Anatomy Cummulative exam
what composes the plantar side (sole) of the foot?
4 layers of flexors, abductors, & adductors of toes
parathyroid glands
4 tiny oval masses on posterior thyroid parathyroid hormone (PTH)
What fluid-filled spaces does the neural tube contain?
4 ventricles mesencephalic (cerebral) aqueduct (in midbrain) central canal (out foramen magnum)
platysma
Draws down the lower lip and angles of the mouth; tenses skin of the neck; helps depress mandible
layers of cranial meninges
Dura matter (outermost) Arachnoid (middle) Pia matter (innermost)
function
HOW do they respond to it (what helps when those cells come in contact with the hormone0?
regulation of the testes
FSH to sustentacular cells (via Androgen-binding protein) facilitates sperm production LH to interstitial cells-increases testosterone
arytenoid cartilages
Pyramid-like cartilaginous structures that form the posterior attachment of the vocal cords.
Interneurons (association neurons)
allows for communication between neurons within the CNS always multipolar
Clinical correlate: laser vision correction
a laser removes some cells from the middle part of the cornea to change its shape (make it less curved, etc) so that it can retract light differently and people can focus better
high regenerative capacity
a lot of mitosis exposed to free surface (damage)
cerebral aqueduct
a narrow tube interconnecting the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, located in the center of the mesencephalon (midbrain)
biliary apparatus
a network of "tubes" that transport bile and pancreatic juices TO the duodenum
formed elements
accounts for 45% of blood and includes erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets
those that adduct the thigh/hip
adductors (loungus, brevis, magnus) pectineus gracilis
parietal layer
adheres to fibrous pericardium
visceral layer
adheres to heart wall (epicardium)
Posterior bulging of the neural tube form the ____ .
alar plates
endocrine system
all endocrine glands in the body overseen by hypothalamus
hamstring mucles & function
all extend the thigh and flex the leg
hamstring mucles & function
all extend the thigh and flex the leg semimembranosus- most medial (but lateral to the gracilis) semitendinosus- middle biceps femoris- most lateral
placement of heart
left side of thorax behind the sternum and L ribs
spleen
largest lymphatic organ, located in upper left abdomen behind stomach, it filters blood NOT lymph, it has two parts red and white pulp
endolymph
low Na+, high K+ similar to intracellular fluid
Lymph vessels
low pressure system (like veins) from smallest to largest it goes capillaries- vessels- trunks- ducts
venues and veins
low pressure, going back to the heart, tunica externa is the thickest layer
insulin
lowers blood sugar (glucose) levels enhances cells to pick up glucose helps covert some glucose into glycogen (a carbohydrate)
pleaural cavities
lungs
lacteals
lymphatic capillaries in SI, function: carry some interstitial fluid, carry dietary fats and vitamins
lacteals
lymphatic capillaries in small intestine absorb lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins
white pulp
lymphocytes (b and T cells) are there, function: carry out immune response when antigens are found in blood
Tay sachs disease
lysosomal enzymes missing or disfunctional build up of waste in cells (ex: nerve cells) leads to nervous system deterioration
conducting portion
conducts and transfers air, no gas exchange, includes: nose and paranasal sinuses, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles to the terminal branchioles
axon
conducts impulses away from the cell body
superior oblique
depresses eye and moves eye laterally (down and out motion, looking at the ground and out)
inferior rectus
depresses eye and turns it medially
sternohyoid
depresses hyoid
thyrohyoid
depresses hyoid bone and elevates larynx
sternothyroid
depresses thyroid cartilage
tympanic membrane
eardrum, it moves/vibrates the auditory ossicles, when sounds vibrate it
mitochondria
make ATP (adenosine triphosphate) contains own DNA powerhouse of the cell
free ribosomes
make protein for the cell itself
attached ribosomes
make proteins for plasma membrane or exported out of cell
early development
early on -indifferent (primitive) gnonad -indifferent genitalia -primitive male & female ducts SRY gene primitive gonads
types of arteries
elastic, muscular, arterioles
massester
elevates and protracts mandible
stylohyoid
elevates and retracts hyoid bone
Temporails
elevates and retracts the mandible
inferior oblique
elevates eye and moves eye laterally (up and out, looking up and on and angle out)
superior rectus
elevates eye and moves eye medially (adducts the eye)
Digastric
elevates hyoid and depresses mandible
geniohyoid
elevates hyoid bone and depresses mandible
mylohyoid
elevates hyoid bone and floor of mouth
Scalenes
elevates ribs during forced inhalation
external intercostals
elevates ribs during inspiration used for forced & quiet inhalation
body cavity
enclosed spaces within the body
placental stage
end of birth-delivery of placenta -generally 5-30 minute after delivery of baby -placenta sometimes called "afterbirth"
Layers of the heart
endocardium, myocardium, epicardium
cranial
endocranium/houses brain
endocardium
endothelium covering a CT layer, lines the inside of the heart and covers its valves
parietal lobe
ends at the central sulcus, lateral sulcus, and parieto-occipital sulcus
glans
enlarged tip of penis has corpus spongiosum only -covered with prepuce (foreskin)
4 kinds of tissue
epithelium, connective, muscle, nervous
serous pericardium
folds back on itself to create two specific layers: parietal and visceral layer, function: secretes serous fluid for lubrication
pedal
foot
plantar flexion
foot and toes moved closer to posterior surface of leg (tip toes)
antebrachium
forearm
frontal
forehead
ossification definition and 2 kinds
formation/growth of bone tissue intramembraneous and endochondrial
exocrine glands
formed from epithelia- secrete materials onto free surface
lymphatic trunks
formed from merging vessels and lead to lymphatic ducts
arcuate arteries
found at the cortex-medulla junction
lymph nodes
found in clusters, there are hundreds, connect with lymphatic vessels and filter lymph
basophils
make up less than 1% of all leukocytes, cytoplasm has granules that stain blue/ purple, bilobed nucleus function: allergic response (histamine)
Nucleolus
makes the parts for ribosomes not all cells have nucleolus- only cells with high protein synthesis rates (ex: motor neurons and muscle cells)
hand
manus
muscles of mastication
masseter, temporalis, medial and lateral pterygoid muscles
osteocytes
mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix
varicose veins
may occur when the valves become incompetent
pronation
medial rotation of forearm (palm down)
clinical correlate: detached retina
fluid collects between the pigmented and neural layer of the retina (cutting off the photoreceptors from their blood supply and source of Vitamin A) they immediately can't see
cytosol
fluid portion
aqueous humor
fluid similar to the CSF, which supplies nutrients, removes waste from cornea and lens, produced in anterior cavity of the eye continually and replaced
capillary level
fluids pushed out of vessels and into the tissues, interstitial fluid- fluid within tissues, venules pick up most but not ALL of this fluid
distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
last segment of the nephron function: to resorb materials and water in the filtrate -resorbed material is sent to the blood in the peritubular capillaries
supination
lateral rotation of the forearm (palm up)
macula lutea
lateral to optic disc, contains fovea centralis
cell cycles
meiosis and mitosis
oval window
membrane that covers the opening between the middle ear and inner ear where sound waves are transmitted to the inner ear, directs sound through Scala vestibule
membranous labyrinth
membranous sacs/tubes that rest inside the bony labyrinths within there is endolymph that helps conduct sound vibrations and indirectly helps in detecting changes in position/balance
3 kinds of multicellular exocrine glands
merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine
cerebellum is part of the ___
mesencephalon
What does the rhombencephalon divide into?
metencephalon (will contain the cerebellum and pons) myelencephalon (will contain the medulla oblongata)
some plasma membranes have...
microvilli and cilia
sympathetic pathway 3
some preganglionic axons leave the sympathetic trunk as splanchnic nerves go to prevertebral ganglia to synapse before heading to abdominal organs (these do NOT synapse in sympathetic trunk)
oligodendrocytes
neuroglial cell of the CNS myelinate axons (speeds up impulses)
astrocytes
neuroglial cell of the CNS regulates transfer of nutrients from the blood to the brain; helps form the "blood-brain barrier"
Satellite cells
neuroglial cell of the PNS surround neuron cell bodies in spinal ganglia regulates nutrient exchange and waste removal (similar to astrocytes of the CNS)
neuroglial cells of the PNS
neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells) and satellite cells
bronchioles
no cartilage only smooth muscle
smooth ER
no ribosomes synthesizes lipids (especially steroid hormones)b detoxifies drugs and alcohol
Can neurolemmocytes contact each other?
no, neurolemmocytes are separated by neurofibril nodes (nodes of Ranvier) which allows electrical impulses to "skip" along the axon
epithelium of esophagus mucosa
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
What epithelium lines the oropharynx and laryngopharynx?
nonkertinized stratified squamous epithelium
nasal
nose
pleurisy
not as much serous fluid, so the friction is terrible which causes lungs to stick to thoracic wall is rip away when you exhale, sharp chest pain is felt
lymphatic structures
not organs and not surrounded by CT capsules, they consist of CT containing lots of lymphatic cells, ex: tonsils, MALT and lymphatic nodules
accessory digestive organs
not part of the GI tract but assist with digestion 1. tongue 2. teeth 3. salivary glands 4. liver 5. gallbladder 6. pancreas
male urethra
not so distensible longer carries both urine and semen
penis
part of the external genitalia two main functions: 1) excrete urine 2) deliver sperm to female reproductive tract 3 parts: a) root b) body (shaft) c) glans -erection -ejaculation
autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
part of the motor (efferent) division of the PNS; transmits information away from CNS to receptors carries nerve impulses back and forth from the CNS to the motor neurons in the cardiac & smooth muscles, as well as all glands
somatic (voluntary) nervous system
part of the motor (efferent) division of the PNS; transmits information away from CNS to receptors carries nerve impulses back and forth from the CNS to the motor neurons in the skeletal muscle
those that extend the leg/knee
quadriceps femoris
glucagon
raises blood sugar levels breaks down glycogen into glucose
primary auditory cortex (of the temporal lobe)
receives and processes auditory information
renal artery
receives arterial blood from aorta
left ventricle
receives from: left atrium sends to: aorta through: aortic semilunar valve
left atrium
receives from: pulmonary veins sends to: left ventricle through: left atrioventricular valve
right ventricle
receives from: right atrium sends to: pulmonary trunk through: pulmonary semilunar valve also includes: 3 papillary muscles with chordae tendinae
right atrium
receives from: superior and inferior vena cavae sends to: right ventricle through: right atrioventricular valve
thoracic duct
receives lymph from the left side of the head, neck, chest, abdomen, left arm, and lower extremities, drains into left subclavian vein
right lymphatic duct
receives lymph from: right side of head neck and thorax, right upper limb drains into right subclavian vein
tubular reabsorption
recovery of things that the body still needs -from the tube into the blood
vascular tunic
second layer of the eye, contains the choroid, ciliary body and iris
vesicular follicle
secondary oocyte + follicle cells + very LARGE antrum
multicellular exocrine glands
secrete materials through duct 3 kinds
acinar cells
secrete pancreatic juice-enzymes and alkaline fluid pancreatic juice leaves via pancreatic duct
endocrine gland
secretes hormones into the bloodstream
function of conjunctiva
secretes mucus as a lubricant for the eye and eyelids
simple columnar epithelia
secretion and absorption microvilli form a brush border on apical surface goblet cells
zygomaticus major
retracts and elevates corner of mouth smiling
styloglossus
retracts and elevates the tongue orgins in the styloid process
examples of flat bones
ribs, sternum, occipital, parietal, frontal, occipital
gross anatomy of liver
right lobe, left lobe, quadrate lobe, caudate lobe
lymphatic ducts
right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct
ciliary body
ring of smooth muscle attached to lens via suspensory ligaments
circumferential lamellae
rings of bone that run the entire circumference of the shaft periosteum creates these
photoreceptors
rods: low light, allow you to see black and white; cones: require more light, help to see color
gomphosis
root of tooth attached tosocket of jaw by peridontal membrane -synarthrosis
veins more info
run back to the heart, formed when venules unite, most have valves to prevent blood back flow, muscular pumps also help push blood in veins to the heart
white rami
runs from spinal nerve to sympathetic trunk
gray rami
runs from the sympathetic trunk TO a spinal nerve
proteins
scattered in membrane, some bound and some float
hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
somatic motor axons only, function: supplies intrinsic tongue muscles and most extrinsic tongue muscles test: stick out tongue (tongue deviates to one side if one nerve is damaged)
abducens nerve (CN VI)
somatic motor axons only, eye abduction lateral rectus eye muscle innervation, test: diplopia, have patient move eye laterally
primary spermatocytes
still 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes-diploid) these cells divide by MEIOSIS when they finish the 1st meiotic division they form secondary spermatocytes
thyroid hormone (TH)
stimulated by TSH produced by follicle cells target: virtually all cells of the body function: increase metabolism (& thus, heat production)
calcitonin
stimulated by high calcium levels in blood produced by parafollicular cells target: bone-encourages deposition of calcium from bloodstream into bone tissue so it lowers blood calcium levels
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
stimulated by low levels of calcium in blood target: bone-encourages uptake of calcium into bloodstream from bone so it raises blood calcium levels
adrenal medulla
stimulated by sympathetic nervous system secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
prolactin
stimulates milk production
stapes
stirrup; last of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear, connects with oval window of the inner ear
reflux esophagitis
stomach contents reflux (back flow) into esophagus, causing burning pain risk factors: overweight, smoking, large meals before bedtime
What is the purpose of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in a muscle fiber?
stores and releases Ca2+
auditory association area (of the temporal lobe)
stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sounds
different joint movement
synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, and diarthrosis
T lymphocytes
t-cells, mature in thymus, function: manage and direct an immune response and activate b-cells
What do the basal plates give rise to?
the anterior (ventral) horns lateral horns anterior 1/2 of gray comissure
left & right; vermis
the cerebellum has ___ and ____ hemispheres, connected by the ____.
basal layer
the deeper layer adjacent to the myometrium -this is a permanent layer
digestive system is controlled by the
autonomic nervous system 1. parasympathetic 2. sympathetic
hypothalamus
autonomic nervous system control center: blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, digestive activity, etc. center for emotional expression & behavior
fibrous tunic
avascular, has two parts: sclera and cornea
lateral
away from midline
posterior pituitary
axons from hypothalamus cells stores two hormones produced by hypothalamus 1. oxytocin (OT) 2. antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
anterior root
axons from motor neurons, cell bodies live in anterior horn
posterior (dorsal) root
axons from sensory neurons, cell bodies live in posterior root ganglion
B-lymphocytes
b-cells, mature in red bone marrow, function: secrete antibodies (attach to antigens and immobilize them)
dorsum
back of hand
occipital
back of head
popliteal
back of knee
renal vein
back to inferior vena cava
dorsal
backside/posterior
Anterior bulging of the neural tube form the ____ .
basal plates
why does the epithelial lining change from PCCE to SSE in smokers?
because SSE is tougher and more protective, but this is bad because there is no cilia now which means that it can't help move things like mucus, so "smoker's cough" begins so to help them clear their throat
Why is the left ventricle thicker than the right?
because it has to pump blood to the whole body right only has to pump blood to the lungs
Why does the ANS use two motor neurons?
because it is involuntary and ANS has a limited number of resources- neurons- so by using this two neuron chain, info is able to congregate and separate efficiently
transitional epithelia
found in most of urinary tract some cells are binucleated withstands distention (stretching) and relaxing of bladder protective function superficial cells are rounded when bladder is empty and flattened when distended
apical surface
free surface/exposed to outside environment
diarthrosis
freely moveable
urinary system during pregnancy
frequent urination due to pushing on the bladder
arterial supply
from branches of 1. celiac trunk 2. superior mesenteric artery 3. inferior mesenteric artery
antecubital
front of elbow
palmar
front of hand
ventral
front side/anterior
frontal and occipital bellies of the occipitofrontalis
frontal- raises eyebrows occipital- draws scalp posteriorly
expulsion stage
fully dilated - birth of baby ("pushing stage") may take hours to minutes
accessory reproductive glands
function of these glands: to produce a nutritive, alkaline fluid (seminal fluid) for the sperm sperm+seminal fluid-semen 1) seminal vesicles 2) prostate gland 3) bulbourethral glands
testis (plural: testes, testicles)
function: 1) to produce sperm 2) to produce androgens (male sex hormones) -of the androgens, testosterone is the principal sex hormone a) external anatomy b) internal anatomy
tonsils
function: can attack/destroy antigens before they get too far down the GI tract or respiratory tract
Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
function: excrete wastes (urea/sodium) and releases perspiration to cool body
uterus
function: site for implantation and development of the fertilized oocyte (soon to become an embryo and a fetus) -when a fertilized oocyte doesn't implant, it is the site of menstruation (shedding of part of the uterine wall) 1) gross anatomy 2) microscopic anatomy
proximal convoluted tube (PCT)
function: to resorb "the good stuff" from the filtrate -resorbed material is sent to the blood in the peritubular capillaries then the filtrate passes into the nephron loop
nephron loop (loop of Henle)
function: to resorb more materials and water in the filtrate -resorbed material is sent to the blood in the vasa recta remaining filtrate then travels to the DCT
urinary bladder
function: urine reservoir (muscular storage sac for urine) its shape changes as it fills -empty: upside-down pyramid, in true pelvis (adults) -full: oval, bulging into abdominal cavity neck of the bladder=narrow base of bladder
synapses
functional connection between a neuron and a second cell at synapses, nerve impulses from the presynaptic cell are transmitted to the postsynaptic cell
nephron
functional filtration union of the kidney function: filters blood and then modifies this "filtrate"
this uterine layer is "shed" during menstruation
functional layer of endometrium
placenta
functions: 1) hormones hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) estrogens progesterone 2) gas/nutrient exchange
ovary
functions: 1) to produce oocytes (eggs)-the female gametes 2) to produce female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone) a) external anatomy b) internal anatomy
large intestine
functions: 1. absorption of water and electrolytes 2. storage of undigested material (feces) until it can be expelled from the body
small intestine
functions: finish the chemical digestion process absorbs most (90% of all nutrients)
lysosomes
garbage men of cell contain digestive enzymes
respiratory portion
gas exchange occurs here, includes: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli and alveolar ducts
peritubular capillaries or vasa recta
gas/nutrient exchange (b/t kidney tissues and the blood) occurs here
otitis media
inflammation of the middle ear, may occur after a respiratory infection: 1. infection spreads via Eustachian tube 2. pain and pressure in middle ear: fluid/pus fills middle ear, eardrum bulges 3. can rupture tympanic membrane
deep
internal to structure
visual association area
interprets activity in visual cortex
lymph
interstitial fluid picked up by the lymphatic system, allows blood to flow smoothly
in joints, theres an ___________ relationship between mobility and stability
inverse the more mobile a joint, the less stable it is
peristalsis
involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system
centrioles
involved in cell division DNA forms chromosomes only when cell is dividing (otherwise its chromatin)
ribosomes
involved in protein synthesis 2 kinds: free or attached
blood
is a connective tissue composed of ground substance and formed elements
ground substance
is plasma which accounts for 55% of blood
low pitch
is produced when the cretinoid cartilage is loose and so the vocal folds are relaxed and so the air goes through them and a low pitch is produced
rough ER
has ribosomes synthesizes and distributes proteins
left lung
has two lobes: superior and inferior and one fissure: oblique
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelia
have cilia which look like individual hairs
left and right pulmonary bronchi
have irregular plates of cartilage
lymphatic vessels
have three layers (like veins), have valves, they take lymph to and from lymph nodes
cephalic
head
pericardial
heart
heart size and shape
heart is a muscular pump, about size of clenched fist, apex is pointed left and down and base is upward border of heart
vitreous humor
helps maintain shape of eye and keep retina against choroid, NOT continually produced
venous drainage
hepatic portal system: veins that drain blood from GI tract directly TO liver 4 main veins: 1. splenic vein 2. superior mesenteric vein 3. inferior mesenteric vein 4. hepatic portal vein-receives blood from 1, 2 and 3, and goes directly to liver
suspensory ligaments
hold the lens in place, when they are taut the make the lens flatter for far vision and when they are loose they make the lens "puffier" or rounder for near vision
pair of chromosomes
homologous chromosomes (maternal & paternal) contain genes that code for the same cellular function
meiosis prophase 1
homologous pairs of chromosomes group together crossing over
openings for the greater vestibular glands
homologous to male bulbourethral glands function: secrete mucus as a lubricant
types of cartilage
hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
nasal cavity
is the internal nose, it has PCCE, and the superior part of the nasal cavity is the olfactory epithelium, it has projections and sinuses, function: warming and humidifying air, phonation, filtering air, olfaction
sinusitis
inflamed and infected sinuses that contain mucus and pus collects and can't drain
pneumonia
inflammation of the alveoli, always caused by infection, respiratory membrane thickens and fluid/leukocytes fill alveoli
bronchitis
inflammation of the bronchi caused by infection or exposure to irritants such as tobacco smoke and air pollution
sternal
sternum
muscularis mucosae
thin layer of smooth muscle
clinical correlate: conjunctivitis
"pink eye" inflamed conjunctiva
How many pairs of spinal nerves do humans have?
31 pairs; 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal
teeth
32 permanent teeth but in kids, only 20 deciduous teeth
ileum
3rd part last 2/5 of small intestine connects to the cecum of the large intestine has less folds, but has MALT
anaphase
"away" -spindle fibers pull sister chromatids apart at centromere -sister chromatids (now called single stranded chromosomes) pulled to opposite ends of cell
root
"fixed" end of penis
metaphase
"middle" chromosomes line along center of cell/equatorial plate
prophase
"puffy"- nucleus looks like puffy ball of DNA DNA in form of replicated chromosomes -2 sister chromatids joined at centromere -spindle fibers go from centrioles to chromatids -breakdown of nuclear envelope
pharynx
"throat" connects the nasal cavity to the larynx and esophagus, contains several tonsils, and has three different parts; nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx
telophase
"two" nuclear envelope reforms -2 new identical daughter cells develop -cleavage furrow develops -cytokinesis occurs -cells now reenter interphase (chromosomes uncoil into chromatin)
larynx
"voice box" anterior to esophagus function: transporting air to trachea/bronchi and lungs, phonation (sound, speech production)
bulbourethral glands
(2) each gland is pea-shaped lies within urogenital diaphragm
seminal vesicles
(2) each lies on posterior wall of bladder -each has a "duct" that merges with the ductus deferens, to form ejaculatory ducts
myocardial infarction
(MI) aka heart attack, block of a coronary artery which deprives oxygen to heart tissue and so the tissue starts to die
arterial circulation for heart
(high O2) to heart wall via right and left coronary arteries
venous circulation for heart
(low O2) to right atrium via the coronary sinus
lateral horns
(only in thoracic and superior lumbar regions) - sympathetic neurons
cochlear duct
(scala media) membranous tube inside the cochlea, splits the cochlea into two chambers, filled with endolymph, contains spiral organ
parasympathetic division axon pathway
- cell bodies pf preganglionic motor neurons located in parts of certain CN or in the sacral part of the spinal cord - Preganglionic axons synapse in terminal ganglia which are located close to or on the organ being innervated -parasympathetic postganglionic axons travel from the terminal ganglia to the target organ
What forms during the 3rd week in the developing nervous system?
- neural plate: thickening of ectoderm -neural groove: invagination of neural plate -neural folds: thickening of tissue on either side of the neural groove
stratum basale (basal layer)
- single layers of columnar/cuboidal keratinocytes resting on basement membrane -also contains tactile cells and melanocytes
endochondrial ossification step 1
- start with hyaline cartilage - replace cartilage in diaphysis and epiphysis, then epiphyseal plates turn to bone, and an adult bone is formed
apocrine glands
-"a part" -top part of the cell is pinched off- becomes the secretion -cell damages itself, cell repairs itself and remains functional -ex: mammary glands
Stratum granulosum
-3-5 layers of granular, flattened keratinocytes -keratinocytes begin the process of keratinization here: nucleus shrivels up, cell dies, and cell fills with keratin
melanocytes
-about 8% -produce melanin -in stratum basale only (deepest layer) -people tend to have same # of melanocytes -darker skinned produce more -exposure to UV rays activates melanocytes -freckles-irregular patches of melanin
adipose (fat tissue)
-adipocytes (nucleus pushed to periphery by fat droplet) -function: some energy/storage, insulation, protection and support -where: subcutaneous layer/surrounds organs
hair
-associated with arrector pili muscle (smooth muscle that makes hair stand) and sebaceous glands -continually lost/replaced -function: protect against UV rays, heat retention, and sensory reception
hinge joint
-bending in 1 plane -most common -ex: elbow, knee, PIP/DIP joints (PIP aka proximal interphalangeal joint)
condylar joint
-biaxial movements (2 planes) -ex: MP metacarpal phalangeal aka knuckles
endochondrial ossification step 5
-bone replaces cartilage except in 2 main areas: articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate -epiphyseal plate responsible for lengthwise bone growth -plate active 15-25 yrs
syndesmosis
-bones held together by interosseous ligaments (made of dense reg CT) -slight movement (amphiarthrosis) -between radius/ulna and tibia/fibula -allows pronation and supination
osteoclasts
-break down and reabsorb bone -formed from fused red bone marrow cells
connective tissue consists of
-cells (not closely packed like epithelia) -protein fibers (elastic) -ground substance (may be fluid, gel like, semi solid or solid & between cells/protein fibers -ground substance
perichondrium invaded by blood vessels
-cells in perichondrium turn into osteoblasts- secrete osteoid -perichondrium transformed into periosteum
holocrine glands
-cells rupture, die, and become the secretion -"hol" sounds like whole, whole cell destroyed -old cells replaced by mitosis -example: sabaceous (oil) glands
osteons/haversian system
-central canal -concentric lamellae -osteocytes -lacunae -canaliculi
cartilage
-chondrocytes in lacunae -avascular -usually surrounded by perichondrium (made of dense irregular CT)
bone remodeling
-continuous deposition of new bone tissue and removal of old bone tissue through out ones life -ex: osteoclasts remove bone to make medullary cavity -ex: bone tissue resorbed when we need calcium, and bone tissue added when we need to store calcium
the cerebellum's functions include:
-coordinates and "fine tunes" voluntary skeletal muscle movement -helps to maintain balance and posture -stores memories of previously learned movement patterns
diaphysis
-cylindrical shaft -compact bone with medullary cavity
reticular layer
-deep to papillary -direct contact with subcutaneous -contains secretory
periosteum
-dense irregular CT that covers outside of bone -not found on articular surfaces -perforating fibers: anchor periosteum to bone -function: growth in bone width -very vascular/lots of nerves
suture
-dense regular CT (fibrous tissue) binds bones -immovable joint (synarthrosis)
characteristics of connective tissue
-derived from mesenchyme (embryonic CT) -CT typically is vascular (with exception to mature cartilage)
epiphysis
-end of bone -outside layer of compact bone surrounding spongy bone -proximal and distal epiphysis
endochondrial ossification step 6
-epiphyseal plates/growth plates turn into epiphyseal line -adult bone attained
endochondrial ossification step 2
-fetal hyaline cartilage model of bone develops -cartilage calcifies and a periosteal bone collar forms around diaphysis -chondrocytes enlarge in shaft/reabsorb part of cartilage -cartilage calcifies -chondrocytes die, leaving hardened matrix -at same time perichondrium invaded by blood vessels
Tacile (merkel) cell
-few in number -in stratum basale -connect to nerve endings -aid in tactile/touch sensation
dense irregular CT
-fibroblasts -collagen (protein) fibers found in clumps -function: strength & support , withstands stresses in many directions -where: dermis of skin, perichondrium (around cartilage) and periosteum
dense regular CT
-fibroblasts -densely packed collagen fibers, fibers run in parallel -poor vascularity (takes longer to heal) -function: strength & support -where: tendons and ligaments
areolar CT
-fibroblasts (the cells) -very vascular -function: packing and binding material esp. around organs -where: subcutaneous layer (deep to skin)
fibrocartilage
-found on intervertebral discs, symphysis pubis (between pubic bones), menisci (knee) -function:support, withstand compression (shock absorber)
hyaline cartilage
-found on joint surfaces, trachea, fetal skeleton -function: support, provides smooth surface for joint movement
spongy bone
-has some spaces between ground substance -inner lattice work of bone -houses hemopoietic tissue (makes blood cells)
medullary cavity
-hollow inside of diaphysis -lined with endosteum (made of dense irregular CT) -yellow bone marrow: in adults/fat
sebaceous glands
-holocrine glands -associated w hair follicles -secrete sebum -function: lubrication/waterproofing epidermis, prevents brittle hair, form zits when plugged
epiphysial plate
-hyaline cartilage between diaphysis and epiphysis -function: length wise bone growth
articular cartilage
-hyaline cartilage on epiphysis -reduce friction between connecting bones
elastic cartilage
-in external ear -function: flexibility and strength
synovial joint structure
-ligaments -articular (joint) capsule around bone ends -synovial membrane lines capsule (synovial fluid for lubrication) -joint cavity inside space of capsule/synovial fluid secreted here -ends of bones lined w articular cartilage to reduce friction
keratinocytes
-most numerous (90%) -found in al layers -produce keratin -cells undergo mitosis, move through all layers, and slough off
stratum corneum
-most superficial -20-30 layers of dead keratinocytes
papillary layer
-most superficial -dermal papillae
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epitheliums
-most superficial cells are alive and kept moist -ex: oral cavity, portion of pharynx, vagina nuclei are only in living cellsq1
epidermis
-most superficial layer -keratinized stratified squamous epithelium -avascular -consists of 4-5 specific layers -epidermal ridges: rounded projections that interlock with dermis
avascularity
-no blood vessels -gets nutrients via diffusion from other tissues
Why do the ureters use peristalsis (as opposed to relying on gravity) to pump urine to the urinary bladder?
-not always standing up (up to down) -keeps it going in the right direction
stratum lucidum (clear layer)
-only in thick skin -2-3 layers of pale, flattened, anucleated keratinocytes
central canal
-opening that contains blood vessels/nerves -runs parallel to diaphysis/central
pivot joint
-permits rotation longitudinally -ex: atlas/axis articulation shaking head no
endochondrial ossification
-pre existing tissue in hyaline cartilage ex: most other bones of body other than flat
intramembraneous ossification
-pre existing tissue in mesenchyme -ex: flat bones
dermis
-primarily dense irregular connective tissue -rich blood supply -contains nerve endings, hair follicles, glands -dermal papillae: projections that lock with epidermal ridges
endochondrial ossification step 3
-primary ossification center forms in diaphysis -blood vessels and osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage -bone replace degeneration of calcified cartilage
functions of integument
-protection (keep pathogens out/barrier to UV rays) -water resistant (prevent water loss) -temperature regulation -secretion (waste/sebum) -vitamin d synthesis -sensory reception -immune defense
ball and socket joint
-provides greatest range of movement -ex: hip/shoulder
endochondrial ossification step 4
-secondary ossification form in epiphyses -same basic steps as step 3 -no periosteal bone collar with epiphysis
merocrine glands
-secretion passes from cell -cell remains intact -most common -examples: salivary glands, lacrimal glands, sweat glands
stratum spinosum
-several layers of polygonal-shaped alive keratinocytes -also contains epidermal dendritic cells
plane joint
-side to side -ex: carpals/tarsals
case study to determine age
-skeleton is older than oldest bony fusion and younger than youngest open center -ex: open distal radius-less than 22 -ex: fused proximal tibia-older than 15 -must be older than 15 less than 22
nails
-stratum corneum layer -protects tips of fingers/toes and help with grasping objects
Epidermal dendritic cells
-stratum spinosum only -phagocytize (ingest) bacteria and foreign debris, and epidermal cancer cells -essentially an immune cell
cartilaginous joint types
-synchondrosis -symphysis
epiphyseal line
-when bone finishes growing it becomes the epiphyseal line (thin plate of compact bone)
saddle joint
-wide range of movement -ex: 1st , metacarpal/carpal joint (thumb)
primitive gonads
-with SRY: medulla proliferates to form testes -no Y (but probably some other factors): cortex proliferates to form ovaries -the reproductive system is not fully functional until puberty -at puberty, hypothalamus secretes hormones that tell anterior pituitary to release FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone), which act on ovaries and testes -so you need FSH and LH to start gamete maturation and increased sex hormone production by the gonads
simple epithelium
1 layer
prior to labor
1) baby "drops" (moves/"engages" down into true pelvis) 2) increased Braxton-Hicks (false labor) contractions 3) cervix softens-loss of mucus plug 4) water breaks - (sometimes)
oogenesis (oocyte formation)
1) before birth 2) during childhood 3) at puberty 4) each month from puberty to menopause
other structures in the ovarian cortex
1) corpus luteum 2) corpus albicans
pregnancy's effect on other systems
1) digestive 2) cardiovascular 3) urinary
labor stages
1) dilation stage 2) expulsion stage 3) placental stage
spermatic duct system
1) epididymis 2) ductus (vas) deferens 3) ejaculatory duct
loss of excess fluids
1) expulsion of amniotic fluid during birth 2) more frequent, copious urination 3) increased sweating 4) discharge of lochia
both male and female reproductive systems consist of
1) gonads 2) accessory reproductive organs
changes in mother after pregnancy
1) loss of excess fluids 2) lactation 3) contraction/shrinkage of uterus 4) hormonal changes
external genitalia of female
1) mons pubis 2) labia majora 3) labia minora
microscopic anatomy of uterus
1) perimetrium 2) myometrium 3) endometrium
hormonal changes
1) pregnancy=increase in estrogen & progesterones necessary to maintain and increase uterine lining 2) within 3 days AFTER pregnancy, the levels drop dramatically 3) within 1 week after birth, prolactin levels rise -oxytocin also increased during nursing 4) these hormone changes are believed to contribute to "postpartum blues" or the more serious "postpartum depression"
different kinds of ovarian follicles
1) primordial follicle 2) primary follicle 3) secondary follicle 4) vesicular follicle
within the seminiferous tubules
1) spermatogonia: "stem cells" that help produce sperm -these are the most immature male sex cells 2) developing sperm 3) sustentacular (Sertoli) cells: these cells support, protect and nourish the developing sperm
growth changes during pregnancy
1) uterus 2) mammary glands 3) weight gain 4) effects on other digestive systems
contraction/shrinkage of uterus
1) within ~6 weeks, uterus shrinks to near pre-pregnancy size 2) uterine contractions help with this; these contractions may be painful ("afterpains"), especially when breastfeeding 3) oxytocin also helps with this process
ventricular system (flow, 6 places)
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus in the lateral ventricles 2. CSF flows from lateral ventricles, through the interventricular foramen, into the 3rd ventricle 3. CSF then travels through the cerebral aqueduct into the 4th ventricle 4. CSF exits the 4th ventricle through 3 openings (apertures), into the subarachnoid space 5. CSF then flows through the arachnoid villi, into the dural venous sinuses (blood stream)
Muscles of the tongue and their functions
1. Genioglossus- protracts the tongue 2. Styloglossus- (of the styloid bone) retracts and elevates the tongue 3. Hyoglossus- (of the hyoid bone) depresses and retracts the tongue
Visual processing steps
1. Light rays enter eye through the cornea (and pupil) and are refracted (bent), 2. light rays are further refracted by the lens (flattened= far vision, rounded=near vision), 3. light rays focus on the retina, 4. light ray info is converted to nerve impulses by photoreceptors, 5. nerve impulses transmitted to the brain via CN II (optic nerve)
How does a chemical synapse work? (5 steps)
1. Nerve impulse (or action potential) travels through the axon and reaches its synaptic knob 2. Nerve impulse causes calcium to enter the synpatic knobs 3. Calcium allows synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft 4. Neurotransmitter binds to protein receptors on the postsynaptic cell 5. Protein channels open, which allows for the influx of sodium. This generates a nerve pulse in the next cell.
large intestine histology
1. mucosa: simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells 2. muscularis: 2 layers of smooth muscle outer longitudinal layer consists of teniae coli -three thin bands of smooth muscle that bunch the LU into sacs called haustra
adrenal (suprarenal) glands
1. adrenal cortex 2. adrenal medulla
blood supply to abdominal GI tract
1. arterial supply 2. venous drainage
large intestine gross anatomy
1. cecum -lower right part of abdomen -vermiform appendix 2. ascending colon: right side of body 3. transverse colon: runs from the right to left side of body 4. descending colon: left side of body 5. sigmoid colon: in pelvic cavity, S-shaped 6. rectum and anal canal: terminal portion of the LI -feces leaves anal canal through anus (external opening)
digestive system functions
1. digestion 2. absorption 3. elimination of waste
functions of saliva
1. dissolves food molecules so they can be tasted 2. moistens food, aids in compacting it into a bolus 3. cleanses the mouth 4. chemical digestion of carbohydrates (with salivary amylase) 5. lysozymes and antibodies in saliva inhibit bacterial growth in mouth
small intestine gross anatomy
1. duodenum 2. jejunum 3. ileum
layers of eye from superficial to deep
1. fibrous tunic, 2. vascular tunic, 3. neural or retinal tunic
follow of filtrate/urine
1. filtrate is squeezed out of the glomerulus, enters capsular space 2. proximal convoluted tubule 3. nephron loop 4. distal convoluted tubule 5. collecting duct (target of ADH) -when filtrate leaves the collecting duct, it now may be called urine 6. minor calyx 7. major calyx 8. renal pelvis 9. ureter 10. urinary bladder 11. urine exits the body via the urethra
processes involved in urine formation
1. filtration 2. tubular reabsorption 3. tubular secretion
palate (upper part of oral cavity)
1. hard palate 2. soft palate
functions of ear
1. hearing (audition)- detecting sound waves and converting them into nerve impulses 2. equilibrium (balance)- detect position of head
functions of folds of mucosa and submucosa of small intestine
1. increase surface area of SI through which nutrients can be absorbed 2. slow the chyme down and allow it to mix with intestinal juices, allowing time for full nutrient absorption
nephrons of kidneys
1. introduction 2. renal corpuscle 3. proximal convoluted tubule 4. nephron loop 5. distal convoluted tubule
tear steps
1. lacrimal gland produces and secretes tears 2. lacrimal fluid is swept across the eye 3. lacrimal canaliculi: from lacrimal pundit to nasolacrimal duct 4. nasolacrimal duct: drains tears into nasal cavity, where they are eventually swallowed
ureter layers
1. mucosa 2. muscularis 3. adventitia
urinary bladder layers
1. mucosa 2. submucosa 3. muscularis 4. adventitia
stomach histology
1. mucosa: simple columnar epithelium contains gastric pits branching off the gastric pits are gastric glands that secrete gastric juice (acidic, contains HCl) 2. muscularis: has 3 layers of smooth muscle (not 2) innermost oblique, inner circular, outer longitudinal layers function: blend bolus with gastric juice-turns bolus into chyme
small intestine histology
1. mucosa: simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells 2. small intestine contains circular folds (plicae circulares)
7 steps of the sliding filament model of contraction of a skeletal muscle
1. nerve impulse is carried from the brain/spinal cord to the muscle by the axon of a motor neuron 2. axon meets muscle fiber at the neuromuscular junction 3. axon releases chemical neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which binds the the sarcolemma 4. a nerve impulse is generated in the carcolemma and it pushes down the T-tubules, and the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+ 5. Ca2+ ions bind to the thin myofilaments, which helps thick myofilaments attach to it 6. myofilaments slide over one another; sarcomere shortens; muscle contracts 7. when nerve impulse stops, Ca2+ returns to the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the myofilaments slide back to their resting state
4 steps of myelination in the PNS
1. neurolemmocyte starts to wrap around a portion of an axon 2. neurolemmocyte cytoplasm & plasma membrane begin to form consecutive layers around the axon 3. inner successive layers of the cell membrane compose the myelin sheath 4. Eventually, the cytoplasm and the nucleus are pushed to the periphery of the cell
blood supply of kidney
1. renal artery 2. segmental arteries 3. interlobar arteries 4. arcuate arteries 5. interlobular arteries 6. afferent arterioles 7. glomerulus 8. efferent arteriole 9. peritubular capillaries or vasa recta 10. interlobular veins 11. arcuate veins 12. interlobar veins 13. renal vein
Flow of aqueous humor
1. secreted by the ciliary processes into the posterior chamber, 2. moves from the posterior chamber through the pupil to the anterior chamber, 3. excess is reabsorbed via the scleral venous sinus
How we hear
1. sound waves are collected by the auricle, trail in external acoustic meatus to... 2. vibration of tympanic membrane causes ossicles to vibrate oval window on vestibule, 3. sound waves travel through the Scala vestibule and vibrate basilar membrane of spinal organ to determine frequency of sound, 4. stereo cilia of the hair cells bend against tectorial membrane generating nerve impulse, 5. nerve impulse is sent via CN VIII, 6. remaining sound waves exit Scala tympani through round window
how the spiral organ works
1. sound waves enter via the Scala vestibule, then vibrate a portion of the basilar membrane, 2. stereocilia of the hair cells touch the tectorial membrane and bend with generates a nerve impulse, 3. the nerve impulse is sent to the brain via cochlear duct of the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) 4. Remaining sound waves transfer to the Scala tympani and exit the inner ear through the round window
Cranial nerves
12 pairs of nerves that may contain sensory axons, somatic motor axons or parasympathetic motor axons
ductus (vas) deferens
18 inch long tube that runs from testis to prostate gland part of its travel is within the spermatic cord then it enters the abdominopelvic cavity, winds around the bladder and is found near the prostate gland ductus deferens will "merge" with the duct from seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
31 pairs 8 cervical (C1 - C8) 12 thoracic (T1 - T12) 5 lumbar (L1 - L5) 5 sacral (S1 - S5) 1 coccygeal (Co1)
muscularis of ureter
2 layers of smooth muscle
meisosis telophase 1
2 new cells with 23 chromosomes cell finishes first division producing 2 daughter cells daughter cells have 23 replicated chromosomes (each chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids) parent cell had 23 PAIRS of chromosomes, but daughter cells have only 23 chromosomes
replicated (double-stranded) chromosome
2 sister chromatids joined at the centromere
jejunum
2nd part 3/5 of remaining small intestine HUGE surface area=most nutrient absorption
muscularis of urinary bladder
3 layers of smooth muscle -together, these layers are known as the detrusor muscle internal urethral sphincter -involuntary (ANS) sphincter
salivary glands
3 pairs: parotid, submandibular, sublingual 1. secrete saliva 2. functions of saliva 3. innervation of salivary glands
variation of length of pregnancy
40 weeks from last period OR 38 weeks from conception not exactly 9 months
postpartum blues and depression
50-85% will have postpartum blues in the first 2 weeks -including irritability, anxiety, increased emotional reactivity 10-15% will struggle with postpartum depression within first year -including excessive guilt, anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation & fatigue What else is going on at this time that may also contribute to these issues? -not a lot of sleep
lower part of fourth ventricle
A CSF-filled space found within pons and medulla oblongata. It is continuous with central canal of spinal cord part of the medulla oblongata
tissue
A group of similar cells (in an extracellular matrix) that perform the same function.
far-sighted
Image is formed behind the retina, lens is to flat
organelles
A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell
caudal
At the rear or tail end
-osseous connective tissue -osteocytes (mature bone cells) rest in lacunae -surrounded by periosteum
Bone
false labor
Braxton Hicks contractions irregular do not progress
When do cells develop into a disc with primary germ layers? Why?
By the third week; the primary germ layers are the earliest tissues, from which all other tissues develop
axon hillock
Cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body.
innervation of salivary glands
CN VII: Facial CN IX: Glossopharyngeal-parotid parasympathetic division stimulates secretion
orbicularis oculi
Closes eyelids; used in blinking, winking, and squinting
meiosis interphase
DNA is replicated DNA will form double strand chromosome
What are the three primary germ layers?
Ectoderm (outer layer) Mesoderm (middle layer) Endoderm (inner layer)
dorsum of the foot
Extensor digitorum brevis- extends toes 2-4 Extensor hallucis brevis- extends big toe
Quadratus Lumborum
Flexes spine laterally; extends spine
cilia
Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used to move substances over cell surface
right lung
Has three lobes: the superior, middle, and inferior and two fissures: oblique and horizontal
What are the bands of a sacromere and what type of myofilaments does each have?
I band: "light zone"; thin myofilaments only; has Z disc in the center A band: "dark zone"; both thick and thin myofilaments H zone: lighter, central region in the middle of an A band; only thick myofilaments M line: area in the middle of the H zone where thick filaments attack each other
Sensory cranial nerves
I, II, VIII (olfactory, optic, vestibulocochlear)
What is a sacromere?
It is the functional contractile unit of a myofibril that runs from Z disc to Z disc
facial nerve (CN VII)
Mixed somatic motor: muscles of facial expression, sensory: taste to anterior 2/3 of tongue PS motor: stimulates secretion of lacrimal gland and most salivary glands test: smile, frown, wink, put something on tip of tongue, dry eyes or not crying, dry mouth (Bell's palsy- facial muscles paralyzed on one side)
trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Mixed somatic motor: muscles of mastication sensory axons: anterior part of scalp, entire face, nasal cavity, oral cavity, teeth, cranial meninges, responsible for brain freeze, test: move jaw/chew and touch face
vagus nerve (CN X)
Mixed somatic motor: supplies most pharynx muscles and larynx muscles PS motor: supply muscle in the heart, lungs and most abdominal organs test: difficulty swallowing, person has a hoarse voice, permanent loss of voice or monotone voice
glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Mixed somatic motor: to one pharynx muscle sensory: part of pharynx, touch, and taste sensation of 1/3 posterior of tongue PS motor: stimulates secrete to parotid gland test: dry mouth, taste on back of tongue
oculomotor (CN III)
Motor somatic motor: supplies 4 eye muscles ( superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus and inferior oblique muscles) and muscle in upper eyelid (elevator palpabrae superioris) PS motor: supplies iris to contract pupil test: does pupil constrict or is it blown? does the person's upper eyelid droop? does person have diplopia (double vision)?
stratified epithelium
Multiples tiers of cells.
During the 4th week of development, what are the three primary vesicles the cranial part of the neural tube develops into?
Prosencephalon- forebrain Mesencephalon- midbrain Rhombencephalon- hindbrain
anterior pituitary hormones mnemonic
TP FLAG Anterior Pituitary Hormones Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin) Prolactin Follicle-stimulating hormone Luteinizing hormone Adrenocorticotropichormone Growth hormone
polarity
apical surface and basal surface
What is the muscle cell membrane referred to as? Cytoplasm?
The muscle cell membrane is referred to as sarcolemma, and the muscle cell cytoplasm is referred to as sarcoplasm.
lacrimal fluid
contains water Na+, antibodies and lysozymes
nerve plexus
a network of converging and or diverging axons, formed from anterior rami of spinal nerves, names/specific nerves come off the plexus, allows for multiple spinal nerves to innervate multiple structures
endoplasmic reticulum
a network of tubules used to transport and synthesize materials
nondisjunction
a process by which the chromatids fail to properly separate during meiosis daughter cells with either too few or too many chromosomes
selectively permeable
a property of cell membranes that allows some substances to pass through, while others cannot
negative feedback loop
a stimulus causes an endocrine organ to release hormones -the hormones helps bring the body back to homeostasis -once homeostasis is achieved, the hormone release stops
gastrointestinal (GI) tract
a tube that extends from mouth to anus
electrical synapse
a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing for the rapid flow of ions through gap junctions to the postsynaptic cell; this flow of ions generates electricity
gluteus minimus & gluteus medius function
abduct & medially rotate thigh
oogenesis each month from puberty to menopause (when ovulation/menses cease entirely)
about 20 primordial follicles develop into primary follicles some primary follicles degenerate, while others become secondary follicles one secondary follicle becomes "dominant" and matures into a vesicular follicle in the vesicular follicle, the primary oocyte completes Meiosis I, but gets (re-)stopped at metaphase II -at this point, you now have a secondary oocyte a peak in LH levels at about day 14 (of a 28-day ovarian cycle) will induce ovulation -the structure expelled is a secondary oocyte -this oocyte is still suspended at metaphase II-it will not complete meiosis UNLESS it is fertilized by a sperm after ovulation, FSH and LH levels decline -ruptured ovarian follicle becomes a corpus luteum -corpus luteum eventually becomes a corpus albicans
cuboidal
about as tall as they are wide
scala vestibuli
above cochlear duct, separated from cochlear duct by vestibular membrane, connects to the oval window, filled with perilymph
monosomy
absence of one of the two sets of chromosomes
pigmented layer functions
absorbs excess light to prevent reflection/glare, provides vitamin A to neural layer, converts light rays to nerve impulses
neurolemmocytes
also called schwann cells neuroglial cell of the PNS myelinate axons in PNS
cornea
anterior 1/6 of eye curved, transparent structure, anterior to iris and pupil, function: admits and refracts (bends) light
oogenesis at puberty
anterior pituitary secretes FSH and LH: stimulates follicle development
ventral horns
anterior projections of the gray matter that contain the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons and some interneurons voluntary motor neurons
cervical plexus
anterior rami of C1-C4 spinal nerves, innervate sensory: skin of neck and ear and shoulders, motor: anterior neck muscles and hold head up
brachial plexus
anterior rami of C5-T1 spinal nerves, innervate primarily upper limb, includes- axillary, radial, ulnar, median and musculocutaneous nerves
lumbar plexus
anterior rami of L1-L4, innervates inferior abdominal wall and part of the lower extremity, specific nerves include femoral ad obturator nerves
sacral plexus
anterior rami of L4-S4 (four to four) innervates the buttocks, pelvic structures and majority of lower limb, includes gluteal, sciatic, tibial and common fibular nerves
each spinal nerve is formed from
anterior root and posterior root (dorsal root)
clitoris
anterior to the urethral orifice -homologous to: male penis -contains two columns of erectile tissue (corpora cavernosa) -third erectile tissue surrounds opening of vagina
thyroid gland
anterior to trachea and inferior to larynx 1. thyroid hormone (TH) 2. calcitonin
hard palate
anterior ⅔ of palate, bony palatine bones, palatine process
incus
anvil; middle of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear
mammary glands (breasts)
apocrine glands each mammary gland has glandular tissue, adipose tissue, and "ligaments" to connect it to thoracic wall function: to produce milk for a baby -lactation=breast milk production prolactin oxytocin
Macrophages
are monocytes that migrated from bloodstream into tissue, function: phagocytize foreign substances
High pitch
are produced by more taught vocal folds arytenoids get tight which pulls on cords and that influences the pitch
lymphatic organs
are surrounded by a CT capsule ex: lymph nodes, thymus and spleen
primary somatosensory cortex
area of the parietal lobe where messages from the sense receptors are registered located in the postcentral gyrus of each parietal lobe
Loose CT types
areolar and adipose
adventitia of ureter
areolar connective tissue
adventitia of urinary bladder
areolar connective tissue
axillary
armpit
What is the function of the transverse tubules (T-tubules) in a muscle fiber?
as one of the largest cells in the human body, transverse tubules can conduct a nerve impulse rapidly to the interior of the muscle cell
ciliary body function
as the muscle contracts, the suspensory ligaments tighten to make the lens rounder and vice versa, it also produces aqueous humor
How are neural crest cells formed?
as the neural tube is forming, some ectodermal cells detach, and these are referred to as neural crest cells
neuroglial cells of the CNS
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells
atria and ventricle reminder
atria contract together and then the ventricles contract together
external ear
auricle, external acoustic meatus, tympanic membrane
thymus
behind sternum, function: t-cells mature and differentiate here, immature t-cells are sent from bone marrow into the thymus, the thymus secretes hormones to help the t-cells develop, and then t-cells mature, and once all t-cells are developed the thymus breaks down
pancreas
behind stomach acinar cells
scala tympani
below cochlear duct, separated from cochlear duct by basilar membrane connects to round window to allow excess sound waves to leave inner ear, filled with perilymph
external auditory meatus
between auricle and tympanic membrane, it directs sound waves to tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Anterior cavity
between cornea and lens, filled with aqueous humor
posterior cavity
between lens and retina, contains vitreous humor
Mediastinum
between lungs
pericardial cavity
between parietal and visceral layers, contains pericardial fluid
peritoneal cavity
between peritoneums, serous fluid circulates
subarachnoid space
between pia mater and arachnoid mater cushions brain & spinal cord w CSF (interconnecting channels) has delicate, weblike CT (trabeculae)
perilymph fluid
between the membranous and bony labyrinths this fluid floats in the perilymph
Flexors of forearm/elbow joint
biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis
erythrocytes
biconcave discs, a-nucleated, filled with hemoglobin, function: carry oxygen to cells, take CO2 away from cells to lungs
Lens
biconvex transparent structure inside the eye, held in place by suspensory ligaments
pyramids
bilateral ridges on anterior (ventral) side composed of descending VOLUNTARY motor axons, most of which decussate
connective
binds/supports/protects other tissues and organs
optic disc
blind spot, area where the optic nerve exits the eye, contains NO rods or cons, photoreceptors, only axons
concentric lamellae
concentric rings of bone matrix
to conserve heat
blood vessels in dermis constrict- blood shunted to deeper tissues
to lose/dissipate heat
blood vessels in dermis dilate sweat glands secrete sweat
abduction
body part moved away from midline, in lateral direction
adduction
body part moved toward midline, in medial direction
ligaments
bone to bone
symphysis
bones connected by pad of fibrocartilage -amphiarthrosis -ex: intervertebral discs
synchondrosis
bones connected by pad of hyalone cartilage -synarthrosis -ex: epiphyseal plate, costochondral joints
thoracic
bounded inferiorly by diaphragm
respiratory bronchioles
branch from terminal bronchioles are simple cuboidal but ciliated typically, have smooth muscle in walls, may have alveoli coming off of them
mammary
breast
sensory (afferent) neurons
bring information TO the CNS can be either unipolar or bipolar
lymphedema
build up of interstitial fluid due to lymph vessel damage
Which structure is responsible for producing a portion of seminal fluid? a) bubourethral gland b) ductus deferens c) epididymis d) corpus cavernosum e) glands
bulbourethral gland
What does CSF provide?
buoyancy, protection (liquid cushion), and maintenance of the brain and spinal cord's chemical environment
duodenum
c-shaped receives chyme from stomach receives bile and pancreatic enzymes (from liver and pancreas) through duodenal papilla
renal calculi (kidney stones)
calcifications/crystals biggest factor: frequent dehydration
when blood calcium levels are high
calcitonin is secreted by the thyroid gland which lowers blood calcium
crural
calves
splanchnic nerves
can find preganglionic axons that do not synapse in sympathetic trunk`
dendrites
conduct impulses toward the cell body
Perforating (Volkmann's) canals
canals that run perpendicular to the central canals; connect central canals
colorectal cancer
cancer in large intestine (colon) or rectum most arise from polyps (growths) from mucosa but not all are cancerous blood in stool (feces) early warning sign colonoscopy to examine colon
glycocalyx
carbohydrates that participate in cell-cell recognition ID card shows not foreign
Autonomic nervous system centers and their functions
cardiac center- regulates heart rate vasomotor center- regulates blood pressure respiratory center- regulates rate of involuntary respiration vomiting center
Myocardium
cardiac muscle it is the thickest layer
female urethra
carries urine only short distensible
pulmonary veins
carry blood high in oxygen to the heart away from the lungs
pulmonary arteries
carry blood low in oxygen to the lungs
cartilaginous joints
cartilage binds to bone
nerve roots below the conus medullaris
cauda equina (horse's tail)
What part of the neural tube gives rise the spinal cord?
caudal part
What do the ventral horns contain?
cell bodies of motor neurons portions of interneurons
sympathetic division components
cell bodies of preganglionic motor neurons in lateral horns of T1-L2 spinal cord, these exit the SC and go into white rami, sympathetic trunks, gray rami, splanchnic nerves, prevertebral ganglia and sympathetic postganglionic axons
meiosis
cell division where gametes (sperm/oocytes) are formed
interphase
cell not dividing DNA is replicated during this time
What prevents the gastric juices from eating away at the stomach itself?
cells secrete layer of mucus-protective lining epithelium constantly regenerating
Neuroglia
cells that support and protect neurons
characteristics of epithelia
cellularity, polarity, avascularity, high regenerative capacity, bound to underlying tissue by a basement membrane
liver histology
central vein portal triad: 1. branch of hepatic portal vein 2. branch of hepatic artery 3. branch of bile duct blood flow bile production
insula
cerebral lobe located deep within lateral sulcus used to taste
two enlargements of the spinal cord
cervical enlargement (neurons to upper extremities) lumbar enlargement (neurons to lower extremities)
early labor
cervix gradually becomes effaced and dilates (to about 4 cm) effacement dilation
lens function
changes shape (flat or round) to focus light rays
hormone
chemical messenger that regulates activity of other body -slow messenger -requires blood supply
pectoral
chest
Muscles of mastication and their functions
chewing muscles: 1. Masseter- elevates and protracts mandible 2. Temporalis- elevates and retracts mandible 3. Medial and Lateral Pterygoids- together elevate and protract the mandible; apart they move jaw side-to-side.
mental
chin
Where is CSF made?
choroid plexus in ventricles
circumduction
circular, conelike movement of body segment
respiratory system divisions
conducting portion and respiratory portion
Omohyoid
depresses and retracts hyoid bone
hyoglossus
depresses and retracts tongue
basal surface
closer to underlying connective tissue
pelvic diaphragm
closes inferior opening of pelvis, supports the pelvic organs
Orbiculis Oris
closes mouth and protrudes the lips
lymphatic nodules
clumps of lymphatic cells within other organs
venules
collect blood from: capillaries send blood into: the veins travel with: arterioles
MALT
collections of lymphatic nodules in GI, respiratory and genitourinary tracts
iris
colored portion of the eye or pigmented, has a hole in the middle=pupil
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
columnar/irregularly shaped all cells attached to basement membrane goblet cells example: lines upper respiratory tracts (nasal cavity, portion of pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi)
spinal nerves location
come directly off the spinal cord and exit the vertebral canal via the intervertebral foramen, part of PNS
epididymis
comma-shaped organ, located posterior to and on top of testis receive sperm from testis functions: 1) location of sperm maturation (gain motility/mobility) 2) stores sperm until ejaculation
right and left hepatic ducts unite to form
common hepatic duct
2 kinds of bone tissue found within each of your bones
compact and spongy
cellularity
composed almost entirely of cells with minimal extracellular matrix
Epicranius
composed of the occipitofrontalis muscle and the epicranial aponeurosis
sereous membrane
composed of tissue and either covers/supports organs or line the walls of some cavities and secrete sereous fluid
expiration
compress thoracic cavity, diaphragm-moves superiorly, dome-shaped in relaxation, decreases vertical dimensions and pushes air out, ribs move medially and sternum moves posteriorly
transverse abdominis
compresses abdomen, flexes and rotates vertebral column
external abdominal oblique
compresses abdominal wall, laterally rotates trunk
internal abdominal oblique
compresses abdominal wall, laterally rotates waist
buccinator
compresses cheek fishy face
pituitary gland
connected to hypothalamus via the infundibulum 1. anterior pituitary 2. posterior pituitary
capillaries
connecting arteries and veins, function: responsible for gas and nutrient exchange between blood and tissues, have just a tunica intimacy, many form a capillary bed
submucosa
connective tissue that contains major blood vessels
superior cerebellar peduncle
connects cerebellum to midbrain
middle cerebellar peduncle
connects cerebellum to pons
inferior cerebellar peduncle
connects the cerebellum to the medulla oblongata
Eustachian tube
connects the middle ear with the nasopharynx and allows passage of air which helps equalize air pressure in the middle ear
stomach
connects to esophagus and duodenum upper left part of abdomen main function: churns food (mechanical digestion) and mixes it with gastric juice (chemical digestion) to break it down into chyme
trachea
connects to larynx superiorly, travels from neck to thorax, splints into left and right primary bronchi, PCCE, c-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
Telencephalon (cerebrum)
consists of an outer gray matter (cerebral cortex) and an inner white matter (myelinated axons) vocabulary, speech, thought, judgement, voluntary control sensory perception, memory, and dreams
lymphatic system
consists of lymph vessels- return interstitial fluid back to bloodstream, and lymphatic tissues and organs- can initiate an immune response when necessary
epithalamus
consists of the: pineal gland- secretes melatonin which appears to regulate circadian rhythms choroid plexus- group of capillaries that produce CSF (referred to as plasma prior to release)
secondary spermatocytes
contain 23 chromosomes only (haploid) they finish the 2nd meiotic division to produce spermatids
nucleus
contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) surrounded by nuclear envelope
nucleus of neuron
contains DNA and the nucleolus (which contains RNA)
red pulp
contains erythrocytes, platelets, and macrophages, function: removal of old cells break them down and take the reusable parts for recycling
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
contains keratin most superficial layers consist of dead cells example: epidermis of skin/hair
oral cavity
continuous posteriorly with oropharynx nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium 1. teeth 2. tongue 3. palate
Diaphragm
contraction pulls the central portion inferiorly, increasing expansion of throacic cavity used during inhalation and exhalation
true labor
contractions at regular intervals pain intensifies initiated and maintained by oxytocin -pressure on cervix from fetal head -stimulated posterior pituitary to secrete oxytocin -stimulates contraction of uterine smooth muscle -pushes fetus towards cervix -and cycle repeats... progresses through 3 stages
active labor
contractions longer, stronger, and closer together (4-10 cm) -transition labor: end of activity labor (CRAZY contractions) (usually 8-10 cm)
anterior pituitary
controlled by the hypothalamus via regulatory hormones 1. thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) 2. prolactin (PRL) 3. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 4. growth hormone (GH) 5. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) 6. luteinizing hormone (LH)
nervous
controls activities and processes info
Wernicke's area (of both the parietal and temporal lobes)
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression;
what ends the spinal cord?
conus medullaris
depressor anguli oris
depresses corner of mouth frown
Chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies)
corresponds to rough endoplasmic reticulum in other cells- rich in ribosomes within cytoplasm of the cell body of the neuron
visceral peritoneum
covers abdominal organs
epithelium
covers body/organ surfaces lines body cavities and insides of hollow organs forms (exocrine) glands
visceral layer
covers external surface of organs
What classifies as the PNS?
cranial & spinal nerves, and ganglia
vertebral
cylindrical opening formed by vertebral column and spinal cord
gallbladder has a
cystic duct cystic duct and common hepatic duct unite, forming common bile duct -it connects with pancreatic duct
lymphocytes
cytoplasm has no granules, contains large, round dark purple nucleus, most are located in lymphatic tissue, there are two different kinds T and B
platelets
cytoplasmic fragments from larger cells, a-nucleate, very small with a limited life span (~5 days) function: assist with blood clotting
cytoplasm consists of
cytosol and organelles
Which hormone is stored in the posterior pituitary? a) growth hormone b) luteinizing hormones c) prolactin d) antidiuretic hormone e) adrenocorticotropic hormone
d) antidiuretic hormone
choroid
dark brown membrane, function: it contains many tiny blood vessels that help nourish the retina
flexion
decrease joint angle between bones in A-P plane
DVT
deep vein thrombosis, if muscular pump is inactive (e.g. bedridden, on a long plane ride) blood could pool and clot in the veins
elimination of waste
defecation
corpus albicans
degenerated corpus luteum -white CT scar
contents of gray matter
dendrites, unmyelinated axons, neuron cell bodies, and neuroglial cells (all horns)
dense CT types
dense irregular and dense regular
submucosa of urinary bladder
dense irregular connective tissue
fibrous joints
dense regular connective connects bones
internal intercostals
depress ribs used for force exhalation
the forebrain consists of 2 parts: the ___ and ____. ____ completely surrounds ____.
diencephalon; telencephalon diencephalon; telencephalon
suprahyoid muscles
digastric, stylohoid, mylohoid, geniohyoid
abdominal houses...
digestive organs
laryngopharynx
directly behind superior larynx, transports both air and food, NSSE
nasopharynx
directly behind the nasal cavity, PCCE, moves only air, contains openings for eustachian tube
oropharynx
directly behind the oral cavity, both air and food travel here, Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
sagittal plane
divides body into left and right
coronal plane
divides into anterior and posterior
Midsaggital
divides into equal left and right portions
transverse plane
divides into superior and inferior halves
ANS innervation of the heart
does not initiate heartbeat but can increase or decrease it, sympathetic: increases heart rate parasympathetic: decreases heart rate
2 kinds of flexion at ankle
dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
dorsiflexion
dorsum/top of foot is moved closer to anterior surface of leg
plasma membrane structure
double layer of phospholipids
weight gain during pregnancy
due to enlargement of uterus/mammary glands, growing fetus and placenta (~20 lbs max), fluid accumulation, fat deposit
glomerulus
each afferent arteriole brings blood to a glomerulus -a capillary "ball" -blood is filtrated here
external anatomy of ovary
each is oval shaped within pelvic cavity
introduction to nephrons
each kidney contains over 1 million nephrons nephron consists of: 1) renal corpuscle (glomerulus + glomerular capsule) 2) proximal convoluted tubule 3) nephron loop (loop of Henle) 4) distal convoluted tubule
How much of the axon can one neurolemmocyte myelinate?
each neurolemmocyte wraps about 1 mm of an axon
ejaculatory duct
each one will empty its contents into the urethra -passes through the prostate gland (but does NOT include prostatic secretions)
splenis capitis
each rotates head to one side together they extend the neck/head
sternocleidomastoid
each rotates head to opposite side together they flex the head/neck
internal anatomy of testes
each testis is divided into a series of internal compartments called lobules each lobules contains up to 4 seminiferous tubules (a tightly coiled structure, where sperm are produced) between seminiferous tubules is some connective tissue and interstitial cells function of these cells: produce and secrete androgens (specifically, testosterone)
auditory ossicles
ear bones (malleus, incus, stapes) which function to transmit and AMPLIFY vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear
peptic ulcer
erosion of wall of stomach or duodenum because "balance" between acidic juices and mucosal repair thrown off so, acid eats away at lining
clinical correlates: When descending in a plane many people chew gum why?
eustachian tube can open when you chew so then the air pressure can equalize within your ear so they don't hurt
post-partum hemorrhage
excessive bleeding following delivery common causes include 1) retaining part of placenta 2) uncontracted uterus -uterus must contract to "clamp down" on blood vessels that used to go to the placenta
hypothalamus
exerts its control over the endocrine system in 3 ways 1. produces "releasing" hormones that regulate anterior pituitary (middle management) 2. produces hormones that are stored in posterior pituitary gland 3. overseers autonomic nervous system
inspiration
expand thoracic cavity, diaphragm- moves inferiorly, flattens out in and contracts, increases vertical dimension and creates a vacuum to pull air in, ribs also move laterally and sternum moves anteriorly
oxytocin
expels the milk in response to a stimulus (baby suckling/crying)
parturition (labor)
expulsion of infant from mother's body 1) true labor vs false labor 2) prior to labor 3) labor stages
ejaculation
expulsion of semen from penis -it is triggered by the sympathetic nervous system
chordae tendinae
extend from the papillary muscles to the 3 flaps of the right av valve function: these strands prevent valve prolapse (everting) into the atrium
longisssimus
extends the vertebral column
gluteus maximus
extends thigh
spinalis
extends vertebral column
erector spinae
extends vertebral column consists of the following muscles: illiocostalis, longissimus, spinalis
filium terminale
extension of pia mater, anchors spinal cord to coccyx
regions of the ear
external ear, middle ear, inner ear
superior
external to structure
3 types of sensory receptors
exteroceptors, interoceptors, proprioceptors
orbital
eye
Palpebrae
eyelids
mons pubis
fatty, rounded area-covered with pubic hair
hormone levels are constantly adjusted by
feedback loops
examples of long bones
femur, phalanges, ulna, metacarpal, tibia, humerus, fibula, metatarsals, radius
3 different structures of joints
fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial
plantar flex the foot/ankle and evert the foot
fibular longus; fibular brevis
main function of urinary system
filter blood, and transport the liquid waste (urine) out of the body -kidneys responsible for filtering blood and turning the filtrate into urine -urinary tract transports the urine
squamous
flat cells
rectus abdominis
flexes and rotates vertebral column abs
deoxygenated blood flow
flows from the pulmonary trunk through pulmonary arteries to lungs for oxygenation and pulmonary veins send oxygenated blood from lungs back to the heart
abdominal
inferior to diaphragm and superior to pelvic brim
muscles of the tongue
genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus
renal corpuscle
glomerulus plus glomerular capsule glomerular (Bowman's) capsule surrounds the glomerulus -made of cells called podocytes -parietal layer -visceral layer -capsular space-filtrate is squeezed into here filtrate then enters the PCT
when blood glucose levels are low
glucagon is secreted by the pancreas which raises blood sugar
simple cuboidal epithelium
good for secretion and absorption examples: lines tubules of kidney, ducts of most glands
spinal cord is divided into ___ and ___ matter.
gray & white
ganglia
group of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS
cerebellar peduncles
groups of axons
changes in the mother during pregnancy
growth and placenta
malleus
hammer; first of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear
in meiosis cells are __________ in mitosis cells are ____________
haploid diploid
internal anatomy of ovary
has an outer cortex and an inner medulla medulla contains blood vessels cortex contains ovarian follicles ovarian follicles consist of an oocyte plus follicle (granulose cells)
pancreas
has both exocrine and endocrine functions -exocrine functions were discussed w/ digestive system pancreas islets: produce hormones 1. insulin 2. glucagon
hierarchy of ANS
hypothalamus-oversees all ANS activity (boss) ANS centers int brainstem (middle management) Pre and post ganglionic neurons (workers)
variation of weight gain
ideally 25-35 lbs could be 10, could be 60
Those that flex the thigh/hip
illiacus, psoas major, and sartorius pectineus
near-sighted
image lands in front of retina lens is to round
osteoblasts
immature bone cells that create bones- secrete osteoid (semi solid bone matrix)
spermatids
immature sperm-contain 23 chromosomes only (haploid) spermatids develop into sperm (spermatozoa)
synarthrosis
immovable joint
fovea centralis
in center of macula lutea, the sharpest vision only contains cones
sympathetic effects on the digestive system
in general, it inhibits or decreases activity of GI tract
parasympathetic effects on the digestive system
in general, it stimulates or increases activity of GI tract
accessory reproductive organs
include "ducts" that transport/store the gametes, glands that secrete substances for the gametes' well-being, and the external genitalia
bronchial tree
includes all divisions of bronchi and bronchioles, the tubes get smaller, histologically, epithelium goes from PCCE to cuboidal to simple squamous, cartilage also disappears as it gets smaller and is replaced with smooth muscle tissue
interstitial lamellae
incomplete remnants of osteons no central canal
extension
increase joint angle between bones in A-P plane
cardiovascular system during pregnancy
increased blood volume potential for varicose veins -thin walls get stretched from more blood -possible basic ways to help are being active, walking and elevating the legs
depression
inferior movement
pelvic
inferior to abdominal between hips
mitochondrial DNA (MtDNA)
inherit from mom because head of sperm do not have mitochondria
variation of "morning" sickness
initially related to placenta development can occur at any time in the day, or possibly all day
sinoatrial node
initiates heartbeat (pacemaker) located in upper wall of right atrium, causes atria to contract, sends impulse to AV node which then sends to AV bundle than to bundle branches of L & R than to pukinje fibers
neural layer
inner layer, functions: its photoreceptors receive light information and convert it into nerve impulses that are sent via CNII (optic nerve) to brain
endometrium
innermost layer highly vascular columnar epithelium and CT fertilized oocyte implants here it is subdivided into 2 sublayers: 1) basal layer 2) functional layer
tunica intima
innermost layer, endothelium SSE and areolar CT
mucosa
innermost tunic 1. epithelium 2. lamina propria (areolar CT) 3. muscularis mucosae
deep fibular nerve
innervates anterior leg and dorsal foot
common fibular nerve
innervates anterior leg muscles- which dorsiflex and extend toes, lateral leg muscles- which evert foot and muscles of dorsal foot- which extend toes test: dorsiflex (pull toes up towards shin) evert foot, extend toes, correlate: easy to injure when foot falls asleep from crossing legs or from leg cast or ski boot
superficial fibular nerve
innervates fibularis longus and fibularis brevis
musculocutaneous nerve
innervates most muscles on the anterior surface of the arm- coracobrachialis (flexes arm/shoulder), biceps brachia and brachialis (both flex forearm and elbow), test: ask them to flex arm or 'show muscles'
tibial nerve
innervates most posterior thigh muscles- which extend hip and flex knee, posterior leg muscles- which help with plantar flexion and flex toes, and muscles on the sole of the foot, test: does patient have trouble with extending hip, curling toes, flexing knee, or plantar flexion
ulnar nerve
innervates motor to 1 1/2 anterior forearm muscles- medial 1/2 of flexor digitorum profundus and flexor carpi ulnaris, also most intrinsic hand muscles- hypothenar muscles, lumbricals to fingers 4 and 5 and palmar + dorsal interossei, can injure if you hit your funny bone or if you break elbow test: flex forearm, abduct or adduct fingers, move pinky finger
median nerve
innervates motor to almost all anterior forearm muscles (flex wrist, fingers) thenar muscles, and lumbricals for fingers 2 and 3, may be damaged if someone tries to slit their wrists or if they have carpal tunnel syndrome test: lift wrist up or move thumb
somatic nervous system
innervates skeletal muscle and receives sensory info from the senses has CNS and PNS components, one neuron from spinal cord to muscle, sensory info received from environment- taste, touch, smell etc
axillary nerve
innervates the deltoid and trees minor, can be injured with use of crutches, which will result in lose of a lot of rotation of arm, test: have patient abduct arm
phrenic nerve
innervates the diaphragm, receives some axons from cervical plexus, formed from C3,4,5 (3,4, and 5 keeps the diaphragm alive)
gluteal nerves
innervates the gluteus Maximus, medius and minimus
radial nerve
innervates the posterior arm muscles triceps, extend elbow/forearm, innervates the posterior forearm muscles-extend wrist and or fingers, may be damaged if humerus is broken or with use of crutch, test: ask them to lift up hand, wrist drop is symptom
autonomic nervous system
innervates the viscera, influences smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands of skin and viscera, has CNS and PNS components, two neurons spinal cord to ganglion than another from their to organ, no sensory
lumen
inside opening of organ
when blood glucose levels are high
insulin is secreted by the pancreas which lowers blood sugar
largest organ in body
integument
Blood from the arcuate artery next travels to the
interlobular artery
Why would this be a beneficial way to send information (and not just a nerve impulse)?
it can be more regulated the effect can last longer has potential to interact with all cells in the body
functional layer
it will grow and develop during the ovarian cycle if a fertilized oocyte doesn't implant, this layer is shed during menstruation
articulations
joints a place where 2 or more bones meet
2 kinds of stratified squamous epithelia
keratinized and nonkeratinized
vitamin d synthesis
keratinocytes convert UV rays to vitamin D
urinary system
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
patellar
knee
vocal folds
l and r vocal folds attach from arytenoid to thyroid carriages, sound is produced when the cords vibrate against the pressure of air, more air being forced through the larynx the louder the sound
sciatic nerve
largest and longest nerve in the body splits into tibial nerve and common fibular nerve
monocytes
largest leukocytes, pale blue cytoplasm and a c-shaped or kidney-shaped nucleus function: fight off parasites and worms
muscular arteries
less elastic fibers than elastic arteries and more smooth muscle in the tunica media, ex: most "named" arteries, send blood to arterioles
lymphatic cells
leukocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes, these cells start immune response when exposed to antigens
synovial joints
ligaments support articulating bones bone ends separated by joint cavity
abdominopelvic cavity
lined by peritoneum (serous membrane) 1. parietal peritoneum 2. visceral peritoneum 3. peritoneal cavity
parietal peritoneum
lines abdominal wall
parietal layer
lines the internal surface of the body wall
conjunctiva
lining of the sclera and eyelid, mucous membrane, contains blood vessels
what organs have a lot of smooth ER?
liver and adrenal glands
alcohol tolerance
liver creates more smooth ER to process chronic excessive drinking
once the blood is processed, it leaves the
liver via hepatic veins and into the inferior vena cava
discharge of lochia
lochia=postpartum bleeding (similar to a period, but much heavier lasts 2-3 weeks (or even more for some) all of the uterine tissues (and blood stored within) that was built up to support the pregnancy must be broken down & expelled
sympathetic trunk
long chain of axons on either side of vertebral column
alveolar ducts
long tube-like passageways off of which alveoli come, SSE
ureters
long, thin, paired muscular tubes function: transport urine (via peristalsis) from kidney to urinary bladder
2 types of connective tissue
loose CT and dense CT
myometrium
middle layer THICKEST layer 3 layers of smooth muscle
arachnoid mater
middle layer of the meninges cushions brain & spinal cord w CSF
tunica media
middle layer, circularly arranged smooth muscle fibers, largest layer in arteries, sympathetic innervation typically causes vasoconstriction
differences between mitosis and meiosis
mitosis produces 2 cells containing 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) with identical daughter cells which are diploid meiosis produces 4 cells containing only 23 chromosomes with daughter cells that are genetically different than the parent cell. new cells are haploid (only 1 of each chromosome)
Proprioceptors
monitor the position and movement of skeletal muscles and joints
digestive system during pregnancy
morning sickness heartburn due to increased pressure on stomach constipation due to increased pressure on rectum
great variation during pregnancy
morning sickness weight gain length of pregnancy
illiocostalis
most lateral extend and laterally flex the vertebral column
neutrophils
most numerous of the leukocytes, cytoplasm has fine pale granules, nucleus is multi-lobed function: first responder, phagocytize invaders
anterior ramus
motor and sensory, innervates everything else from neck inferiorly also forms nerve plexuses
posterior (dorsal) ramus
motor and sensory, innervates skin of back and deep back muscles
fronal lobe contains:
motor speech area (Broca's area), the primary motor cortex, and other areas responsible for concentration, personality, decision making, etc.
femoral nerve
motor to anterior thigh muscles which help extend knee and flex hip, test: flex hip and extend knee
obturator nerve
motor to medial thigh muscles which function to adduct thigh test: push on inner thigh and have them resist you
tongue innervation
motor: CN XII: Hypoglossal sensory (texture): CN V: Trigeminal anterior taste: CN VII: Facial posterior taste: CN IX: Glossopharyngeal
oral
mouth
structures of the GI tract
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus
body (shaft)
moveable end 3 columns of erectile tissue -2 corpora cavernosa: tissue on top (dorsum) of penis -1 corpus spongiosum: erectile tissue underneath corpora cavernosa, contains spongy (penile) urethra
protraction
movement of a body part anteriorly
rotation
movement of a body part around its own longitudinal axis
eversion
movement of sole of foot outward or laterally
inversion
movement of the sole of the foot inward or medially
muscle
moves body or organ walls
lateral rectus
moves eye laterally (abducts) responsible for the majority of the lateral movement of the eye
medial rectus
moves eye medially (adducts) does the majority of the medial movement
retraction
moving a part backward
esophagus histology
mucosa: nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium muscularis: 2 layers of muscle 1. upper ⅓ skeletal muscle 2. middle ⅓ skeletal and smooth muscle 3. lower ⅓ smooth muscle only
deep back muscles of the vertebral column
muscle groups quadratus lumborum and erector spinae
tendons
muscle to bone
pharynx
muscular tube that connects nasal cavity and mouth, to larynx and esophagus functions: this skeletal muscle helps us "voluntarily" propel stuff from the mouth into the esophagus (voluntarily swallowing)
esophagus
muscular tube that connects pharynx to stomach function: propel food to the stomach
vagina
muscular tube that opens to the outside lies behind the bladder, and in front of rectum functions: 1) it is the copulatory organ of the female 2) it is a passageway for menstruation and/or a baby to leave the body
Each fiber (cell) is composed of ___, which is composed of ___ .
myofibrils; myofilaments (elongated proteins)
cervical region
neck
chemical synapse
nerve impulse is transmitted with the assistance of a chemical neurotransmitter
By the end of the third week, ____ fuse, forming a ____ .
neural folds; neural tube this forms the CNS tube closes distally, then proximally the tube is completely closed by the 4th week
microglia
neuroglial cell of the CNS ingests damaged neurons as well as foreign substances
ependymal cells
neuroglial cell of the CNS line central canal (contains spinal cord) and ventricles (contains brain and brain stem) ciliated to help circulate CSF
cerebral peduncles
of the midbrain groups of axons on the ventral (anterior) side of the brain
osteoarthritis
old age arthritis, younger people is due to repetitive use of joint/bones rub together
contralateral
on opposite side
external gross anatomy of kidney
on posterior abdominal wall right kidney more inferior than left because the liver is in the way
ipsilateral
on the same side
unicellular exocrine glands
one cell. ex: goblet cell secrete mucus
simple squamous epithelia
one layer flattened cells good for diffusion and filtration (pass through easily) example: lines alveoili, lumens of blood vessels (endothelium)
myelination procedure in CNS
one oligodendrocyte myelinates portions of many axons "octopus"
secondary bronchi
one to each lung lobe, cartilage plate
tertiary bronchi
one to each lung segment, little cartilage,
cricoid cartilage
only complete ring of cartilage around the trachea
pupil
opening in the iris, allows light in, dark hole
dilation
opening of the cervix os (lumen)
parts of the pharynx that conduct food and air
oropharynx and laryngopharynx
examples of irregular bones
os coxae, ethmoid, vertebra,
bone growth
ossification 2 kinds
3 types of bone cells
osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
compact bone is made of
osteons not in spongy bone
internal gross anatomy of kidney
outer cortex inner medulla contains renal columns and renal pyramids each renal pyramid drains urine into a minor calyx several minor calyces unite to form a major calyx major calyces drain into the renal pelvis, which connects to the ureter
pigmented layer
outer layer adjacent to choroid
auricle
outer mass of tissue, which collects sound waves and directs them into the auditory canal
layers of the dura mater
outer periosteal layer and inner meningeal layer
compact bone
outer shell of bone
parasympathetic nervous system
part of the autonomic nervous system (motor division of the PNS) maintains homeostasis
perimetrium
outermost layer -visceral peritoneum + areolar CT
serosa or adventitia
outermost layer serosa=visceral peritoneum and alveolar CT adventitia=areolar CT only
tunica externa
outermost layer, areolar CT and largest layer in veins
fibrous pericardium
outermost layer, dense CT function: prevents heart from overfilling, restricts movement
vestibule
oval central portion that contains the oval window which connects the stapes to the inner ear, contain the utricle and saccule
gonads (ovaries and testes)
ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone testes produce androgens (especially testosterone) will discuss in reproductive system lectures
oogenesis before birth (during fetal period)
ovary contains oogonia (oocyte "stem/parent cells") -oogonia contain 23 pairs of chromosomes primary oocytes are oogonia that start the process of meiosis -meiosis process is "arrested" at prophase I so before birth, the ovary will contain primarily primordial follicles (which have primary oocytes in them)
oogenesis during childhood
ovary inactive
When a person cries, tears spill onto the cheeks and the person gets a runny nose. Based on this info about the lacrimal apparatus, what is happening?
overflow of the lacrimal apparatus, more tears in your eyes then needed to cleanse the eye, lacrimal puncti can't collect them all, and nasolacrimal duct pours many more tears than normal into the nasal cavity where they mix with the mucus, resulting in the runny nose
sinuses
paired cavity/spaces within some of the skull ones that connect to nasal cavity, maxillary, ethmoid, sphenoid and frontal, function: warm and humidify air and resonance to voice (sinus does not form till puberty)
uterine (fallopian) tubes
paired tubes that attach to the uterus each uterine tube is close to (but not attached to) the ovary at the end of each tube are fimbriae functions: 1) to "pick up" secondary oocyte and transport it to uterus 2) site for fertilization of thee secondary oocyte
meiosis anaphase 1
pairs of homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends (still replicated/double stranded)
meiosis metaphase 1
pairs of homologous chromosomes form 2 lines in the middle of the cell
dermis layers
papillary and reticular
when blood calcium levels are low
parathyroid hormone is secreted by the parathyroid gland which raises blood calcium
sympathetic nervous system
part of the autonomic nervous system (motor division of the PNS) fight or flight response
erection
penis becomes "rigid" -more blood flow to penis, erectile tissue become engorged with blood -this is triggered by the parasympathetic nervous system
mechanical digestion
physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces
What epithelium lines the nasopharynx?
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
kinds of synovial joints
plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, ball&socket
deep group that plantar flexes the foot/ankle
popliteus, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, tibialis posterior
basilar membrane
portion closest to the oval window responds to the highest frequencies (high notes) and the portion furthest form the oval window responds to lower frequencies (low notes)
What do dorsal horns contain?
portions of axons of sensory neurons and portions of interneurons (association neurons)
Retinal tunic
posterior 3/4 of the eye contains the pigmented layer, neural layer, optic disc, macula lutea
sclera
posterior 5/6 of eye, whites of the eye, function: to provide shape to the eyeball and protect the inner parts
dorsal horns
posterior projections of the gray matter that contain primarily interneurons and the axons of sensory neurons
each spinal nerve splits into two branches
posterior ramps and anterior ramus
soft palate
posterior ⅓, formed from skeletal muscle uvula: rises to close off nasopharynx when we swallow
sympathetic pathway beginning
pre-synaptic axons exit through anterior roots than go to spinal nerve than to white rami than to sympathetic trunk and at this point there are three options
secondary follicle
primary oocyte + follicle cells + antrum (fluid-filled space)
primordial follicle
primary oocyte surround by a single layer of flattened (squamous) follicle cells
primary follicle
primary oocyte surrounded by one or more layers of cuboidal follicle cells
gonads
primary sex organs testes in the male, ovaries in the female function: 1) produce gametes (sex cells): sperm or oocytes 2) produce sex hormones
chemical digestion
process by which enzymes break down food into small molecules that the body can use
crossing over
process by which genetic material is exchanged between homologous chromosomes (prophase 1) only occurs meiosis
digestion
process of breaking down food into small fragments 1. mechanical 2. chemical
ovulation
process where a secondary oocyte is expelled from the ovary
blood from hepatic portal vein is
processed by the liver cells (hepatocytes)
liver
processes products of digestion alcohol tolerance
B lymphocytes (B cells)
produce antibodies
lacrimal apparatus
produces and collects tears
lactation
production of breastmilk by mammary glands 1) increased levels of prolactin=milk production 2) when baby suckles, posterior pituitary is stimulated to secrete oxytocin this causes contraction/shrinkage of the uterus
microvilli
projections that increase the cell's surface area
Pronator teres
pronates forearm
enzymes
proteins that act as biological catalysts
genioglossus
protracts the tongue
SRY gene
region of Y chromosome initiates a cascade of genes to become male
iris function
regulate the amount of light entering eye (by enlarging (dilating) or narrowing (constricting))
T lymphocytes (T cells)
regulates immune response, activates b-lymphocytes
adrenal cortex
releases corticosteroids in response to ACTH 1. one group of these steroids: controls balance of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions in body fluids 2. another (2nd) group of steroids stimulates metabolism of glucose 3. another (3rd) group of these steroids: secretes small amounts of androgens (male sex hormones) -in females, some androgens are converted to estrogen SALT, SUGAR, SEX
filtration
removal from the blood
meiosis metaphase 2
replicated chromosomes line up in middle
meiosis prophase 2
replicated chromosomes line up in middle
pelvic houses...
reproductive organs and bladder
functions of the respiratory system
respiration/gas exchange, filters air, warms and humidifies inspired air, phonation and olfaction
neuron
respond to stimuli and conduct electrical impulses
cell body
responsible for nutrition, growth, and repair of neuron contains: cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus
spiral organ (organ of corti)
rests on basilar membrane and contains hair cells which have stereo cilia that touch the tectorial membrane
secretory glands are found in
reticular layer of dermis
olfactory nerve (CN I)
sensory axons only, function: allows smelling sensation, olfactory nerves synapse in olfactory bulb which connect to the olfactory tracts, test: smell
vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
sensory axons only, function: hearing and equilibrium/balance, test: hearing loss, balance test stand on leg or push lightly with eyes closed, experiencing vertigo, lack of balance, dizziness or nausea/vomiting
optic nerve (CN II)
sensory axons only, function: vision, optic nerve travels to optic chasm some axons from L and R, optic nerve crosses here optic tracts: carry info from both eyes to one side of the brain, test: vision
All ___ have the ability to respond to a stimulus and initiate sensory input to the CNS
sensory receptors
central sulcus
separates frontal and parietal lobes
pleura
serous membrane secreting serous fluid
sperm production
sex cells (gametes) created by MEIOSIS end result of meiosis: 4 cells produced, each with 23 chromosomes only 1) spermatogonia 2) primary spermatocytes 3) secondary spermatocytes 4) spermatids 5) sperm (spermatozoa)
meiosis
sex cells (sperm and oocytes)
mitosis
somatic cells interphase prophase metaphase anaphase telophase
accessory nerve (CN XI)
somatic motor axons only, function: innervation of trapezius and sternocleidomastoid test: shrug shoulders, turn head
deltoid
shoulder
similarities and differences between cranial and spinal nerves
similarities: both in PNS and connected to CNS differences: spinal nerves are connected to spinal cord not brain, use arabic #'s to name not Roman numerals, and spinal nerves are generally longer (except vagus)
classification by layers for epithelia
simple and stratified
epithelium of stomach to anal canal mucosa
simple columnar epithelium
urethra
single muscular tube running from bladder to exterior of body function: expels urine from body urethra pierces a group of skeletal muscles called thee urogenital diaphragm -some of the skeletal muscle fibers thicken and form an external urethral sphincter (around urethra) -voluntary sphincter controlled by pudendal nerve
Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neuron
single process comes off of the cell body and divides into two branches
multipolar neuron
single processes comes off cell body; several dendrites off cell body MOST COMMON
prostate gland
single, chestnut-shaped organ -inferior to bladder -contains the 1st part of the urethra (prostatic urethra)
gross anatomy of uterus
single, pear-shaped organ, in pelvic cavity cervix: the inferior, constricted part of the uterus -projects into the vagina
meiosis anaphase 2
sister chromatids pulled apart to opposite ends and become single stranded
tongue
skeletal muscle covered with stratified squamous epithelium functions: perceive taste, mechanical digestion
integument
skin (cutaneous membrane)
integumentary system
skin, exocrine glands in skin/hair/nails
amphiarthrosis
slightly moveable
most absorption of nutrients occurs in the
small intestine
lymphatic capillaries
smallest lymph vessels, intertwined with blood capillaries, wall composed of endothelium
alveoli
smallest units of respiratory system, SSE
plantar
sole of foot
trochlear nerve (CN IV)
somatic axons only, function: moves superior oblique muscle, test: double vision/diplopia
lacunae
spaces where osteocytes reside
Bony labryinth of inner ear
spaces/cavities inside the temporal bone, include the vestibule, semicircular canals and cochlea
dermatomes
specific areas that are the sensory components of nerves and it is mapped out
sperm (spermatozoa)
sperm will "shed" the cytoplasm from the spermatid, and develop: 1) head: contains DNA (nucleus) -on head is an acrosome cap (enzymes) 2) midpiece (mitochondria) 3) tail (flagellum) sperm are then released from the sustentacular cell cytoplasm, and enter the lumen of the seminiferous tubule
cochlea
spiral chamber that contains the cochlear duct Scala media, Scala tympani and other membranes
prevertebral ganglia
splanchnic nerves synapse here
epiglottis
spoon-shaped cartilage at top of larynx, function: it closes off larynx when we swallow food
classified by cell shape epithelia
squamous, cuboidal, columnar
dilation stage
start of regular contractions-fully dilated cervix (typically 6-12 hrs) 1) early labor 2) active labor
how does meiosis start?
start off with one cell that has 23 pairs of chromosomes one set of chromosomes came from mom and the other from dad
spermatogonia
start off with these each contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (total: 46 chromosomes-diploid) divide by mitosis and produce primary spermatocytes
infrahyoid muscles
sternohyoid, omohyoid, sternothyroid, thyrohyoid
cholesterol
strengthens cells
Interoceptors = Visceroceptors
stretch receptors in smooth muscle of blood vessels and hollow organs; some monitor chemicals, temperature, and relay pain info
2 ways to classify joints
structure and movement
histology
study of tissues
common fibular nerve splits into
superficial fibular nerve and deep fibular nerve
stratified squamous epithelium
superficial layers of cells are flattened and deeper layers are cuboidal for protection
corpa quadrigemina (4) of the midbrain is divided into:
superior colliculi (2)- visual reflex centers for coordinating head movement with what the eye is seeing inferior colliculi (2)- auditory reflex center
elevation
superior movement
nasal cavity projections
superior, middle and inferior nasal concha, function: increase air turbulence in nasal cavity, so foreign particles are more likely to get trapped in mucus
rotations of forearm
supination and pronation
dorsum
surface of foot
myringotomy
surgical procedure to put "tubes" into the tympanic membrane to help drain fluid in the middle ear for those that have chronic ear infections
plasma/cell membrane
surrounds cell and gives it form
fibrous joints types
suture, syndesmosis, and gomphosis
sympathetic pathway 1
synapse in sympathetic trunk and leave through the gray ramus to the spinal nerves out to skin and blood vessels
sympathetic pathway 2
synapse in the sympathetic trunk and leave anteriorly to go to thoracic organs
arteries
take blood away from the heart and to other tissues, they transport blood high in O2 except pulmonary arteries, has thicker walls than veins, smaller lumen than veins, retains circular shape and BP is higher in arteries
veins
take blood to the heart, transport blood low in O2 and high in CO2, except pulmonary veins, walls are thinner and collapsible compared to arteries, lumen is generally much larger than arteries and BP is lower in veins
motor (efferent) neurons
take information FROM CNS to other parts of the body always multipolar
asthma
takes place at the bronchiole level, smooth muscle is inflamed and constricted, also mucus is thickened, air is trapped in alveoli and since bronchioles don't have cartilage nothing keeps them open so you can breathe
columnar
taller than wide
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
target: adrenal cortex function: stimulates adrenal cortex to release its hormones
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
target: kidneys (and blood vessels) function: inhibits urine formation/production
prolactin (PRL)
target: mammary glands function: stimulates breastmilk production
growth hormone (GH)
target: most body cells, but especially bone & skeletal muscle function: stimulates growth
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
target: ovaries/testes
luteinizing hormone (LH)
target: ovaries/testes
oxytocin (OT)
target: reproductive organs function: stimulate smooth muscle contraction in reproductive organs (esp. uterine) function: stimulate breastmilk release
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
target: thyroid gland function: stimulates thyroid to produce/release its own hormones
examples of short bones
tarsal, carpal
subcutaneous layer
technically not a part of integument -stores fat and anchors integument to underlying tissue -areolar and adipose connective tissue
What does the prosencephalon divide into?
telencephalon (will contain the cerebrum) diencephalon (will contain the epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus)
abducts thigh
tensor fasciae latae which connects to the iliotibial tract
last of the conducting portion
terminal bronchioles
external anatomy of testes
testes suspended in scrotum function of scrotum: to keep testes in a cooler external environment (3 degrees C cooler than internal body temp), to allow for normal sperm production a spermatic cord runs from each testis into the abdomen -contains blood vessels, nerves, and the ductus (vas) deferens
3 parts of the Dicephalon
thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus note: also contains the 3rd ventricle
common bile duct opens into duodenum at
the (major) duodenal papilla -here, bile and pancreatic juices are secreted
respiratory membrane
the SSE of the alveolus and the SSE of t a pulmonary capillary
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that contains some CN's (Cn III, VII, IX and X) and parts of sacral spinal cord (S2-S4), it maintains a homeostatic environment, rest and digest response, usually discrete and localized activity
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that originates in lateral horns of T1-L2 and is responsible for the fight or flight response and mass activation effect
Which primary germ layer is the nervous system formed from?
the ectoderm
conductive system of the heart
the heart is autorhythmic and is added by sinoatrial node
in females, at puberty
the hypothalamus secretes hormones to the anterior pituitary anterior pituitary releases FSH and LH which act on ovaries (and testes) these hormones then start gamete maturation and increased sex hormone production by the gonads
the illiacus and psoas major are collectively referred to as ___.
the illiopsoas
the brain stem consists of ___
the mesencephalon, the pons, and the medulla oblongata (pons and medulla are part of the metencephalon)
axons
the pons is chiefly composed of ___.
What do the alar plates of the mesencephalon become?
the posterior (dorsal) horns posterior 1/2 of the gray comissure
primary visual cortex (of the occipital lobe)
the region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual system
corpus luteum
the ruptured follicle that underwent ovulation -yellowish -function: secrete estrogen and progesterone (which helps uterus to develop)
primary motor cortex
the section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement in precentral gyrus
Describe the general microscopic layers of a skeletal muscle
the skeletal muscle is composed of fascicles, which are groups of muscle fibers. Each muscle fiber has a plasma membrane (sarcolemma) and cellular organelles like lysosomes ribosomes, and a sarcoplasmic reticulum Each muscle fiber is also composed of myofilaments (elongated proteins), which have a cytoplasmic fluid in between them called the sarcoplasm myofilaments are composed of either actin or myosin protein
What classifies as the CNS?
the spinal cord and brain
two kinds of myofilaments
thick myofilaments: contain myosin thin myofilaments: contain actin
dura mater
thick, outermost layer of the meninges surrounding and protecting the brain and spinal cord
femoral
thigh
varying thickness of skin
thin and thick
epicardium
thin serous membrane and some fat it is the visceral layer, contains fibrous and serous pericardium
pia mater
thin, delicate inner membrane of the meninges
effacement
thinning of the cervix
which nerves form plexuses?
thoracic nerves do not form plexuses, they remain as individual nerves spinal nerves form plexuses
thorax
thoracic region
semicircular canals
three canals within the inner ear that contain the semicircular ducts
trisomy
three sets instead of 2
dorsiflex the foot/ankle
tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus
Canaliculi
tiny channels that radiate from lacunae; nutrients/waste exchanged between osteocyte and central canal
ciliary body tension and vision
to get far vision ciliary body tenses up and near vision ciliary body relaxes
why do lymphatic capillaries have one way flaps?
to push the blood away from limbs and allow it so it won't pool at your feet
medial and lateral pterygoids
together they elevate, protract the mandible; alone they can move the mandible side to side
medial
toward midline
rostral
toward the nose/mouth
mucosa of ureter
transitional epithelium
mucosa of urinary bladder
transitional epithelium
tubular secretion
transport of additional things the body does NOT want -from blood into tube
sympathetic postganglionic axons
travel directly to target organ
interlobar arteries
travel in the renal columns
extensors of the forearm/elbow joint
triceps brachii, anconeus
lateral flexion
trunk of body moves in coronal plane laterally, away from body
blood vessel layers
tunica externa, tunica media, tunica intima
arterioles
tunica media has 6 or fewer layers of smooth muscle, they send blood to capillaries
labia majora
two elongated, skin folds between legs-covered with pubic hair -homologous to male scrotum
Thalamus
two masses centrally located: functions as a relay point and processing center for all sensory impulses going to the cerebral cortex (except smell)
bipolar neuron
two processes off of the cell body; one axon and one dendrite
labia minora
two thin, hairless skin folds between the labia minora are 1) urethral orifice (opening) 2) vaginal orifice (opening) 3) openings for the greater vestibular glands 4) clitoris
somatic sensory input
type of sensory division of the PNS; sends information from receptors to CNS includes 5 senses as well as balance and temperature also information from the skeletal muscles (proprioception = sense of body position)
visceral sensory input
type of sensory division of the PNS; sends information from receptors to CNS receives information from the internal organs (stretching, pain; chemical composition of blood)
muscularis
typically contains two layers of smooth muscle 1. inner circular layer 2. outer longitudinal layer exception: stomach has 3 layers responsible for peristalsis: alternate waves of contraction and relaxation
leukocytes
typically larger than erythrocytes, they are diapedesis (they can slip out of capillary blood vessels) and there are many different types: (most to least common) neutrophils lymphocytes monocytes eosinophils basophils function: help the body fight disease
gallbladder
underneath liver function: it stores bile secreted by liver
meiosis telophase 2
up to 4 new haploid daughter cells, each with 23 single stranded chromosomes (each with only 1 chromatid) these 4 cells are gametes
brachium
upper arm
continuous with mesencephalic (cerebral) aqueduct (part of the pons)
upper part of the fourth ventricle
liver
upper right part of abdomen functions: 1) produces and secretes bile (an agent that helps with fat/lipid digestion) 2) it processes the products of digestion (including ingested alcohol and drugs)
urinary tract
ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
process of releasing urine
urination or micturition
female accessory reproductive organs
uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, mammary glands
thyroid cartilage
v shaped with the laryngeal prominence (men's are bigger)
vagus and heart
vagus brings parasympathetic info to the heart
elastic arteries
vessel wall contains large amounts of elastic protein fibers, largest of arteries, ex: aorta, common carotid and common iliac, they send blood to muscular arteries
on the circular folds of mucosa and submucosa
villi folds of mucosa only function: help increase surface area (along with the microvillous border) and provide a greater distance for materials to be absorbed in the center of each villus are blood vessels and a lacteal 1. lymphatic capillary function: absorb lipids (fats) and lipid-soluble vitamins (ADEK)
general histology of the GI tract (esophagus to large intestine)
wall contains 4 layers or tunics 1. mucosa 2. submucosa 3. muscularis 4. serosa or adventitia
Why does the blood need to be filtered?
waste products, pH levels LIFE SUSTAINING
absorption
water and food molecules pass through to GI lymphatics and blood vessels most nutrients absorbed in blood vessels -lacteals
secrete saliva
water, mucus, amylase (an enzyme that a digests carbohydrates), lysozyme (antibacterial agent), antibodies
target
what cells respond to it
goblet cells
white ovals secrete mucus for lubrication example: lines most of GI tract
inner ear
within the temporal bone contains the bony and membranous labyrinths
middle ear
within the temporal bone, lateral border is eardrum and medial border is oval and round windows of inner ear, it contains auditory ossicles and eustachian tube
where does the spinal cord rest?
within the vertebral canal
carpal
wrist