris from the joint cavity In a few synovial joints, fibrocartilage grows inward from the joint capsule •Articular disc forms a pad between articulating bones that crosses the entire joint capsule -Example found in temporomandibular joint •Meniscus: moon-shaped cartilage in knee; in each knee, menisci extend inward from the left and right -These cartilages absorb shock and pressure -Guide bones across each other and improve their fit together -Stabilize the joints, reducing the chance of dislocation Accessory structures •Tendon: strip of collagenous tissue attaching muscle to bone •Ligament: strip of collagenous tissue attaching one bone to another •Bursa: fibrous sac filled with synovial fluid, located between muscles, where tendons pass over bone, or between bone and skin -Cushions muscles, helps tendons slide more easily over joints, modifies direction of tendon pull •Tendon sheath: elongated cylindrical bursa wrapped around a tendon -In hand and foot

Within the skeletal anatomy, what supplies the effort?

Muscle contraction

Bony Joints Notes

Bony joint, or synostosis—an immobile joint formed when the gap between two bones ossifies, and the bones become, in effect, a single bone Examples: •Left and right mandibular bones in infants •Cranial sutures in elderly •Attachment of first rib and sternum with old age Can occur in either fibrous or cartilaginous joint

Cartilaginous Joints Notes

Cartilaginous joint, or amphiarthrosis—two bones are linked by cartilage Two types of cartilaginous joints: •Synchondroses •Symphyses

Movement of the arm so as to draw a large circle with the hand is an example of ___________.

Circumduction

What holds the bones together in a fibrous joint?

Collagen fibers

In which synovial joint does an oval convex surface on one bone fit into a complementary shaped depression on the another bone?

Condylar

The Hip Joint Notes

Coxal (hip) joint—head of femur inserts into acetabulum of hip bone Bears weight, has deeper sockets, more stable than shoulder Acetabular labrum—horseshoe-shaped ring of fibrocartilage that deepens socket •Dislocations are rare Ligaments supporting hip joint •Iliofemoral and pubofemoral— anterior •Ischiofemoral ligament—posterior •When standing, ligaments become twisted and pull head of femur tightly into acetabulum •Transverse acetabular ligament bridges gap on inferior margin of acetabular labrum Round ligament (ligamentum teres)—arises from fovea capitis and attaches to lower margin of acetabulum •Contains artery that supplies blood to head of femur

What is movement of the foot upwards, as when walking on your heels, called?

Dorsiflexion

Special Movements of the Foot Notes

Dorsiflexion—elevating toes as you do while swinging foot forward to take a step (heel strike) Plantar flexion—extending foot so that toes point downward as in standing on tiptoe (toe-off) Inversion—movement in which the soles are turned medially Eversion—movement in which the soles are turned laterally Supination of foot—complex combination of plantar flexion, inversion, and adduction Pronation of foot—complex combination of dorsiflexion, eversion, and abduction

In a musculoskeletal lever system, what force does the muscle contraction provide?

Effort

Which joint is comprised of the humeroulnar and humeroradial joints?

Elbow

The Elbow Joint Notes

Elbow—a hinge that includes two articulations: •Humeroulnar joint: trochlea of the humerus joins trochlear notch of the ulna •Humeroradial joint: capitulum of humerus meets head of radius •Both articulations enclosed in one joint capsule •Olecranon bursa on posterior side of elbow eases movements of tendons •Radial (lateral) collateral ligament and ulnar (medial) collateral ligaments restrict side-to-side motions Elbow region also contains proximal radioulnar joint •Functions as a pivot, not a hinge •Head of radius fits into radial notch of ulna •Held in place by annular ligament encircling radial head •Allows for pronation and supination

Which movement raises a body part vertically in the frontal plane?

Elevation

Elevation and Depression

Elevation—movement that raises a body part vertically in the frontal plane Depression—movement that lowers a body part in the same plane

a first-class lever

The fulcrum is positioned between the effort and resistance

Turning the sole of the foot laterally is called what?

Eversion

Exercise and Articular Cartilage Notes

Exercise warms synovial fluid -Becomes less viscous, more easily absorbed by cartilage Cartilage then swells and provides a more effective cushion -Warm-up period before vigorous exercise helps protect cartilage from undue wear and tearRepetitive compression of nonvascular cartilage during exercise squeezes fluid and metabolic waste out of the cartilage When weight removed, cartilage absorbs synovial fluid like a sponge taking in oxygen and nutrients to the chondrocytes Without exercise, cartilage deteriorates more rapidly from inadequate nutrition and waste removal

Extending a joint beyond the zero position is always an abnormal movement.

False

True or false: In terms of structure, the knee is no more complicated than either the hip or ankle joints.

False The knee is the most complicated diarthrotic joint in the body.

In a symphysis, bones are held together by what?

Fibrocartilage

Based on structure, the sagittal suture is what type of joint?

Fibrous

Fibrous Joints Notes

Fibrous joint, or synarthrosis—adjacent bones are bound by collagen fibers that emerge from one bone and penetrate into the other Three kinds of fibrous joints: •Sutures •Gomphoses •Syndesmoses

Special Movements of Head and Trunk Notes

Flexion—forward-bending movements at the waist or neck Extension—straightens trunk or neck Hyperextension—bending over backward Lateral flexion—tilting the head or trunk to the right or left at the midline

Flexion and Extension Notes

Flexion—movement that decreases joint angle •Common in hinge joints Extension—movement that straightens a joint and returns a body part to the zero position Hyperextension—extension of a joint beyond the zero position •Flexion and extension occur at nearly all diarthroses, hyperextension is limited to a few

The Shoulder Joint Notes

Glenohumeral (humeroscapular) joint—hemispherical head of humerus articulates with glenoid cavity of scapula •Most freely mobile joint in body •Shallow glenoid cavity and loose shoulder joint capsule sacrifice stability for freedom of movement •Glenoid labrum: fibrocartilage ring that deepens glenoid cavity Shoulder supported by biceps brachii tendon anteriorly and also rotator cuff tendons •Tendons fuse to joint capsule and strengthen it •Supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis Five principal ligaments support shoulder: •Three are called the glenohumeral ligaments •Coracohumeral ligament •Transverse humeral ligament Four bursa occur at the shoulder: •Subdeltoid, subacromial, subcoracoid, and subscapular bursae

What is the anatomical name for the shoulder joint?

Glenohumeral joint

The patellofemoral joint is an example of which class of synovial joint?

Gliding

Knee Injuries and Arthroscopic Surgery Notes

Highly vulnerable to rotational and horizontal stress Most common injuries are to the menisci and anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) Heal slowly due to scanty blood flow Arthroscopy—procedure in which interior of joint is viewed with a pencil-thin arthroscope inserted through a small incision •Less tissue damage than conventional surgery •Recover more quickly •Arthroscopic ACL repair: about 9 months for healing to be complete

In which type of synovial joint does one bone with a convex non-hemispherical surface fit into the concave depression of another?

Hinge

A joint that is extended beyond zero position is said to be what?

Hyperextended

The function of the anterior cruciate ligament is to prevent which action?

Hyperextension

What is turning the sole of the foot medially called?

Inversion

Which describes locking the knees at full extension?

It permits a decreased expenditure of energy to stand erect.

Joints and Their Classification Notes

Joint (articulation)—any point where two bones meet, whether or not the bones are movable at that interface Arthrology—science of joint structure, function, and dysfunction Kinesiology—the study of musculoskeletal movement Joint name—typically derived from the names of the bones involved (for example, radioulnar joint) Joints classified according to the manner in which the bones are bound to each other Four major joint categories: •Bony joints •Fibrous joints •Cartilaginous joints •Synovial joints

Which joint is the most complex diarthrosis in the body?

Knee

Which ligament binds the fibula to the foot on the lateral side of the ankle?

Lateral collateral ligament

Special Movements of the Mandible Notes

Lateral excursion—right or left movement from the zero position Medial excursion—movement back to the median, zero position •Side-to-side grinding during chewing Protraction-retraction Elevation-depression

Bending at the waist to either the left or right side is an example of which movement?

Lateral flexion

Which movement is illustrated by tilting your head to the right or left of the midline in the frontal plane?

Lateral flexion

Which action is illustrated by twisting at the waist so the chest faces to the left?

Left rotation

What factors allow the shoulder to have a wide range of motion?

Loose joint capsule and shallow joint cavity

The strength of ligaments and the actions of muscles across a joint both affect which aspect of a joint?

The range of motion

In which type of synovial joint are the bone surfaces flat or nearly flat?

Plane

Contraction of the calf muscles causes what action of the foot?

Plantar flexion

What is the movement of toes downward, as when jumping or stepping on a gas pedal, called?

Plantar flexion

Which knee ligament prevents posterior movement of the tibia?

Posterior cruciate ligament

Supination and Pronation Notes

Primarily forearm movements Supination—forearm movement that turns palm to face anteriorly or upward •Forearm supinated in anatomical position •Radius is parallel to the ulna Pronation—forearm movement that turns palm to face either posteriorly or downward •Head of radius spins•Radius crosses stationary ulna like an X

A movement of the forearm that turns the palm posteriorly or downward is called __________.

Pronation

Reaching forward to open a door involves which action of the shoulder girdle?

Protraction

What is the anterior movement of a body part in the transverse plane called?

Protraction

Movement of Synovial Joints Notes

There is a vocabulary for joint movements used in many medical and scientific fields •Many terms presented in pairs with opposite or contrasting meanings •Need to understand anatomical planes and directional terms Zero position—the position of a joint when a person is in the standard anatomical position •Joint movements described as deviating from the zero position or returning to it

Protraction and Retraction

Protraction—the anterior movement of a body part in the transverse (horizontal) plane Retraction—posterior movement

Special Movements of Hand and Digits Notes

Radial flexion—tilting hand toward thumb Ulnar flexion—tilting hand toward little finger Abduction versus adduction of the fingers—spreading them apart versus bringing them together Flexion versus extension of fingers—curling versus straightening them Palmar abduction—moving thumb away from hand and pointing it anteriorly Radial abduction—moving thumb away from index finger (90°) Flexion of thumb—tip of thumb directed toward palm Extension of thumb—straightening the thumb Opposition—moving thumb to touch tip of a finger Reposition—returning thumb to the zero position

The flexibility of a joint is assessed as what?

Range of motion

TMJ Syndrome

Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) syndrome may affect as many as 75 million Americans Signs and symptoms •Clicking sounds in the jaw, imitation of jaw movement •Pain radiating from jaw down the neck, shoulders, and back •Can cause moderate intermittent facial pain, or severe headaches, vertigo (dizziness), tinnitus (ringing in the ears) Cause of syndrome •Caused by combination of psychological tension and malocclusion (misalignment of teeth) Treatment •Psychological management, physical therapy, analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs, corrective dental appliances to align teeth properly

What is moving a body part posteriorly in the transverse plane called?

Retraction

Turning the head to look to the right side is an example of which movement?

Right rotation

In which movement does a bone spin on its longitudinal axis?

Rotation

Circumduction

Rotation—movement in which a bone spins on its longitudinal axis •Rotation of trunk, thigh, head, or arm Medial (internal) rotation turns the bone inward Lateral (external) rotation turns the bone outward

Classes of Synovial Joints Notes

Six classes of synovial joints: ball-and-socket, condylar, saddle, plane, hinge, pivotBall-and-socket joints •Smooth, hemispherical head fits within cup-like socket •Only multiaxial joints in body •Examples: shoulder, hip Condylar (ellipsoid) joints •Oval convex surface of one bone fits into a complementary-shaped depression on the other •Biaxial joints—movement in two planes •Examples: radiocarpal joint, metacarpophalangeal joints Saddle joints •Both bones have an articular surface that is shaped like a saddle, one concave, the other convex •Biaxial joints •Examples: trapeziometacarpal (opposable thumb), sternoclavicular joint Plane (gliding) joints •Flat articular surfaces, bones slide over each other •Usually biaxial joints •Examples: between carpal bones of wrist; between tarsal bones of ankle; also between articular processes of vertebrae Hinge joints •One bone with convex surface fits into a concave depression of another bone •Monoaxial joints—move freely in one plane •Examples: elbow, knee, joints within fingers, toes Pivot joints •A bone spins on its longitudinal axis •Monoaxial joints •Examples: atlantoaxial joint (C1 and C2), radioulnar joint at the elbow

Synarthrotic fibrous joints between the bones of the skull are called ___________.

Sutures

Intervertebral discs comprised of fibrocartilage are found within what type of joints?

Symphyses

Symphyses Notes

Symphysis—two bones joined by fibrocartilage •Pubic symphysis joins right and left pubic bones with interpubic disc •Bodies of vertebrae joined by intervertebral discs -Only slight movements between adjacent vertebrae -Collective effect of all 23 discs gives spine considerable flexibility

Synchondroses Notes

Synchondrosis—bones joined by hyaline cartilage •Temporary joints in the epiphysial plates in children -Bind epiphysis to diaphysis •First rib attachment to sternum -Other costal cartilages joined to sternum by synovial joints

Syndesmoses Notes

Syndesmosis—a fibrous joint at which two bones are bound by long collagen fibers Example of a very mobile syndesmosis: interosseus membrane joining radius to ulna allowing supination and pronation Example of a less mobile syndesmosis: joint between tibia to fibula

What is produced by embryonic bones fusing seamlessly into one adult bone?

Synostosis

A lubricating fluid that reduces friction between the bones is found in __________ joints.

Synovial

In which type of joint are the bones separated by a narrow, fluid-filled, encapsulated space?

Synovial

Synovial Joints Notes

Synovial joint, or diarthrosis—joint in which two bones are separated by a joint cavity •Most familiar type of joint •Most are freely mobile •Most structurally complex type of joint •Most likely to develop painful dysfunction •Most important joints for physical and occupational therapists, athletic coaches, nurses, and fitness trainers •Their mobility makes them important to quality of life

The Ankle Joint Notes

Talocrural (ankle) joint—includes two articulations: •Medial joint: between tibia and talus •Lateral joint: between fibula and talus Both articulations enclosed by one joint capsule Malleoli of tibia and fibula overhang the talus on either side and prevent side-to-side motion More restricted range of motion than the wrist Ankle ligaments •Anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments: bind tibia to fibula •Multipart medial (deltoid) ligament: binds tibia to the foot on the medial side •Multipart lateral (collateral) ligament: binds fibula to the foot on the lateral side •Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon: extends from the calf muscles to the calcaneus; plantarflexes the foot and limits dorsiflexion Sprainps (torn ligaments and tendons) are common at the ankle with pain and immediate swelling

Which bones form the lateral articulation within the ankle joint?

Talus and fibula

Which two bones form the jaw joint?

Temporal bone and mandible

The Jaw Joint Notes

Temporomandibular (jaw) joint (TMJ)—articulation of the condyle of the mandible with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone •Combines elements of condylar, hinge, and plane joints •Synovial cavity of the TMJ is divided into superior and inferior chambers by an articular disc Two ligaments support joint •Lateral ligament—prevents posterior displacement of mandible •Sphenomandibular ligament—on the medial side Deep yawn or strenuous depression can dislocate the TMJ •Condyles pop out of fossa and slip forward •Relocated by pressing down on molar teeth while pushing the jaw backward

The Knee Joint Notes

Tibiofemoral (knee) joint—largest and most complex diarthrosis of the body Primarily a hinge joint •Capable of slight rotation and lateral gliding when knee is flexed •Patellofemoral joint—gliding joint Joint capsule encloses only the lateral and posterior aspects of the knee •Anterior aspect covered by patellar ligament and lateral and medial retinacula; all are extensions of the quadriceps femoris muscle tendon Knee stabilized by: •Quadriceps tendon in front •Tendon of semimembranosus muscle on rear of thigh •Lateral meniscus and medial meniscus—C-shaped cartilages within joint capsule -Absorb shock and prevent side-to-side rocking -Joined by transverse ligament Popliteal (posterior) region •Extracapsular ligaments -Fibular (lateral) collateral ligament -Tibial (medial) collateral ligament •Intracapsular ligaments cross each other to form an "X" -Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)—prevents hyperextension of knee when ACL is pulled tight --Common site of knee injury •Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) —prevents femur from sliding off tibia Knee joint has at least 13 bursae: •Four anterior: superficial infrapatellar, suprapatellar, prepatellar, and deep infrapatellar •Popliteal region: popliteal bursa and semimembranosus bursa •Seven more bursae on lateral and medial sides of knee joint Ability to lock and unlock knees•Important aspect of human bipedalism •When knee fully extended, ACL allows locking -Femur rotates medially on the tibia, major knee ligaments taut •To unlock knee, popliteus contracts and rotates femur laterally -Lateral rotation of femur untwists ligaments

Which ligaments bind the tibia and the fibula together at the ankle joint?

Tibiofibular ligaments

What is the function of the collateral ligament of the ankle?

To bind the fibula to the foot on the lateral side

What is the role of the anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments?

To bind the tibia to the fibula

What is the function of the posterior cruciate ligament?

To prevent the tibia from being displaced backward

True or false: The patella articulates with the femur.

True

Shoulder Dislocation

Very painful and sometimes causes permanent damage Downward displacement of the humerus is the most common shoulder dislocation •Rotator cuff protects the joint in all directions but inferiorly •Joint protected from above by coracoid process, acromion, and clavicle •Dislocations most often occur when the arm is abducted and then receives a blow from above Children especially prone to dislocation

When one is standing in anatomical position, joints are said to be in what position?

Zero

Where is the talocrural joint?

ankle

Chronic pain and inflammation of a joint is called

arthritis

The shoulder and hip joints are examples of ______ joints.

ball-and-socket

Based on the number of axes of rotation, plane joints are usually classified as ______ joints.

biaxial

Based on their degree of freedom, condylar joints are classified as ______ joints.

biaxial

What is inflamed with bursitis?

bursa

Inflammation of a bursa is called

bursitis

What is another name for the hip joint?

coxal joint

The displacement of a bone from its normal position is called a

dislocation

_________ of the foot turns the sole of the foot laterally.

eversion

What are the menisci of the knee composed of?

fibrocartilage

A tooth held in the alveolar socket of either the maxilla or mandible is an example of a fibrous joint called a ____________.

gomphosis

The elbow is an example of a ______ joint.

hinge

Where is the coxal joint located?

hip

What are the two articulations of the elbow joint?

humeroradial and humeroulnar

A point where two bones meet is called a(n)

joint

What is formed by an elongated, rigid object rotating around a fulcrum?

lever

n elongated structure that is utilized to generate a mechanical advantage around a fulcrum.

lever

The two C-shaped cartilages found in the joint cavity of the knee are collectively called the ______.

menisci

Based on the number of axes of rotation, pivot joints are ______ joints.

monaxial

Considering axes of rotation, a hinge joint is classified as ______ because it allows movement in just one plane.

monaxial

arthritis

painful inflammation and stiffness of the joints.

The atlas turning on the dens is an example of a ______ joint.

pivot

Joints between carpal bones of the wrist are examples of ______ joints.

plane