Anatomy Cummulative exam

what composes the plantar side (sole) of the foot?

4 layers of flexors, abductors, & adductors of toes

parathyroid glands

4 tiny oval masses on posterior thyroid parathyroid hormone (PTH)

What fluid-filled spaces does the neural tube contain?

4 ventricles mesencephalic (cerebral) aqueduct (in midbrain) central canal (out foramen magnum)

platysma

Draws down the lower lip and angles of the mouth; tenses skin of the neck; helps depress mandible

layers of cranial meninges

Dura matter (outermost) Arachnoid (middle) Pia matter (innermost)

function

HOW do they respond to it (what helps when those cells come in contact with the hormone0?

regulation of the testes

FSH to sustentacular cells (via Androgen-binding protein) facilitates sperm production LH to interstitial cells-increases testosterone

arytenoid cartilages

Pyramid-like cartilaginous structures that form the posterior attachment of the vocal cords.

Interneurons (association neurons)

allows for communication between neurons within the CNS always multipolar

Clinical correlate: laser vision correction

a laser removes some cells from the middle part of the cornea to change its shape (make it less curved, etc) so that it can retract light differently and people can focus better

high regenerative capacity

a lot of mitosis exposed to free surface (damage)

cerebral aqueduct

a narrow tube interconnecting the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, located in the center of the mesencephalon (midbrain)

biliary apparatus

a network of "tubes" that transport bile and pancreatic juices TO the duodenum

formed elements

accounts for 45% of blood and includes erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets

those that adduct the thigh/hip

adductors (loungus, brevis, magnus) pectineus gracilis

parietal layer

adheres to fibrous pericardium

visceral layer

adheres to heart wall (epicardium)

Posterior bulging of the neural tube form the ____ .

alar plates

endocrine system

all endocrine glands in the body overseen by hypothalamus

hamstring mucles & function

all extend the thigh and flex the leg

hamstring mucles & function

all extend the thigh and flex the leg semimembranosus- most medial (but lateral to the gracilis) semitendinosus- middle biceps femoris- most lateral

placement of heart

left side of thorax behind the sternum and L ribs

spleen

largest lymphatic organ, located in upper left abdomen behind stomach, it filters blood NOT lymph, it has two parts red and white pulp

endolymph

low Na+, high K+ similar to intracellular fluid

Lymph vessels

low pressure system (like veins) from smallest to largest it goes capillaries- vessels- trunks- ducts

venues and veins

low pressure, going back to the heart, tunica externa is the thickest layer

insulin

lowers blood sugar (glucose) levels enhances cells to pick up glucose helps covert some glucose into glycogen (a carbohydrate)

pleaural cavities

lungs

lacteals

lymphatic capillaries in SI, function: carry some interstitial fluid, carry dietary fats and vitamins

lacteals

lymphatic capillaries in small intestine absorb lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins

white pulp

lymphocytes (b and T cells) are there, function: carry out immune response when antigens are found in blood

Tay sachs disease

lysosomal enzymes missing or disfunctional build up of waste in cells (ex: nerve cells) leads to nervous system deterioration

conducting portion

conducts and transfers air, no gas exchange, includes: nose and paranasal sinuses, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles to the terminal branchioles

axon

conducts impulses away from the cell body

superior oblique

depresses eye and moves eye laterally (down and out motion, looking at the ground and out)

inferior rectus

depresses eye and turns it medially

sternohyoid

depresses hyoid

thyrohyoid

depresses hyoid bone and elevates larynx

sternothyroid

depresses thyroid cartilage

tympanic membrane

eardrum, it moves/vibrates the auditory ossicles, when sounds vibrate it

mitochondria

make ATP (adenosine triphosphate) contains own DNA powerhouse of the cell

free ribosomes

make protein for the cell itself

attached ribosomes

make proteins for plasma membrane or exported out of cell

early development

early on -indifferent (primitive) gnonad -indifferent genitalia -primitive male & female ducts SRY gene primitive gonads

types of arteries

elastic, muscular, arterioles

massester

elevates and protracts mandible

stylohyoid

elevates and retracts hyoid bone

Temporails

elevates and retracts the mandible

inferior oblique

elevates eye and moves eye laterally (up and out, looking up and on and angle out)

superior rectus

elevates eye and moves eye medially (adducts the eye)

Digastric

elevates hyoid and depresses mandible

geniohyoid

elevates hyoid bone and depresses mandible

mylohyoid

elevates hyoid bone and floor of mouth

Scalenes

elevates ribs during forced inhalation

external intercostals

elevates ribs during inspiration used for forced & quiet inhalation

body cavity

enclosed spaces within the body

placental stage

end of birth-delivery of placenta -generally 5-30 minute after delivery of baby -placenta sometimes called "afterbirth"

Layers of the heart

endocardium, myocardium, epicardium

cranial

endocranium/houses brain

endocardium

endothelium covering a CT layer, lines the inside of the heart and covers its valves

parietal lobe

ends at the central sulcus, lateral sulcus, and parieto-occipital sulcus

glans

enlarged tip of penis has corpus spongiosum only -covered with prepuce (foreskin)

4 kinds of tissue

epithelium, connective, muscle, nervous

serous pericardium

folds back on itself to create two specific layers: parietal and visceral layer, function: secretes serous fluid for lubrication

pedal

foot

plantar flexion

foot and toes moved closer to posterior surface of leg (tip toes)

antebrachium

forearm

frontal

forehead

ossification definition and 2 kinds

formation/growth of bone tissue intramembraneous and endochondrial

exocrine glands

formed from epithelia- secrete materials onto free surface

lymphatic trunks

formed from merging vessels and lead to lymphatic ducts

arcuate arteries

found at the cortex-medulla junction

lymph nodes

found in clusters, there are hundreds, connect with lymphatic vessels and filter lymph

basophils

make up less than 1% of all leukocytes, cytoplasm has granules that stain blue/ purple, bilobed nucleus function: allergic response (histamine)

Nucleolus

makes the parts for ribosomes not all cells have nucleolus- only cells with high protein synthesis rates (ex: motor neurons and muscle cells)

hand

manus

muscles of mastication

masseter, temporalis, medial and lateral pterygoid muscles

osteocytes

mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix

varicose veins

may occur when the valves become incompetent

pronation

medial rotation of forearm (palm down)

clinical correlate: detached retina

fluid collects between the pigmented and neural layer of the retina (cutting off the photoreceptors from their blood supply and source of Vitamin A) they immediately can't see

cytosol

fluid portion

aqueous humor

fluid similar to the CSF, which supplies nutrients, removes waste from cornea and lens, produced in anterior cavity of the eye continually and replaced

capillary level

fluids pushed out of vessels and into the tissues, interstitial fluid- fluid within tissues, venules pick up most but not ALL of this fluid

distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

last segment of the nephron function: to resorb materials and water in the filtrate -resorbed material is sent to the blood in the peritubular capillaries

supination

lateral rotation of the forearm (palm up)

macula lutea

lateral to optic disc, contains fovea centralis

cell cycles

meiosis and mitosis

oval window

membrane that covers the opening between the middle ear and inner ear where sound waves are transmitted to the inner ear, directs sound through Scala vestibule

membranous labyrinth

membranous sacs/tubes that rest inside the bony labyrinths within there is endolymph that helps conduct sound vibrations and indirectly helps in detecting changes in position/balance

3 kinds of multicellular exocrine glands

merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine

cerebellum is part of the ___

mesencephalon

What does the rhombencephalon divide into?

metencephalon (will contain the cerebellum and pons) myelencephalon (will contain the medulla oblongata)

some plasma membranes have...

microvilli and cilia

sympathetic pathway 3

some preganglionic axons leave the sympathetic trunk as splanchnic nerves go to prevertebral ganglia to synapse before heading to abdominal organs (these do NOT synapse in sympathetic trunk)

oligodendrocytes

neuroglial cell of the CNS myelinate axons (speeds up impulses)

astrocytes

neuroglial cell of the CNS regulates transfer of nutrients from the blood to the brain; helps form the "blood-brain barrier"

Satellite cells

neuroglial cell of the PNS surround neuron cell bodies in spinal ganglia regulates nutrient exchange and waste removal (similar to astrocytes of the CNS)

neuroglial cells of the PNS

neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells) and satellite cells

bronchioles

no cartilage only smooth muscle

smooth ER

no ribosomes synthesizes lipids (especially steroid hormones)b detoxifies drugs and alcohol

Can neurolemmocytes contact each other?

no, neurolemmocytes are separated by neurofibril nodes (nodes of Ranvier) which allows electrical impulses to "skip" along the axon

epithelium of esophagus mucosa

nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium

What epithelium lines the oropharynx and laryngopharynx?

nonkertinized stratified squamous epithelium

nasal

nose

pleurisy

not as much serous fluid, so the friction is terrible which causes lungs to stick to thoracic wall is rip away when you exhale, sharp chest pain is felt

lymphatic structures

not organs and not surrounded by CT capsules, they consist of CT containing lots of lymphatic cells, ex: tonsils, MALT and lymphatic nodules

accessory digestive organs

not part of the GI tract but assist with digestion 1. tongue 2. teeth 3. salivary glands 4. liver 5. gallbladder 6. pancreas

male urethra

not so distensible longer carries both urine and semen

penis

part of the external genitalia two main functions: 1) excrete urine 2) deliver sperm to female reproductive tract 3 parts: a) root b) body (shaft) c) glans -erection -ejaculation

autonomic (involuntary) nervous system

part of the motor (efferent) division of the PNS; transmits information away from CNS to receptors carries nerve impulses back and forth from the CNS to the motor neurons in the cardiac & smooth muscles, as well as all glands

somatic (voluntary) nervous system

part of the motor (efferent) division of the PNS; transmits information away from CNS to receptors carries nerve impulses back and forth from the CNS to the motor neurons in the skeletal muscle

those that extend the leg/knee

quadriceps femoris

glucagon

raises blood sugar levels breaks down glycogen into glucose

primary auditory cortex (of the temporal lobe)

receives and processes auditory information

renal artery

receives arterial blood from aorta

left ventricle

receives from: left atrium sends to: aorta through: aortic semilunar valve

left atrium

receives from: pulmonary veins sends to: left ventricle through: left atrioventricular valve

right ventricle

receives from: right atrium sends to: pulmonary trunk through: pulmonary semilunar valve also includes: 3 papillary muscles with chordae tendinae

right atrium

receives from: superior and inferior vena cavae sends to: right ventricle through: right atrioventricular valve

thoracic duct

receives lymph from the left side of the head, neck, chest, abdomen, left arm, and lower extremities, drains into left subclavian vein

right lymphatic duct

receives lymph from: right side of head neck and thorax, right upper limb drains into right subclavian vein

tubular reabsorption

recovery of things that the body still needs -from the tube into the blood

vascular tunic

second layer of the eye, contains the choroid, ciliary body and iris

vesicular follicle

secondary oocyte + follicle cells + very LARGE antrum

multicellular exocrine glands

secrete materials through duct 3 kinds

acinar cells

secrete pancreatic juice-enzymes and alkaline fluid pancreatic juice leaves via pancreatic duct

endocrine gland

secretes hormones into the bloodstream

function of conjunctiva

secretes mucus as a lubricant for the eye and eyelids

simple columnar epithelia

secretion and absorption microvilli form a brush border on apical surface goblet cells

zygomaticus major

retracts and elevates corner of mouth smiling

styloglossus

retracts and elevates the tongue orgins in the styloid process

examples of flat bones

ribs, sternum, occipital, parietal, frontal, occipital

gross anatomy of liver

right lobe, left lobe, quadrate lobe, caudate lobe

lymphatic ducts

right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct

ciliary body

ring of smooth muscle attached to lens via suspensory ligaments

circumferential lamellae

rings of bone that run the entire circumference of the shaft periosteum creates these

photoreceptors

rods: low light, allow you to see black and white; cones: require more light, help to see color

gomphosis

root of tooth attached tosocket of jaw by peridontal membrane -synarthrosis

veins more info

run back to the heart, formed when venules unite, most have valves to prevent blood back flow, muscular pumps also help push blood in veins to the heart

white rami

runs from spinal nerve to sympathetic trunk

gray rami

runs from the sympathetic trunk TO a spinal nerve

proteins

scattered in membrane, some bound and some float

hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)

somatic motor axons only, function: supplies intrinsic tongue muscles and most extrinsic tongue muscles test: stick out tongue (tongue deviates to one side if one nerve is damaged)

abducens nerve (CN VI)

somatic motor axons only, eye abduction lateral rectus eye muscle innervation, test: diplopia, have patient move eye laterally

primary spermatocytes

still 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes-diploid) these cells divide by MEIOSIS when they finish the 1st meiotic division they form secondary spermatocytes

thyroid hormone (TH)

stimulated by TSH produced by follicle cells target: virtually all cells of the body function: increase metabolism (& thus, heat production)

calcitonin

stimulated by high calcium levels in blood produced by parafollicular cells target: bone-encourages deposition of calcium from bloodstream into bone tissue so it lowers blood calcium levels

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

stimulated by low levels of calcium in blood target: bone-encourages uptake of calcium into bloodstream from bone so it raises blood calcium levels

adrenal medulla

stimulated by sympathetic nervous system secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

prolactin

stimulates milk production

stapes

stirrup; last of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear, connects with oval window of the inner ear

reflux esophagitis

stomach contents reflux (back flow) into esophagus, causing burning pain risk factors: overweight, smoking, large meals before bedtime

What is the purpose of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in a muscle fiber?

stores and releases Ca2+

auditory association area (of the temporal lobe)

stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sounds

different joint movement

synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, and diarthrosis

T lymphocytes

t-cells, mature in thymus, function: manage and direct an immune response and activate b-cells

What do the basal plates give rise to?

the anterior (ventral) horns lateral horns anterior 1/2 of gray comissure

left & right; vermis

the cerebellum has ___ and ____ hemispheres, connected by the ____.

basal layer

the deeper layer adjacent to the myometrium -this is a permanent layer

digestive system is controlled by the

autonomic nervous system 1. parasympathetic 2. sympathetic

hypothalamus

autonomic nervous system control center: blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, digestive activity, etc. center for emotional expression & behavior

fibrous tunic

avascular, has two parts: sclera and cornea

lateral

away from midline

posterior pituitary

axons from hypothalamus cells stores two hormones produced by hypothalamus 1. oxytocin (OT) 2. antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

anterior root

axons from motor neurons, cell bodies live in anterior horn

posterior (dorsal) root

axons from sensory neurons, cell bodies live in posterior root ganglion

B-lymphocytes

b-cells, mature in red bone marrow, function: secrete antibodies (attach to antigens and immobilize them)

dorsum

back of hand

occipital

back of head

popliteal

back of knee

renal vein

back to inferior vena cava

dorsal

backside/posterior

Anterior bulging of the neural tube form the ____ .

basal plates

why does the epithelial lining change from PCCE to SSE in smokers?

because SSE is tougher and more protective, but this is bad because there is no cilia now which means that it can't help move things like mucus, so "smoker's cough" begins so to help them clear their throat

Why is the left ventricle thicker than the right?

because it has to pump blood to the whole body right only has to pump blood to the lungs

Why does the ANS use two motor neurons?

because it is involuntary and ANS has a limited number of resources- neurons- so by using this two neuron chain, info is able to congregate and separate efficiently

transitional epithelia

found in most of urinary tract some cells are binucleated withstands distention (stretching) and relaxing of bladder protective function superficial cells are rounded when bladder is empty and flattened when distended

apical surface

free surface/exposed to outside environment

diarthrosis

freely moveable

urinary system during pregnancy

frequent urination due to pushing on the bladder

arterial supply

from branches of 1. celiac trunk 2. superior mesenteric artery 3. inferior mesenteric artery

antecubital

front of elbow

palmar

front of hand

ventral

front side/anterior

frontal and occipital bellies of the occipitofrontalis

frontal- raises eyebrows occipital- draws scalp posteriorly

expulsion stage

fully dilated - birth of baby ("pushing stage") may take hours to minutes

accessory reproductive glands

function of these glands: to produce a nutritive, alkaline fluid (seminal fluid) for the sperm sperm+seminal fluid-semen 1) seminal vesicles 2) prostate gland 3) bulbourethral glands

testis (plural: testes, testicles)

function: 1) to produce sperm 2) to produce androgens (male sex hormones) -of the androgens, testosterone is the principal sex hormone a) external anatomy b) internal anatomy

tonsils

function: can attack/destroy antigens before they get too far down the GI tract or respiratory tract

Sweat (sudoriferous) glands

function: excrete wastes (urea/sodium) and releases perspiration to cool body

uterus

function: site for implantation and development of the fertilized oocyte (soon to become an embryo and a fetus) -when a fertilized oocyte doesn't implant, it is the site of menstruation (shedding of part of the uterine wall) 1) gross anatomy 2) microscopic anatomy

proximal convoluted tube (PCT)

function: to resorb "the good stuff" from the filtrate -resorbed material is sent to the blood in the peritubular capillaries then the filtrate passes into the nephron loop

nephron loop (loop of Henle)

function: to resorb more materials and water in the filtrate -resorbed material is sent to the blood in the vasa recta remaining filtrate then travels to the DCT

urinary bladder

function: urine reservoir (muscular storage sac for urine) its shape changes as it fills -empty: upside-down pyramid, in true pelvis (adults) -full: oval, bulging into abdominal cavity neck of the bladder=narrow base of bladder

synapses

functional connection between a neuron and a second cell at synapses, nerve impulses from the presynaptic cell are transmitted to the postsynaptic cell

nephron

functional filtration union of the kidney function: filters blood and then modifies this "filtrate"

this uterine layer is "shed" during menstruation

functional layer of endometrium

placenta

functions: 1) hormones hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) estrogens progesterone 2) gas/nutrient exchange

ovary

functions: 1) to produce oocytes (eggs)-the female gametes 2) to produce female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone) a) external anatomy b) internal anatomy

large intestine

functions: 1. absorption of water and electrolytes 2. storage of undigested material (feces) until it can be expelled from the body

small intestine

functions: finish the chemical digestion process absorbs most (90% of all nutrients)

lysosomes

garbage men of cell contain digestive enzymes

respiratory portion

gas exchange occurs here, includes: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli and alveolar ducts

peritubular capillaries or vasa recta

gas/nutrient exchange (b/t kidney tissues and the blood) occurs here

otitis media

inflammation of the middle ear, may occur after a respiratory infection: 1. infection spreads via Eustachian tube 2. pain and pressure in middle ear: fluid/pus fills middle ear, eardrum bulges 3. can rupture tympanic membrane

deep

internal to structure

visual association area

interprets activity in visual cortex

lymph

interstitial fluid picked up by the lymphatic system, allows blood to flow smoothly

in joints, theres an ___________ relationship between mobility and stability

inverse the more mobile a joint, the less stable it is

peristalsis

involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system

centrioles

involved in cell division DNA forms chromosomes only when cell is dividing (otherwise its chromatin)

ribosomes

involved in protein synthesis 2 kinds: free or attached

blood

is a connective tissue composed of ground substance and formed elements

ground substance

is plasma which accounts for 55% of blood

low pitch

is produced when the cretinoid cartilage is loose and so the vocal folds are relaxed and so the air goes through them and a low pitch is produced

rough ER

has ribosomes synthesizes and distributes proteins

left lung

has two lobes: superior and inferior and one fissure: oblique

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelia

have cilia which look like individual hairs

left and right pulmonary bronchi

have irregular plates of cartilage

lymphatic vessels

have three layers (like veins), have valves, they take lymph to and from lymph nodes

cephalic

head

pericardial

heart

heart size and shape

heart is a muscular pump, about size of clenched fist, apex is pointed left and down and base is upward border of heart

vitreous humor

helps maintain shape of eye and keep retina against choroid, NOT continually produced

venous drainage

hepatic portal system: veins that drain blood from GI tract directly TO liver 4 main veins: 1. splenic vein 2. superior mesenteric vein 3. inferior mesenteric vein 4. hepatic portal vein-receives blood from 1, 2 and 3, and goes directly to liver

suspensory ligaments

hold the lens in place, when they are taut the make the lens flatter for far vision and when they are loose they make the lens "puffier" or rounder for near vision

pair of chromosomes

homologous chromosomes (maternal & paternal) contain genes that code for the same cellular function

meiosis prophase 1

homologous pairs of chromosomes group together crossing over

openings for the greater vestibular glands

homologous to male bulbourethral glands function: secrete mucus as a lubricant

types of cartilage

hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

nasal cavity

is the internal nose, it has PCCE, and the superior part of the nasal cavity is the olfactory epithelium, it has projections and sinuses, function: warming and humidifying air, phonation, filtering air, olfaction

sinusitis

inflamed and infected sinuses that contain mucus and pus collects and can't drain

pneumonia

inflammation of the alveoli, always caused by infection, respiratory membrane thickens and fluid/leukocytes fill alveoli

bronchitis

inflammation of the bronchi caused by infection or exposure to irritants such as tobacco smoke and air pollution

sternal

sternum

muscularis mucosae

thin layer of smooth muscle

clinical correlate: conjunctivitis

"pink eye" inflamed conjunctiva

How many pairs of spinal nerves do humans have?

31 pairs; 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal

teeth

32 permanent teeth but in kids, only 20 deciduous teeth

ileum

3rd part last 2/5 of small intestine connects to the cecum of the large intestine has less folds, but has MALT

anaphase

"away" -spindle fibers pull sister chromatids apart at centromere -sister chromatids (now called single stranded chromosomes) pulled to opposite ends of cell

root

"fixed" end of penis

metaphase

"middle" chromosomes line along center of cell/equatorial plate

prophase

"puffy"- nucleus looks like puffy ball of DNA DNA in form of replicated chromosomes -2 sister chromatids joined at centromere -spindle fibers go from centrioles to chromatids -breakdown of nuclear envelope

pharynx

"throat" connects the nasal cavity to the larynx and esophagus, contains several tonsils, and has three different parts; nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx

telophase

"two" nuclear envelope reforms -2 new identical daughter cells develop -cleavage furrow develops -cytokinesis occurs -cells now reenter interphase (chromosomes uncoil into chromatin)

larynx

"voice box" anterior to esophagus function: transporting air to trachea/bronchi and lungs, phonation (sound, speech production)

bulbourethral glands

(2) each gland is pea-shaped lies within urogenital diaphragm

seminal vesicles

(2) each lies on posterior wall of bladder -each has a "duct" that merges with the ductus deferens, to form ejaculatory ducts

myocardial infarction

(MI) aka heart attack, block of a coronary artery which deprives oxygen to heart tissue and so the tissue starts to die

arterial circulation for heart

(high O2) to heart wall via right and left coronary arteries

venous circulation for heart

(low O2) to right atrium via the coronary sinus

lateral horns

(only in thoracic and superior lumbar regions) - sympathetic neurons

cochlear duct

(scala media) membranous tube inside the cochlea, splits the cochlea into two chambers, filled with endolymph, contains spiral organ

parasympathetic division axon pathway

- cell bodies pf preganglionic motor neurons located in parts of certain CN or in the sacral part of the spinal cord - Preganglionic axons synapse in terminal ganglia which are located close to or on the organ being innervated -parasympathetic postganglionic axons travel from the terminal ganglia to the target organ

What forms during the 3rd week in the developing nervous system?

- neural plate: thickening of ectoderm -neural groove: invagination of neural plate -neural folds: thickening of tissue on either side of the neural groove

stratum basale (basal layer)

- single layers of columnar/cuboidal keratinocytes resting on basement membrane -also contains tactile cells and melanocytes

endochondrial ossification step 1

- start with hyaline cartilage - replace cartilage in diaphysis and epiphysis, then epiphyseal plates turn to bone, and an adult bone is formed

apocrine glands

-"a part" -top part of the cell is pinched off- becomes the secretion -cell damages itself, cell repairs itself and remains functional -ex: mammary glands

Stratum granulosum

-3-5 layers of granular, flattened keratinocytes -keratinocytes begin the process of keratinization here: nucleus shrivels up, cell dies, and cell fills with keratin

melanocytes

-about 8% -produce melanin -in stratum basale only (deepest layer) -people tend to have same # of melanocytes -darker skinned produce more -exposure to UV rays activates melanocytes -freckles-irregular patches of melanin

adipose (fat tissue)

-adipocytes (nucleus pushed to periphery by fat droplet) -function: some energy/storage, insulation, protection and support -where: subcutaneous layer/surrounds organs

hair

-associated with arrector pili muscle (smooth muscle that makes hair stand) and sebaceous glands -continually lost/replaced -function: protect against UV rays, heat retention, and sensory reception

hinge joint

-bending in 1 plane -most common -ex: elbow, knee, PIP/DIP joints (PIP aka proximal interphalangeal joint)

condylar joint

-biaxial movements (2 planes) -ex: MP metacarpal phalangeal aka knuckles

endochondrial ossification step 5

-bone replaces cartilage except in 2 main areas: articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate -epiphyseal plate responsible for lengthwise bone growth -plate active 15-25 yrs

syndesmosis

-bones held together by interosseous ligaments (made of dense reg CT) -slight movement (amphiarthrosis) -between radius/ulna and tibia/fibula -allows pronation and supination

osteoclasts

-break down and reabsorb bone -formed from fused red bone marrow cells

connective tissue consists of

-cells (not closely packed like epithelia) -protein fibers (elastic) -ground substance (may be fluid, gel like, semi solid or solid & between cells/protein fibers -ground substance

perichondrium invaded by blood vessels

-cells in perichondrium turn into osteoblasts- secrete osteoid -perichondrium transformed into periosteum

holocrine glands

-cells rupture, die, and become the secretion -"hol" sounds like whole, whole cell destroyed -old cells replaced by mitosis -example: sabaceous (oil) glands

osteons/haversian system

-central canal -concentric lamellae -osteocytes -lacunae -canaliculi

cartilage

-chondrocytes in lacunae -avascular -usually surrounded by perichondrium (made of dense irregular CT)

bone remodeling

-continuous deposition of new bone tissue and removal of old bone tissue through out ones life -ex: osteoclasts remove bone to make medullary cavity -ex: bone tissue resorbed when we need calcium, and bone tissue added when we need to store calcium

the cerebellum's functions include:

-coordinates and "fine tunes" voluntary skeletal muscle movement -helps to maintain balance and posture -stores memories of previously learned movement patterns

diaphysis

-cylindrical shaft -compact bone with medullary cavity

reticular layer

-deep to papillary -direct contact with subcutaneous -contains secretory

periosteum

-dense irregular CT that covers outside of bone -not found on articular surfaces -perforating fibers: anchor periosteum to bone -function: growth in bone width -very vascular/lots of nerves

suture

-dense regular CT (fibrous tissue) binds bones -immovable joint (synarthrosis)

characteristics of connective tissue

-derived from mesenchyme (embryonic CT) -CT typically is vascular (with exception to mature cartilage)

epiphysis

-end of bone -outside layer of compact bone surrounding spongy bone -proximal and distal epiphysis

endochondrial ossification step 6

-epiphyseal plates/growth plates turn into epiphyseal line -adult bone attained

endochondrial ossification step 2

-fetal hyaline cartilage model of bone develops -cartilage calcifies and a periosteal bone collar forms around diaphysis -chondrocytes enlarge in shaft/reabsorb part of cartilage -cartilage calcifies -chondrocytes die, leaving hardened matrix -at same time perichondrium invaded by blood vessels

Tacile (merkel) cell

-few in number -in stratum basale -connect to nerve endings -aid in tactile/touch sensation

dense irregular CT

-fibroblasts -collagen (protein) fibers found in clumps -function: strength & support , withstands stresses in many directions -where: dermis of skin, perichondrium (around cartilage) and periosteum

dense regular CT

-fibroblasts -densely packed collagen fibers, fibers run in parallel -poor vascularity (takes longer to heal) -function: strength & support -where: tendons and ligaments

areolar CT

-fibroblasts (the cells) -very vascular -function: packing and binding material esp. around organs -where: subcutaneous layer (deep to skin)

fibrocartilage

-found on intervertebral discs, symphysis pubis (between pubic bones), menisci (knee) -function:support, withstand compression (shock absorber)

hyaline cartilage

-found on joint surfaces, trachea, fetal skeleton -function: support, provides smooth surface for joint movement

spongy bone

-has some spaces between ground substance -inner lattice work of bone -houses hemopoietic tissue (makes blood cells)

medullary cavity

-hollow inside of diaphysis -lined with endosteum (made of dense irregular CT) -yellow bone marrow: in adults/fat

sebaceous glands

-holocrine glands -associated w hair follicles -secrete sebum -function: lubrication/waterproofing epidermis, prevents brittle hair, form zits when plugged

epiphysial plate

-hyaline cartilage between diaphysis and epiphysis -function: length wise bone growth

articular cartilage

-hyaline cartilage on epiphysis -reduce friction between connecting bones

elastic cartilage

-in external ear -function: flexibility and strength

synovial joint structure

-ligaments -articular (joint) capsule around bone ends -synovial membrane lines capsule (synovial fluid for lubrication) -joint cavity inside space of capsule/synovial fluid secreted here -ends of bones lined w articular cartilage to reduce friction

keratinocytes

-most numerous (90%) -found in al layers -produce keratin -cells undergo mitosis, move through all layers, and slough off

stratum corneum

-most superficial -20-30 layers of dead keratinocytes

papillary layer

-most superficial -dermal papillae

nonkeratinized stratified squamous epitheliums

-most superficial cells are alive and kept moist -ex: oral cavity, portion of pharynx, vagina nuclei are only in living cellsq1

epidermis

-most superficial layer -keratinized stratified squamous epithelium -avascular -consists of 4-5 specific layers -epidermal ridges: rounded projections that interlock with dermis

avascularity

-no blood vessels -gets nutrients via diffusion from other tissues

Why do the ureters use peristalsis (as opposed to relying on gravity) to pump urine to the urinary bladder?

-not always standing up (up to down) -keeps it going in the right direction

stratum lucidum (clear layer)

-only in thick skin -2-3 layers of pale, flattened, anucleated keratinocytes

central canal

-opening that contains blood vessels/nerves -runs parallel to diaphysis/central

pivot joint

-permits rotation longitudinally -ex: atlas/axis articulation shaking head no

endochondrial ossification

-pre existing tissue in hyaline cartilage ex: most other bones of body other than flat

intramembraneous ossification

-pre existing tissue in mesenchyme -ex: flat bones

dermis

-primarily dense irregular connective tissue -rich blood supply -contains nerve endings, hair follicles, glands -dermal papillae: projections that lock with epidermal ridges

endochondrial ossification step 3

-primary ossification center forms in diaphysis -blood vessels and osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage -bone replace degeneration of calcified cartilage

functions of integument

-protection (keep pathogens out/barrier to UV rays) -water resistant (prevent water loss) -temperature regulation -secretion (waste/sebum) -vitamin d synthesis -sensory reception -immune defense

ball and socket joint

-provides greatest range of movement -ex: hip/shoulder

endochondrial ossification step 4

-secondary ossification form in epiphyses -same basic steps as step 3 -no periosteal bone collar with epiphysis

merocrine glands

-secretion passes from cell -cell remains intact -most common -examples: salivary glands, lacrimal glands, sweat glands

stratum spinosum

-several layers of polygonal-shaped alive keratinocytes -also contains epidermal dendritic cells

plane joint

-side to side -ex: carpals/tarsals

case study to determine age

-skeleton is older than oldest bony fusion and younger than youngest open center -ex: open distal radius-less than 22 -ex: fused proximal tibia-older than 15 -must be older than 15 less than 22

nails

-stratum corneum layer -protects tips of fingers/toes and help with grasping objects

Epidermal dendritic cells

-stratum spinosum only -phagocytize (ingest) bacteria and foreign debris, and epidermal cancer cells -essentially an immune cell

cartilaginous joint types

-synchondrosis -symphysis

epiphyseal line

-when bone finishes growing it becomes the epiphyseal line (thin plate of compact bone)

saddle joint

-wide range of movement -ex: 1st , metacarpal/carpal joint (thumb)

primitive gonads

-with SRY: medulla proliferates to form testes -no Y (but probably some other factors): cortex proliferates to form ovaries -the reproductive system is not fully functional until puberty -at puberty, hypothalamus secretes hormones that tell anterior pituitary to release FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone), which act on ovaries and testes -so you need FSH and LH to start gamete maturation and increased sex hormone production by the gonads

simple epithelium

1 layer

prior to labor

1) baby "drops" (moves/"engages" down into true pelvis) 2) increased Braxton-Hicks (false labor) contractions 3) cervix softens-loss of mucus plug 4) water breaks - (sometimes)

oogenesis (oocyte formation)

1) before birth 2) during childhood 3) at puberty 4) each month from puberty to menopause

other structures in the ovarian cortex

1) corpus luteum 2) corpus albicans

pregnancy's effect on other systems

1) digestive 2) cardiovascular 3) urinary

labor stages

1) dilation stage 2) expulsion stage 3) placental stage

spermatic duct system

1) epididymis 2) ductus (vas) deferens 3) ejaculatory duct

loss of excess fluids

1) expulsion of amniotic fluid during birth 2) more frequent, copious urination 3) increased sweating 4) discharge of lochia

both male and female reproductive systems consist of

1) gonads 2) accessory reproductive organs

changes in mother after pregnancy

1) loss of excess fluids 2) lactation 3) contraction/shrinkage of uterus 4) hormonal changes

external genitalia of female

1) mons pubis 2) labia majora 3) labia minora

microscopic anatomy of uterus

1) perimetrium 2) myometrium 3) endometrium

hormonal changes

1) pregnancy=increase in estrogen & progesterones necessary to maintain and increase uterine lining 2) within 3 days AFTER pregnancy, the levels drop dramatically 3) within 1 week after birth, prolactin levels rise -oxytocin also increased during nursing 4) these hormone changes are believed to contribute to "postpartum blues" or the more serious "postpartum depression"

different kinds of ovarian follicles

1) primordial follicle 2) primary follicle 3) secondary follicle 4) vesicular follicle

within the seminiferous tubules

1) spermatogonia: "stem cells" that help produce sperm -these are the most immature male sex cells 2) developing sperm 3) sustentacular (Sertoli) cells: these cells support, protect and nourish the developing sperm

growth changes during pregnancy

1) uterus 2) mammary glands 3) weight gain 4) effects on other digestive systems

contraction/shrinkage of uterus

1) within ~6 weeks, uterus shrinks to near pre-pregnancy size 2) uterine contractions help with this; these contractions may be painful ("afterpains"), especially when breastfeeding 3) oxytocin also helps with this process

ventricular system (flow, 6 places)

1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus in the lateral ventricles 2. CSF flows from lateral ventricles, through the interventricular foramen, into the 3rd ventricle 3. CSF then travels through the cerebral aqueduct into the 4th ventricle 4. CSF exits the 4th ventricle through 3 openings (apertures), into the subarachnoid space 5. CSF then flows through the arachnoid villi, into the dural venous sinuses (blood stream)

Muscles of the tongue and their functions

1. Genioglossus- protracts the tongue 2. Styloglossus- (of the styloid bone) retracts and elevates the tongue 3. Hyoglossus- (of the hyoid bone) depresses and retracts the tongue

Visual processing steps

1. Light rays enter eye through the cornea (and pupil) and are refracted (bent), 2. light rays are further refracted by the lens (flattened= far vision, rounded=near vision), 3. light rays focus on the retina, 4. light ray info is converted to nerve impulses by photoreceptors, 5. nerve impulses transmitted to the brain via CN II (optic nerve)

How does a chemical synapse work? (5 steps)

1. Nerve impulse (or action potential) travels through the axon and reaches its synaptic knob 2. Nerve impulse causes calcium to enter the synpatic knobs 3. Calcium allows synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft 4. Neurotransmitter binds to protein receptors on the postsynaptic cell 5. Protein channels open, which allows for the influx of sodium. This generates a nerve pulse in the next cell.

large intestine histology

1. mucosa: simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells 2. muscularis: 2 layers of smooth muscle outer longitudinal layer consists of teniae coli -three thin bands of smooth muscle that bunch the LU into sacs called haustra

adrenal (suprarenal) glands

1. adrenal cortex 2. adrenal medulla

blood supply to abdominal GI tract

1. arterial supply 2. venous drainage

large intestine gross anatomy

1. cecum -lower right part of abdomen -vermiform appendix 2. ascending colon: right side of body 3. transverse colon: runs from the right to left side of body 4. descending colon: left side of body 5. sigmoid colon: in pelvic cavity, S-shaped 6. rectum and anal canal: terminal portion of the LI -feces leaves anal canal through anus (external opening)

digestive system functions

1. digestion 2. absorption 3. elimination of waste

functions of saliva

1. dissolves food molecules so they can be tasted 2. moistens food, aids in compacting it into a bolus 3. cleanses the mouth 4. chemical digestion of carbohydrates (with salivary amylase) 5. lysozymes and antibodies in saliva inhibit bacterial growth in mouth

small intestine gross anatomy

1. duodenum 2. jejunum 3. ileum

layers of eye from superficial to deep

1. fibrous tunic, 2. vascular tunic, 3. neural or retinal tunic

follow of filtrate/urine

1. filtrate is squeezed out of the glomerulus, enters capsular space 2. proximal convoluted tubule 3. nephron loop 4. distal convoluted tubule 5. collecting duct (target of ADH) -when filtrate leaves the collecting duct, it now may be called urine 6. minor calyx 7. major calyx 8. renal pelvis 9. ureter 10. urinary bladder 11. urine exits the body via the urethra

processes involved in urine formation

1. filtration 2. tubular reabsorption 3. tubular secretion

palate (upper part of oral cavity)

1. hard palate 2. soft palate

functions of ear

1. hearing (audition)- detecting sound waves and converting them into nerve impulses 2. equilibrium (balance)- detect position of head

functions of folds of mucosa and submucosa of small intestine

1. increase surface area of SI through which nutrients can be absorbed 2. slow the chyme down and allow it to mix with intestinal juices, allowing time for full nutrient absorption

nephrons of kidneys

1. introduction 2. renal corpuscle 3. proximal convoluted tubule 4. nephron loop 5. distal convoluted tubule

tear steps

1. lacrimal gland produces and secretes tears 2. lacrimal fluid is swept across the eye 3. lacrimal canaliculi: from lacrimal pundit to nasolacrimal duct 4. nasolacrimal duct: drains tears into nasal cavity, where they are eventually swallowed

ureter layers

1. mucosa 2. muscularis 3. adventitia

urinary bladder layers

1. mucosa 2. submucosa 3. muscularis 4. adventitia

stomach histology

1. mucosa: simple columnar epithelium contains gastric pits branching off the gastric pits are gastric glands that secrete gastric juice (acidic, contains HCl) 2. muscularis: has 3 layers of smooth muscle (not 2) innermost oblique, inner circular, outer longitudinal layers function: blend bolus with gastric juice-turns bolus into chyme

small intestine histology

1. mucosa: simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells 2. small intestine contains circular folds (plicae circulares)

7 steps of the sliding filament model of contraction of a skeletal muscle

1. nerve impulse is carried from the brain/spinal cord to the muscle by the axon of a motor neuron 2. axon meets muscle fiber at the neuromuscular junction 3. axon releases chemical neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which binds the the sarcolemma 4. a nerve impulse is generated in the carcolemma and it pushes down the T-tubules, and the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+ 5. Ca2+ ions bind to the thin myofilaments, which helps thick myofilaments attach to it 6. myofilaments slide over one another; sarcomere shortens; muscle contracts 7. when nerve impulse stops, Ca2+ returns to the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the myofilaments slide back to their resting state

4 steps of myelination in the PNS

1. neurolemmocyte starts to wrap around a portion of an axon 2. neurolemmocyte cytoplasm & plasma membrane begin to form consecutive layers around the axon 3. inner successive layers of the cell membrane compose the myelin sheath 4. Eventually, the cytoplasm and the nucleus are pushed to the periphery of the cell

blood supply of kidney

1. renal artery 2. segmental arteries 3. interlobar arteries 4. arcuate arteries 5. interlobular arteries 6. afferent arterioles 7. glomerulus 8. efferent arteriole 9. peritubular capillaries or vasa recta 10. interlobular veins 11. arcuate veins 12. interlobar veins 13. renal vein

Flow of aqueous humor

1. secreted by the ciliary processes into the posterior chamber, 2. moves from the posterior chamber through the pupil to the anterior chamber, 3. excess is reabsorbed via the scleral venous sinus

How we hear

1. sound waves are collected by the auricle, trail in external acoustic meatus to... 2. vibration of tympanic membrane causes ossicles to vibrate oval window on vestibule, 3. sound waves travel through the Scala vestibule and vibrate basilar membrane of spinal organ to determine frequency of sound, 4. stereo cilia of the hair cells bend against tectorial membrane generating nerve impulse, 5. nerve impulse is sent via CN VIII, 6. remaining sound waves exit Scala tympani through round window

how the spiral organ works

1. sound waves enter via the Scala vestibule, then vibrate a portion of the basilar membrane, 2. stereocilia of the hair cells touch the tectorial membrane and bend with generates a nerve impulse, 3. the nerve impulse is sent to the brain via cochlear duct of the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) 4. Remaining sound waves transfer to the Scala tympani and exit the inner ear through the round window

Cranial nerves

12 pairs of nerves that may contain sensory axons, somatic motor axons or parasympathetic motor axons

ductus (vas) deferens

18 inch long tube that runs from testis to prostate gland part of its travel is within the spermatic cord then it enters the abdominopelvic cavity, winds around the bladder and is found near the prostate gland ductus deferens will "merge" with the duct from seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

31 pairs 8 cervical (C1 - C8) 12 thoracic (T1 - T12) 5 lumbar (L1 - L5) 5 sacral (S1 - S5) 1 coccygeal (Co1)

muscularis of ureter

2 layers of smooth muscle

meisosis telophase 1

2 new cells with 23 chromosomes cell finishes first division producing 2 daughter cells daughter cells have 23 replicated chromosomes (each chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids) parent cell had 23 PAIRS of chromosomes, but daughter cells have only 23 chromosomes

replicated (double-stranded) chromosome

2 sister chromatids joined at the centromere

jejunum

2nd part 3/5 of remaining small intestine HUGE surface area=most nutrient absorption

muscularis of urinary bladder

3 layers of smooth muscle -together, these layers are known as the detrusor muscle internal urethral sphincter -involuntary (ANS) sphincter

salivary glands

3 pairs: parotid, submandibular, sublingual 1. secrete saliva 2. functions of saliva 3. innervation of salivary glands

variation of length of pregnancy

40 weeks from last period OR 38 weeks from conception not exactly 9 months

postpartum blues and depression

50-85% will have postpartum blues in the first 2 weeks -including irritability, anxiety, increased emotional reactivity 10-15% will struggle with postpartum depression within first year -including excessive guilt, anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation & fatigue What else is going on at this time that may also contribute to these issues? -not a lot of sleep

lower part of fourth ventricle

A CSF-filled space found within pons and medulla oblongata. It is continuous with central canal of spinal cord part of the medulla oblongata

tissue

A group of similar cells (in an extracellular matrix) that perform the same function.

far-sighted

Image is formed behind the retina, lens is to flat

organelles

A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell

caudal

At the rear or tail end

-osseous connective tissue -osteocytes (mature bone cells) rest in lacunae -surrounded by periosteum

Bone

false labor

Braxton Hicks contractions irregular do not progress

When do cells develop into a disc with primary germ layers? Why?

By the third week; the primary germ layers are the earliest tissues, from which all other tissues develop

axon hillock

Cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body.

innervation of salivary glands

CN VII: Facial CN IX: Glossopharyngeal-parotid parasympathetic division stimulates secretion

orbicularis oculi

Closes eyelids; used in blinking, winking, and squinting

meiosis interphase

DNA is replicated DNA will form double strand chromosome

What are the three primary germ layers?

Ectoderm (outer layer) Mesoderm (middle layer) Endoderm (inner layer)

dorsum of the foot

Extensor digitorum brevis- extends toes 2-4 Extensor hallucis brevis- extends big toe

Quadratus Lumborum

Flexes spine laterally; extends spine

cilia

Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used to move substances over cell surface

right lung

Has three lobes: the superior, middle, and inferior and two fissures: oblique and horizontal

What are the bands of a sacromere and what type of myofilaments does each have?

I band: "light zone"; thin myofilaments only; has Z disc in the center A band: "dark zone"; both thick and thin myofilaments H zone: lighter, central region in the middle of an A band; only thick myofilaments M line: area in the middle of the H zone where thick filaments attack each other

Sensory cranial nerves

I, II, VIII (olfactory, optic, vestibulocochlear)

What is a sacromere?

It is the functional contractile unit of a myofibril that runs from Z disc to Z disc

facial nerve (CN VII)

Mixed somatic motor: muscles of facial expression, sensory: taste to anterior 2/3 of tongue PS motor: stimulates secretion of lacrimal gland and most salivary glands test: smile, frown, wink, put something on tip of tongue, dry eyes or not crying, dry mouth (Bell's palsy- facial muscles paralyzed on one side)

trigeminal nerve (CN V)

Mixed somatic motor: muscles of mastication sensory axons: anterior part of scalp, entire face, nasal cavity, oral cavity, teeth, cranial meninges, responsible for brain freeze, test: move jaw/chew and touch face

vagus nerve (CN X)

Mixed somatic motor: supplies most pharynx muscles and larynx muscles PS motor: supply muscle in the heart, lungs and most abdominal organs test: difficulty swallowing, person has a hoarse voice, permanent loss of voice or monotone voice

glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)

Mixed somatic motor: to one pharynx muscle sensory: part of pharynx, touch, and taste sensation of 1/3 posterior of tongue PS motor: stimulates secrete to parotid gland test: dry mouth, taste on back of tongue

oculomotor (CN III)

Motor somatic motor: supplies 4 eye muscles ( superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus and inferior oblique muscles) and muscle in upper eyelid (elevator palpabrae superioris) PS motor: supplies iris to contract pupil test: does pupil constrict or is it blown? does the person's upper eyelid droop? does person have diplopia (double vision)?

stratified epithelium

Multiples tiers of cells.

During the 4th week of development, what are the three primary vesicles the cranial part of the neural tube develops into?

Prosencephalon- forebrain Mesencephalon- midbrain Rhombencephalon- hindbrain

anterior pituitary hormones mnemonic

TP FLAG Anterior Pituitary Hormones Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin) Prolactin Follicle-stimulating hormone Luteinizing hormone Adrenocorticotropichormone Growth hormone

polarity

apical surface and basal surface

What is the muscle cell membrane referred to as? Cytoplasm?

The muscle cell membrane is referred to as sarcolemma, and the muscle cell cytoplasm is referred to as sarcoplasm.

lacrimal fluid

contains water Na+, antibodies and lysozymes

nerve plexus

a network of converging and or diverging axons, formed from anterior rami of spinal nerves, names/specific nerves come off the plexus, allows for multiple spinal nerves to innervate multiple structures

endoplasmic reticulum

a network of tubules used to transport and synthesize materials

nondisjunction

a process by which the chromatids fail to properly separate during meiosis daughter cells with either too few or too many chromosomes

selectively permeable

a property of cell membranes that allows some substances to pass through, while others cannot

negative feedback loop

a stimulus causes an endocrine organ to release hormones -the hormones helps bring the body back to homeostasis -once homeostasis is achieved, the hormone release stops

gastrointestinal (GI) tract

a tube that extends from mouth to anus

electrical synapse

a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing for the rapid flow of ions through gap junctions to the postsynaptic cell; this flow of ions generates electricity

gluteus minimus & gluteus medius function

abduct & medially rotate thigh

oogenesis each month from puberty to menopause (when ovulation/menses cease entirely)

about 20 primordial follicles develop into primary follicles some primary follicles degenerate, while others become secondary follicles one secondary follicle becomes "dominant" and matures into a vesicular follicle in the vesicular follicle, the primary oocyte completes Meiosis I, but gets (re-)stopped at metaphase II -at this point, you now have a secondary oocyte a peak in LH levels at about day 14 (of a 28-day ovarian cycle) will induce ovulation -the structure expelled is a secondary oocyte -this oocyte is still suspended at metaphase II-it will not complete meiosis UNLESS it is fertilized by a sperm after ovulation, FSH and LH levels decline -ruptured ovarian follicle becomes a corpus luteum -corpus luteum eventually becomes a corpus albicans

cuboidal

about as tall as they are wide

scala vestibuli

above cochlear duct, separated from cochlear duct by vestibular membrane, connects to the oval window, filled with perilymph

monosomy

absence of one of the two sets of chromosomes

pigmented layer functions

absorbs excess light to prevent reflection/glare, provides vitamin A to neural layer, converts light rays to nerve impulses

neurolemmocytes

also called schwann cells neuroglial cell of the PNS myelinate axons in PNS

cornea

anterior 1/6 of eye curved, transparent structure, anterior to iris and pupil, function: admits and refracts (bends) light

oogenesis at puberty

anterior pituitary secretes FSH and LH: stimulates follicle development

ventral horns

anterior projections of the gray matter that contain the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons and some interneurons voluntary motor neurons

cervical plexus

anterior rami of C1-C4 spinal nerves, innervate sensory: skin of neck and ear and shoulders, motor: anterior neck muscles and hold head up

brachial plexus

anterior rami of C5-T1 spinal nerves, innervate primarily upper limb, includes- axillary, radial, ulnar, median and musculocutaneous nerves

lumbar plexus

anterior rami of L1-L4, innervates inferior abdominal wall and part of the lower extremity, specific nerves include femoral ad obturator nerves

sacral plexus

anterior rami of L4-S4 (four to four) innervates the buttocks, pelvic structures and majority of lower limb, includes gluteal, sciatic, tibial and common fibular nerves

each spinal nerve is formed from

anterior root and posterior root (dorsal root)

clitoris

anterior to the urethral orifice -homologous to: male penis -contains two columns of erectile tissue (corpora cavernosa) -third erectile tissue surrounds opening of vagina

thyroid gland

anterior to trachea and inferior to larynx 1. thyroid hormone (TH) 2. calcitonin

hard palate

anterior ⅔ of palate, bony palatine bones, palatine process

incus

anvil; middle of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear

mammary glands (breasts)

apocrine glands each mammary gland has glandular tissue, adipose tissue, and "ligaments" to connect it to thoracic wall function: to produce milk for a baby -lactation=breast milk production prolactin oxytocin

Macrophages

are monocytes that migrated from bloodstream into tissue, function: phagocytize foreign substances

High pitch

are produced by more taught vocal folds arytenoids get tight which pulls on cords and that influences the pitch

lymphatic organs

are surrounded by a CT capsule ex: lymph nodes, thymus and spleen

primary somatosensory cortex

area of the parietal lobe where messages from the sense receptors are registered located in the postcentral gyrus of each parietal lobe

Loose CT types

areolar and adipose

adventitia of ureter

areolar connective tissue

adventitia of urinary bladder

areolar connective tissue

axillary

armpit

What is the function of the transverse tubules (T-tubules) in a muscle fiber?

as one of the largest cells in the human body, transverse tubules can conduct a nerve impulse rapidly to the interior of the muscle cell

ciliary body function

as the muscle contracts, the suspensory ligaments tighten to make the lens rounder and vice versa, it also produces aqueous humor

How are neural crest cells formed?

as the neural tube is forming, some ectodermal cells detach, and these are referred to as neural crest cells

neuroglial cells of the CNS

astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells

atria and ventricle reminder

atria contract together and then the ventricles contract together

external ear

auricle, external acoustic meatus, tympanic membrane

thymus

behind sternum, function: t-cells mature and differentiate here, immature t-cells are sent from bone marrow into the thymus, the thymus secretes hormones to help the t-cells develop, and then t-cells mature, and once all t-cells are developed the thymus breaks down

pancreas

behind stomach acinar cells

scala tympani

below cochlear duct, separated from cochlear duct by basilar membrane connects to round window to allow excess sound waves to leave inner ear, filled with perilymph

external auditory meatus

between auricle and tympanic membrane, it directs sound waves to tympanic membrane (eardrum)

Anterior cavity

between cornea and lens, filled with aqueous humor

posterior cavity

between lens and retina, contains vitreous humor

Mediastinum

between lungs

pericardial cavity

between parietal and visceral layers, contains pericardial fluid

peritoneal cavity

between peritoneums, serous fluid circulates

subarachnoid space

between pia mater and arachnoid mater cushions brain & spinal cord w CSF (interconnecting channels) has delicate, weblike CT (trabeculae)

perilymph fluid

between the membranous and bony labyrinths this fluid floats in the perilymph

Flexors of forearm/elbow joint

biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis

erythrocytes

biconcave discs, a-nucleated, filled with hemoglobin, function: carry oxygen to cells, take CO2 away from cells to lungs

Lens

biconvex transparent structure inside the eye, held in place by suspensory ligaments

pyramids

bilateral ridges on anterior (ventral) side composed of descending VOLUNTARY motor axons, most of which decussate

connective

binds/supports/protects other tissues and organs

optic disc

blind spot, area where the optic nerve exits the eye, contains NO rods or cons, photoreceptors, only axons

concentric lamellae

concentric rings of bone matrix

to conserve heat

blood vessels in dermis constrict- blood shunted to deeper tissues

to lose/dissipate heat

blood vessels in dermis dilate sweat glands secrete sweat

abduction

body part moved away from midline, in lateral direction

adduction

body part moved toward midline, in medial direction

ligaments

bone to bone

symphysis

bones connected by pad of fibrocartilage -amphiarthrosis -ex: intervertebral discs

synchondrosis

bones connected by pad of hyalone cartilage -synarthrosis -ex: epiphyseal plate, costochondral joints

thoracic

bounded inferiorly by diaphragm

respiratory bronchioles

branch from terminal bronchioles are simple cuboidal but ciliated typically, have smooth muscle in walls, may have alveoli coming off of them

mammary

breast

sensory (afferent) neurons

bring information TO the CNS can be either unipolar or bipolar

lymphedema

build up of interstitial fluid due to lymph vessel damage

Which structure is responsible for producing a portion of seminal fluid? a) bubourethral gland b) ductus deferens c) epididymis d) corpus cavernosum e) glands

bulbourethral gland

What does CSF provide?

buoyancy, protection (liquid cushion), and maintenance of the brain and spinal cord's chemical environment

duodenum

c-shaped receives chyme from stomach receives bile and pancreatic enzymes (from liver and pancreas) through duodenal papilla

renal calculi (kidney stones)

calcifications/crystals biggest factor: frequent dehydration

when blood calcium levels are high

calcitonin is secreted by the thyroid gland which lowers blood calcium

crural

calves

splanchnic nerves

can find preganglionic axons that do not synapse in sympathetic trunk`

dendrites

conduct impulses toward the cell body

Perforating (Volkmann's) canals

canals that run perpendicular to the central canals; connect central canals

colorectal cancer

cancer in large intestine (colon) or rectum most arise from polyps (growths) from mucosa but not all are cancerous blood in stool (feces) early warning sign colonoscopy to examine colon

glycocalyx

carbohydrates that participate in cell-cell recognition ID card shows not foreign

Autonomic nervous system centers and their functions

cardiac center- regulates heart rate vasomotor center- regulates blood pressure respiratory center- regulates rate of involuntary respiration vomiting center

Myocardium

cardiac muscle it is the thickest layer

female urethra

carries urine only short distensible

pulmonary veins

carry blood high in oxygen to the heart away from the lungs

pulmonary arteries

carry blood low in oxygen to the lungs

cartilaginous joints

cartilage binds to bone

nerve roots below the conus medullaris

cauda equina (horse's tail)

What part of the neural tube gives rise the spinal cord?

caudal part

What do the ventral horns contain?

cell bodies of motor neurons portions of interneurons

sympathetic division components

cell bodies of preganglionic motor neurons in lateral horns of T1-L2 spinal cord, these exit the SC and go into white rami, sympathetic trunks, gray rami, splanchnic nerves, prevertebral ganglia and sympathetic postganglionic axons

meiosis

cell division where gametes (sperm/oocytes) are formed

interphase

cell not dividing DNA is replicated during this time

What prevents the gastric juices from eating away at the stomach itself?

cells secrete layer of mucus-protective lining epithelium constantly regenerating

Neuroglia

cells that support and protect neurons

characteristics of epithelia

cellularity, polarity, avascularity, high regenerative capacity, bound to underlying tissue by a basement membrane

liver histology

central vein portal triad: 1. branch of hepatic portal vein 2. branch of hepatic artery 3. branch of bile duct blood flow bile production

insula

cerebral lobe located deep within lateral sulcus used to taste

two enlargements of the spinal cord

cervical enlargement (neurons to upper extremities) lumbar enlargement (neurons to lower extremities)

early labor

cervix gradually becomes effaced and dilates (to about 4 cm) effacement dilation

lens function

changes shape (flat or round) to focus light rays

hormone

chemical messenger that regulates activity of other body -slow messenger -requires blood supply

pectoral

chest

Muscles of mastication and their functions

chewing muscles: 1. Masseter- elevates and protracts mandible 2. Temporalis- elevates and retracts mandible 3. Medial and Lateral Pterygoids- together elevate and protract the mandible; apart they move jaw side-to-side.

mental

chin

Where is CSF made?

choroid plexus in ventricles

circumduction

circular, conelike movement of body segment

respiratory system divisions

conducting portion and respiratory portion

Omohyoid

depresses and retracts hyoid bone

hyoglossus

depresses and retracts tongue

basal surface

closer to underlying connective tissue

pelvic diaphragm

closes inferior opening of pelvis, supports the pelvic organs

Orbiculis Oris

closes mouth and protrudes the lips

lymphatic nodules

clumps of lymphatic cells within other organs

venules

collect blood from: capillaries send blood into: the veins travel with: arterioles

MALT

collections of lymphatic nodules in GI, respiratory and genitourinary tracts

iris

colored portion of the eye or pigmented, has a hole in the middle=pupil

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

columnar/irregularly shaped all cells attached to basement membrane goblet cells example: lines upper respiratory tracts (nasal cavity, portion of pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi)

spinal nerves location

come directly off the spinal cord and exit the vertebral canal via the intervertebral foramen, part of PNS

epididymis

comma-shaped organ, located posterior to and on top of testis receive sperm from testis functions: 1) location of sperm maturation (gain motility/mobility) 2) stores sperm until ejaculation

right and left hepatic ducts unite to form

common hepatic duct

2 kinds of bone tissue found within each of your bones

compact and spongy

cellularity

composed almost entirely of cells with minimal extracellular matrix

Epicranius

composed of the occipitofrontalis muscle and the epicranial aponeurosis

sereous membrane

composed of tissue and either covers/supports organs or line the walls of some cavities and secrete sereous fluid

expiration

compress thoracic cavity, diaphragm-moves superiorly, dome-shaped in relaxation, decreases vertical dimensions and pushes air out, ribs move medially and sternum moves posteriorly

transverse abdominis

compresses abdomen, flexes and rotates vertebral column

external abdominal oblique

compresses abdominal wall, laterally rotates trunk

internal abdominal oblique

compresses abdominal wall, laterally rotates waist

buccinator

compresses cheek fishy face

pituitary gland

connected to hypothalamus via the infundibulum 1. anterior pituitary 2. posterior pituitary

capillaries

connecting arteries and veins, function: responsible for gas and nutrient exchange between blood and tissues, have just a tunica intimacy, many form a capillary bed

submucosa

connective tissue that contains major blood vessels

superior cerebellar peduncle

connects cerebellum to midbrain

middle cerebellar peduncle

connects cerebellum to pons

inferior cerebellar peduncle

connects the cerebellum to the medulla oblongata

Eustachian tube

connects the middle ear with the nasopharynx and allows passage of air which helps equalize air pressure in the middle ear

stomach

connects to esophagus and duodenum upper left part of abdomen main function: churns food (mechanical digestion) and mixes it with gastric juice (chemical digestion) to break it down into chyme

trachea

connects to larynx superiorly, travels from neck to thorax, splints into left and right primary bronchi, PCCE, c-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage

Telencephalon (cerebrum)

consists of an outer gray matter (cerebral cortex) and an inner white matter (myelinated axons) vocabulary, speech, thought, judgement, voluntary control sensory perception, memory, and dreams

lymphatic system

consists of lymph vessels- return interstitial fluid back to bloodstream, and lymphatic tissues and organs- can initiate an immune response when necessary

epithalamus

consists of the: pineal gland- secretes melatonin which appears to regulate circadian rhythms choroid plexus- group of capillaries that produce CSF (referred to as plasma prior to release)

secondary spermatocytes

contain 23 chromosomes only (haploid) they finish the 2nd meiotic division to produce spermatids

nucleus

contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) surrounded by nuclear envelope

nucleus of neuron

contains DNA and the nucleolus (which contains RNA)

red pulp

contains erythrocytes, platelets, and macrophages, function: removal of old cells break them down and take the reusable parts for recycling

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

contains keratin most superficial layers consist of dead cells example: epidermis of skin/hair

oral cavity

continuous posteriorly with oropharynx nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium 1. teeth 2. tongue 3. palate

Diaphragm

contraction pulls the central portion inferiorly, increasing expansion of throacic cavity used during inhalation and exhalation

true labor

contractions at regular intervals pain intensifies initiated and maintained by oxytocin -pressure on cervix from fetal head -stimulated posterior pituitary to secrete oxytocin -stimulates contraction of uterine smooth muscle -pushes fetus towards cervix -and cycle repeats... progresses through 3 stages

active labor

contractions longer, stronger, and closer together (4-10 cm) -transition labor: end of activity labor (CRAZY contractions) (usually 8-10 cm)

anterior pituitary

controlled by the hypothalamus via regulatory hormones 1. thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) 2. prolactin (PRL) 3. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 4. growth hormone (GH) 5. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) 6. luteinizing hormone (LH)

nervous

controls activities and processes info

Wernicke's area (of both the parietal and temporal lobes)

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression;

what ends the spinal cord?

conus medullaris

depressor anguli oris

depresses corner of mouth frown

Chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies)

corresponds to rough endoplasmic reticulum in other cells- rich in ribosomes within cytoplasm of the cell body of the neuron

visceral peritoneum

covers abdominal organs

epithelium

covers body/organ surfaces lines body cavities and insides of hollow organs forms (exocrine) glands

visceral layer

covers external surface of organs

What classifies as the PNS?

cranial & spinal nerves, and ganglia

vertebral

cylindrical opening formed by vertebral column and spinal cord

gallbladder has a

cystic duct cystic duct and common hepatic duct unite, forming common bile duct -it connects with pancreatic duct

lymphocytes

cytoplasm has no granules, contains large, round dark purple nucleus, most are located in lymphatic tissue, there are two different kinds T and B

platelets

cytoplasmic fragments from larger cells, a-nucleate, very small with a limited life span (~5 days) function: assist with blood clotting

cytoplasm consists of

cytosol and organelles

Which hormone is stored in the posterior pituitary? a) growth hormone b) luteinizing hormones c) prolactin d) antidiuretic hormone e) adrenocorticotropic hormone

d) antidiuretic hormone

choroid

dark brown membrane, function: it contains many tiny blood vessels that help nourish the retina

flexion

decrease joint angle between bones in A-P plane

DVT

deep vein thrombosis, if muscular pump is inactive (e.g. bedridden, on a long plane ride) blood could pool and clot in the veins

elimination of waste

defecation

corpus albicans

degenerated corpus luteum -white CT scar

contents of gray matter

dendrites, unmyelinated axons, neuron cell bodies, and neuroglial cells (all horns)

dense CT types

dense irregular and dense regular

submucosa of urinary bladder

dense irregular connective tissue

fibrous joints

dense regular connective connects bones

internal intercostals

depress ribs used for force exhalation

the forebrain consists of 2 parts: the ___ and ____. ____ completely surrounds ____.

diencephalon; telencephalon diencephalon; telencephalon

suprahyoid muscles

digastric, stylohoid, mylohoid, geniohyoid

abdominal houses...

digestive organs

laryngopharynx

directly behind superior larynx, transports both air and food, NSSE

nasopharynx

directly behind the nasal cavity, PCCE, moves only air, contains openings for eustachian tube

oropharynx

directly behind the oral cavity, both air and food travel here, Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium

sagittal plane

divides body into left and right

coronal plane

divides into anterior and posterior

Midsaggital

divides into equal left and right portions

transverse plane

divides into superior and inferior halves

ANS innervation of the heart

does not initiate heartbeat but can increase or decrease it, sympathetic: increases heart rate parasympathetic: decreases heart rate

2 kinds of flexion at ankle

dorsiflexion and plantar flexion

dorsiflexion

dorsum/top of foot is moved closer to anterior surface of leg

plasma membrane structure

double layer of phospholipids

weight gain during pregnancy

due to enlargement of uterus/mammary glands, growing fetus and placenta (~20 lbs max), fluid accumulation, fat deposit

glomerulus

each afferent arteriole brings blood to a glomerulus -a capillary "ball" -blood is filtrated here

external anatomy of ovary

each is oval shaped within pelvic cavity

introduction to nephrons

each kidney contains over 1 million nephrons nephron consists of: 1) renal corpuscle (glomerulus + glomerular capsule) 2) proximal convoluted tubule 3) nephron loop (loop of Henle) 4) distal convoluted tubule

How much of the axon can one neurolemmocyte myelinate?

each neurolemmocyte wraps about 1 mm of an axon

ejaculatory duct

each one will empty its contents into the urethra -passes through the prostate gland (but does NOT include prostatic secretions)

splenis capitis

each rotates head to one side together they extend the neck/head

sternocleidomastoid

each rotates head to opposite side together they flex the head/neck

internal anatomy of testes

each testis is divided into a series of internal compartments called lobules each lobules contains up to 4 seminiferous tubules (a tightly coiled structure, where sperm are produced) between seminiferous tubules is some connective tissue and interstitial cells function of these cells: produce and secrete androgens (specifically, testosterone)

auditory ossicles

ear bones (malleus, incus, stapes) which function to transmit and AMPLIFY vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear

peptic ulcer

erosion of wall of stomach or duodenum because "balance" between acidic juices and mucosal repair thrown off so, acid eats away at lining

clinical correlates: When descending in a plane many people chew gum why?

eustachian tube can open when you chew so then the air pressure can equalize within your ear so they don't hurt

post-partum hemorrhage

excessive bleeding following delivery common causes include 1) retaining part of placenta 2) uncontracted uterus -uterus must contract to "clamp down" on blood vessels that used to go to the placenta

hypothalamus

exerts its control over the endocrine system in 3 ways 1. produces "releasing" hormones that regulate anterior pituitary (middle management) 2. produces hormones that are stored in posterior pituitary gland 3. overseers autonomic nervous system

inspiration

expand thoracic cavity, diaphragm- moves inferiorly, flattens out in and contracts, increases vertical dimension and creates a vacuum to pull air in, ribs also move laterally and sternum moves anteriorly

oxytocin

expels the milk in response to a stimulus (baby suckling/crying)

parturition (labor)

expulsion of infant from mother's body 1) true labor vs false labor 2) prior to labor 3) labor stages

ejaculation

expulsion of semen from penis -it is triggered by the sympathetic nervous system

chordae tendinae

extend from the papillary muscles to the 3 flaps of the right av valve function: these strands prevent valve prolapse (everting) into the atrium

longisssimus

extends the vertebral column

gluteus maximus

extends thigh

spinalis

extends vertebral column

erector spinae

extends vertebral column consists of the following muscles: illiocostalis, longissimus, spinalis

filium terminale

extension of pia mater, anchors spinal cord to coccyx

regions of the ear

external ear, middle ear, inner ear

superior

external to structure

3 types of sensory receptors

exteroceptors, interoceptors, proprioceptors

orbital

eye

Palpebrae

eyelids

mons pubis

fatty, rounded area-covered with pubic hair

hormone levels are constantly adjusted by

feedback loops

examples of long bones

femur, phalanges, ulna, metacarpal, tibia, humerus, fibula, metatarsals, radius

3 different structures of joints

fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial

plantar flex the foot/ankle and evert the foot

fibular longus; fibular brevis

main function of urinary system

filter blood, and transport the liquid waste (urine) out of the body -kidneys responsible for filtering blood and turning the filtrate into urine -urinary tract transports the urine

squamous

flat cells

rectus abdominis

flexes and rotates vertebral column abs

deoxygenated blood flow

flows from the pulmonary trunk through pulmonary arteries to lungs for oxygenation and pulmonary veins send oxygenated blood from lungs back to the heart

abdominal

inferior to diaphragm and superior to pelvic brim

muscles of the tongue

genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus

renal corpuscle

glomerulus plus glomerular capsule glomerular (Bowman's) capsule surrounds the glomerulus -made of cells called podocytes -parietal layer -visceral layer -capsular space-filtrate is squeezed into here filtrate then enters the PCT

when blood glucose levels are low

glucagon is secreted by the pancreas which raises blood sugar

simple cuboidal epithelium

good for secretion and absorption examples: lines tubules of kidney, ducts of most glands

spinal cord is divided into ___ and ___ matter.

gray & white

ganglia

group of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS

cerebellar peduncles

groups of axons

changes in the mother during pregnancy

growth and placenta

malleus

hammer; first of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear

in meiosis cells are __________ in mitosis cells are ____________

haploid diploid

internal anatomy of ovary

has an outer cortex and an inner medulla medulla contains blood vessels cortex contains ovarian follicles ovarian follicles consist of an oocyte plus follicle (granulose cells)

pancreas

has both exocrine and endocrine functions -exocrine functions were discussed w/ digestive system pancreas islets: produce hormones 1. insulin 2. glucagon

hierarchy of ANS

hypothalamus-oversees all ANS activity (boss) ANS centers int brainstem (middle management) Pre and post ganglionic neurons (workers)

variation of weight gain

ideally 25-35 lbs could be 10, could be 60

Those that flex the thigh/hip

illiacus, psoas major, and sartorius pectineus

near-sighted

image lands in front of retina lens is to round

osteoblasts

immature bone cells that create bones- secrete osteoid (semi solid bone matrix)

spermatids

immature sperm-contain 23 chromosomes only (haploid) spermatids develop into sperm (spermatozoa)

synarthrosis

immovable joint

fovea centralis

in center of macula lutea, the sharpest vision only contains cones

sympathetic effects on the digestive system

in general, it inhibits or decreases activity of GI tract

parasympathetic effects on the digestive system

in general, it stimulates or increases activity of GI tract

accessory reproductive organs

include "ducts" that transport/store the gametes, glands that secrete substances for the gametes' well-being, and the external genitalia

bronchial tree

includes all divisions of bronchi and bronchioles, the tubes get smaller, histologically, epithelium goes from PCCE to cuboidal to simple squamous, cartilage also disappears as it gets smaller and is replaced with smooth muscle tissue

interstitial lamellae

incomplete remnants of osteons no central canal

extension

increase joint angle between bones in A-P plane

cardiovascular system during pregnancy

increased blood volume potential for varicose veins -thin walls get stretched from more blood -possible basic ways to help are being active, walking and elevating the legs

depression

inferior movement

pelvic

inferior to abdominal between hips

mitochondrial DNA (MtDNA)

inherit from mom because head of sperm do not have mitochondria

variation of "morning" sickness

initially related to placenta development can occur at any time in the day, or possibly all day

sinoatrial node

initiates heartbeat (pacemaker) located in upper wall of right atrium, causes atria to contract, sends impulse to AV node which then sends to AV bundle than to bundle branches of L & R than to pukinje fibers

neural layer

inner layer, functions: its photoreceptors receive light information and convert it into nerve impulses that are sent via CNII (optic nerve) to brain

endometrium

innermost layer highly vascular columnar epithelium and CT fertilized oocyte implants here it is subdivided into 2 sublayers: 1) basal layer 2) functional layer

tunica intima

innermost layer, endothelium SSE and areolar CT

mucosa

innermost tunic 1. epithelium 2. lamina propria (areolar CT) 3. muscularis mucosae

deep fibular nerve

innervates anterior leg and dorsal foot

common fibular nerve

innervates anterior leg muscles- which dorsiflex and extend toes, lateral leg muscles- which evert foot and muscles of dorsal foot- which extend toes test: dorsiflex (pull toes up towards shin) evert foot, extend toes, correlate: easy to injure when foot falls asleep from crossing legs or from leg cast or ski boot

superficial fibular nerve

innervates fibularis longus and fibularis brevis

musculocutaneous nerve

innervates most muscles on the anterior surface of the arm- coracobrachialis (flexes arm/shoulder), biceps brachia and brachialis (both flex forearm and elbow), test: ask them to flex arm or 'show muscles'

tibial nerve

innervates most posterior thigh muscles- which extend hip and flex knee, posterior leg muscles- which help with plantar flexion and flex toes, and muscles on the sole of the foot, test: does patient have trouble with extending hip, curling toes, flexing knee, or plantar flexion

ulnar nerve

innervates motor to 1 1/2 anterior forearm muscles- medial 1/2 of flexor digitorum profundus and flexor carpi ulnaris, also most intrinsic hand muscles- hypothenar muscles, lumbricals to fingers 4 and 5 and palmar + dorsal interossei, can injure if you hit your funny bone or if you break elbow test: flex forearm, abduct or adduct fingers, move pinky finger

median nerve

innervates motor to almost all anterior forearm muscles (flex wrist, fingers) thenar muscles, and lumbricals for fingers 2 and 3, may be damaged if someone tries to slit their wrists or if they have carpal tunnel syndrome test: lift wrist up or move thumb

somatic nervous system

innervates skeletal muscle and receives sensory info from the senses has CNS and PNS components, one neuron from spinal cord to muscle, sensory info received from environment- taste, touch, smell etc

axillary nerve

innervates the deltoid and trees minor, can be injured with use of crutches, which will result in lose of a lot of rotation of arm, test: have patient abduct arm

phrenic nerve

innervates the diaphragm, receives some axons from cervical plexus, formed from C3,4,5 (3,4, and 5 keeps the diaphragm alive)

gluteal nerves

innervates the gluteus Maximus, medius and minimus

radial nerve

innervates the posterior arm muscles triceps, extend elbow/forearm, innervates the posterior forearm muscles-extend wrist and or fingers, may be damaged if humerus is broken or with use of crutch, test: ask them to lift up hand, wrist drop is symptom

autonomic nervous system

innervates the viscera, influences smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands of skin and viscera, has CNS and PNS components, two neurons spinal cord to ganglion than another from their to organ, no sensory

lumen

inside opening of organ

when blood glucose levels are high

insulin is secreted by the pancreas which lowers blood sugar

largest organ in body

integument

Blood from the arcuate artery next travels to the

interlobular artery

Why would this be a beneficial way to send information (and not just a nerve impulse)?

it can be more regulated the effect can last longer has potential to interact with all cells in the body

functional layer

it will grow and develop during the ovarian cycle if a fertilized oocyte doesn't implant, this layer is shed during menstruation

articulations

joints a place where 2 or more bones meet

2 kinds of stratified squamous epithelia

keratinized and nonkeratinized

vitamin d synthesis

keratinocytes convert UV rays to vitamin D

urinary system

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

patellar

knee

vocal folds

l and r vocal folds attach from arytenoid to thyroid carriages, sound is produced when the cords vibrate against the pressure of air, more air being forced through the larynx the louder the sound

sciatic nerve

largest and longest nerve in the body splits into tibial nerve and common fibular nerve

monocytes

largest leukocytes, pale blue cytoplasm and a c-shaped or kidney-shaped nucleus function: fight off parasites and worms

muscular arteries

less elastic fibers than elastic arteries and more smooth muscle in the tunica media, ex: most "named" arteries, send blood to arterioles

lymphatic cells

leukocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes, these cells start immune response when exposed to antigens

synovial joints

ligaments support articulating bones bone ends separated by joint cavity

abdominopelvic cavity

lined by peritoneum (serous membrane) 1. parietal peritoneum 2. visceral peritoneum 3. peritoneal cavity

parietal peritoneum

lines abdominal wall

parietal layer

lines the internal surface of the body wall

conjunctiva

lining of the sclera and eyelid, mucous membrane, contains blood vessels

what organs have a lot of smooth ER?

liver and adrenal glands

alcohol tolerance

liver creates more smooth ER to process chronic excessive drinking

once the blood is processed, it leaves the

liver via hepatic veins and into the inferior vena cava

discharge of lochia

lochia=postpartum bleeding (similar to a period, but much heavier lasts 2-3 weeks (or even more for some) all of the uterine tissues (and blood stored within) that was built up to support the pregnancy must be broken down & expelled

sympathetic trunk

long chain of axons on either side of vertebral column

alveolar ducts

long tube-like passageways off of which alveoli come, SSE

ureters

long, thin, paired muscular tubes function: transport urine (via peristalsis) from kidney to urinary bladder

2 types of connective tissue

loose CT and dense CT

myometrium

middle layer THICKEST layer 3 layers of smooth muscle

arachnoid mater

middle layer of the meninges cushions brain & spinal cord w CSF

tunica media

middle layer, circularly arranged smooth muscle fibers, largest layer in arteries, sympathetic innervation typically causes vasoconstriction

differences between mitosis and meiosis

mitosis produces 2 cells containing 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) with identical daughter cells which are diploid meiosis produces 4 cells containing only 23 chromosomes with daughter cells that are genetically different than the parent cell. new cells are haploid (only 1 of each chromosome)

Proprioceptors

monitor the position and movement of skeletal muscles and joints

digestive system during pregnancy

morning sickness heartburn due to increased pressure on stomach constipation due to increased pressure on rectum

great variation during pregnancy

morning sickness weight gain length of pregnancy

illiocostalis

most lateral extend and laterally flex the vertebral column

neutrophils

most numerous of the leukocytes, cytoplasm has fine pale granules, nucleus is multi-lobed function: first responder, phagocytize invaders

anterior ramus

motor and sensory, innervates everything else from neck inferiorly also forms nerve plexuses

posterior (dorsal) ramus

motor and sensory, innervates skin of back and deep back muscles

fronal lobe contains:

motor speech area (Broca's area), the primary motor cortex, and other areas responsible for concentration, personality, decision making, etc.

femoral nerve

motor to anterior thigh muscles which help extend knee and flex hip, test: flex hip and extend knee

obturator nerve

motor to medial thigh muscles which function to adduct thigh test: push on inner thigh and have them resist you

tongue innervation

motor: CN XII: Hypoglossal sensory (texture): CN V: Trigeminal anterior taste: CN VII: Facial posterior taste: CN IX: Glossopharyngeal

oral

mouth

structures of the GI tract

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus

body (shaft)

moveable end 3 columns of erectile tissue -2 corpora cavernosa: tissue on top (dorsum) of penis -1 corpus spongiosum: erectile tissue underneath corpora cavernosa, contains spongy (penile) urethra

protraction

movement of a body part anteriorly

rotation

movement of a body part around its own longitudinal axis

eversion

movement of sole of foot outward or laterally

inversion

movement of the sole of the foot inward or medially

muscle

moves body or organ walls

lateral rectus

moves eye laterally (abducts) responsible for the majority of the lateral movement of the eye

medial rectus

moves eye medially (adducts) does the majority of the medial movement

retraction

moving a part backward

esophagus histology

mucosa: nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium muscularis: 2 layers of muscle 1. upper ⅓ skeletal muscle 2. middle ⅓ skeletal and smooth muscle 3. lower ⅓ smooth muscle only

deep back muscles of the vertebral column

muscle groups quadratus lumborum and erector spinae

tendons

muscle to bone

pharynx

muscular tube that connects nasal cavity and mouth, to larynx and esophagus functions: this skeletal muscle helps us "voluntarily" propel stuff from the mouth into the esophagus (voluntarily swallowing)

esophagus

muscular tube that connects pharynx to stomach function: propel food to the stomach

vagina

muscular tube that opens to the outside lies behind the bladder, and in front of rectum functions: 1) it is the copulatory organ of the female 2) it is a passageway for menstruation and/or a baby to leave the body

Each fiber (cell) is composed of ___, which is composed of ___ .

myofibrils; myofilaments (elongated proteins)

cervical region

neck

chemical synapse

nerve impulse is transmitted with the assistance of a chemical neurotransmitter

By the end of the third week, ____ fuse, forming a ____ .

neural folds; neural tube this forms the CNS tube closes distally, then proximally the tube is completely closed by the 4th week

microglia

neuroglial cell of the CNS ingests damaged neurons as well as foreign substances

ependymal cells

neuroglial cell of the CNS line central canal (contains spinal cord) and ventricles (contains brain and brain stem) ciliated to help circulate CSF

cerebral peduncles

of the midbrain groups of axons on the ventral (anterior) side of the brain

osteoarthritis

old age arthritis, younger people is due to repetitive use of joint/bones rub together

contralateral

on opposite side

external gross anatomy of kidney

on posterior abdominal wall right kidney more inferior than left because the liver is in the way

ipsilateral

on the same side

unicellular exocrine glands

one cell. ex: goblet cell secrete mucus

simple squamous epithelia

one layer flattened cells good for diffusion and filtration (pass through easily) example: lines alveoili, lumens of blood vessels (endothelium)

myelination procedure in CNS

one oligodendrocyte myelinates portions of many axons "octopus"

secondary bronchi

one to each lung lobe, cartilage plate

tertiary bronchi

one to each lung segment, little cartilage,

cricoid cartilage

only complete ring of cartilage around the trachea

pupil

opening in the iris, allows light in, dark hole

dilation

opening of the cervix os (lumen)

parts of the pharynx that conduct food and air

oropharynx and laryngopharynx

examples of irregular bones

os coxae, ethmoid, vertebra,

bone growth

ossification 2 kinds

3 types of bone cells

osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

compact bone is made of

osteons not in spongy bone

internal gross anatomy of kidney

outer cortex inner medulla contains renal columns and renal pyramids each renal pyramid drains urine into a minor calyx several minor calyces unite to form a major calyx major calyces drain into the renal pelvis, which connects to the ureter

pigmented layer

outer layer adjacent to choroid

auricle

outer mass of tissue, which collects sound waves and directs them into the auditory canal

layers of the dura mater

outer periosteal layer and inner meningeal layer

compact bone

outer shell of bone

parasympathetic nervous system

part of the autonomic nervous system (motor division of the PNS) maintains homeostasis

perimetrium

outermost layer -visceral peritoneum + areolar CT

serosa or adventitia

outermost layer serosa=visceral peritoneum and alveolar CT adventitia=areolar CT only

tunica externa

outermost layer, areolar CT and largest layer in veins

fibrous pericardium

outermost layer, dense CT function: prevents heart from overfilling, restricts movement

vestibule

oval central portion that contains the oval window which connects the stapes to the inner ear, contain the utricle and saccule

gonads (ovaries and testes)

ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone testes produce androgens (especially testosterone) will discuss in reproductive system lectures

oogenesis before birth (during fetal period)

ovary contains oogonia (oocyte "stem/parent cells") -oogonia contain 23 pairs of chromosomes primary oocytes are oogonia that start the process of meiosis -meiosis process is "arrested" at prophase I so before birth, the ovary will contain primarily primordial follicles (which have primary oocytes in them)

oogenesis during childhood

ovary inactive

When a person cries, tears spill onto the cheeks and the person gets a runny nose. Based on this info about the lacrimal apparatus, what is happening?

overflow of the lacrimal apparatus, more tears in your eyes then needed to cleanse the eye, lacrimal puncti can't collect them all, and nasolacrimal duct pours many more tears than normal into the nasal cavity where they mix with the mucus, resulting in the runny nose

sinuses

paired cavity/spaces within some of the skull ones that connect to nasal cavity, maxillary, ethmoid, sphenoid and frontal, function: warm and humidify air and resonance to voice (sinus does not form till puberty)

uterine (fallopian) tubes

paired tubes that attach to the uterus each uterine tube is close to (but not attached to) the ovary at the end of each tube are fimbriae functions: 1) to "pick up" secondary oocyte and transport it to uterus 2) site for fertilization of thee secondary oocyte

meiosis anaphase 1

pairs of homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends (still replicated/double stranded)

meiosis metaphase 1

pairs of homologous chromosomes form 2 lines in the middle of the cell

dermis layers

papillary and reticular

when blood calcium levels are low

parathyroid hormone is secreted by the parathyroid gland which raises blood calcium

sympathetic nervous system

part of the autonomic nervous system (motor division of the PNS) fight or flight response

erection

penis becomes "rigid" -more blood flow to penis, erectile tissue become engorged with blood -this is triggered by the parasympathetic nervous system

mechanical digestion

physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces

What epithelium lines the nasopharynx?

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

kinds of synovial joints

plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, ball&socket

deep group that plantar flexes the foot/ankle

popliteus, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, tibialis posterior

basilar membrane

portion closest to the oval window responds to the highest frequencies (high notes) and the portion furthest form the oval window responds to lower frequencies (low notes)

What do dorsal horns contain?

portions of axons of sensory neurons and portions of interneurons (association neurons)

Retinal tunic

posterior 3/4 of the eye contains the pigmented layer, neural layer, optic disc, macula lutea

sclera

posterior 5/6 of eye, whites of the eye, function: to provide shape to the eyeball and protect the inner parts

dorsal horns

posterior projections of the gray matter that contain primarily interneurons and the axons of sensory neurons

each spinal nerve splits into two branches

posterior ramps and anterior ramus

soft palate

posterior ⅓, formed from skeletal muscle uvula: rises to close off nasopharynx when we swallow

sympathetic pathway beginning

pre-synaptic axons exit through anterior roots than go to spinal nerve than to white rami than to sympathetic trunk and at this point there are three options

secondary follicle

primary oocyte + follicle cells + antrum (fluid-filled space)

primordial follicle

primary oocyte surround by a single layer of flattened (squamous) follicle cells

primary follicle

primary oocyte surrounded by one or more layers of cuboidal follicle cells

gonads

primary sex organs testes in the male, ovaries in the female function: 1) produce gametes (sex cells): sperm or oocytes 2) produce sex hormones

chemical digestion

process by which enzymes break down food into small molecules that the body can use

crossing over

process by which genetic material is exchanged between homologous chromosomes (prophase 1) only occurs meiosis

digestion

process of breaking down food into small fragments 1. mechanical 2. chemical

ovulation

process where a secondary oocyte is expelled from the ovary

blood from hepatic portal vein is

processed by the liver cells (hepatocytes)

liver

processes products of digestion alcohol tolerance

B lymphocytes (B cells)

produce antibodies

lacrimal apparatus

produces and collects tears

lactation

production of breastmilk by mammary glands 1) increased levels of prolactin=milk production 2) when baby suckles, posterior pituitary is stimulated to secrete oxytocin this causes contraction/shrinkage of the uterus

microvilli

projections that increase the cell's surface area

Pronator teres

pronates forearm

enzymes

proteins that act as biological catalysts

genioglossus

protracts the tongue

SRY gene

region of Y chromosome initiates a cascade of genes to become male

iris function

regulate the amount of light entering eye (by enlarging (dilating) or narrowing (constricting))

T lymphocytes (T cells)

regulates immune response, activates b-lymphocytes

adrenal cortex

releases corticosteroids in response to ACTH 1. one group of these steroids: controls balance of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions in body fluids 2. another (2nd) group of steroids stimulates metabolism of glucose 3. another (3rd) group of these steroids: secretes small amounts of androgens (male sex hormones) -in females, some androgens are converted to estrogen SALT, SUGAR, SEX

filtration

removal from the blood

meiosis metaphase 2

replicated chromosomes line up in middle

meiosis prophase 2

replicated chromosomes line up in middle

pelvic houses...

reproductive organs and bladder

functions of the respiratory system

respiration/gas exchange, filters air, warms and humidifies inspired air, phonation and olfaction

neuron

respond to stimuli and conduct electrical impulses

cell body

responsible for nutrition, growth, and repair of neuron contains: cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus

spiral organ (organ of corti)

rests on basilar membrane and contains hair cells which have stereo cilia that touch the tectorial membrane

secretory glands are found in

reticular layer of dermis

olfactory nerve (CN I)

sensory axons only, function: allows smelling sensation, olfactory nerves synapse in olfactory bulb which connect to the olfactory tracts, test: smell

vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)

sensory axons only, function: hearing and equilibrium/balance, test: hearing loss, balance test stand on leg or push lightly with eyes closed, experiencing vertigo, lack of balance, dizziness or nausea/vomiting

optic nerve (CN II)

sensory axons only, function: vision, optic nerve travels to optic chasm some axons from L and R, optic nerve crosses here optic tracts: carry info from both eyes to one side of the brain, test: vision

All ___ have the ability to respond to a stimulus and initiate sensory input to the CNS

sensory receptors

central sulcus

separates frontal and parietal lobes

pleura

serous membrane secreting serous fluid

sperm production

sex cells (gametes) created by MEIOSIS end result of meiosis: 4 cells produced, each with 23 chromosomes only 1) spermatogonia 2) primary spermatocytes 3) secondary spermatocytes 4) spermatids 5) sperm (spermatozoa)

meiosis

sex cells (sperm and oocytes)

mitosis

somatic cells interphase prophase metaphase anaphase telophase

accessory nerve (CN XI)

somatic motor axons only, function: innervation of trapezius and sternocleidomastoid test: shrug shoulders, turn head

deltoid

shoulder

similarities and differences between cranial and spinal nerves

similarities: both in PNS and connected to CNS differences: spinal nerves are connected to spinal cord not brain, use arabic #'s to name not Roman numerals, and spinal nerves are generally longer (except vagus)

classification by layers for epithelia

simple and stratified

epithelium of stomach to anal canal mucosa

simple columnar epithelium

urethra

single muscular tube running from bladder to exterior of body function: expels urine from body urethra pierces a group of skeletal muscles called thee urogenital diaphragm -some of the skeletal muscle fibers thicken and form an external urethral sphincter (around urethra) -voluntary sphincter controlled by pudendal nerve

Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neuron

single process comes off of the cell body and divides into two branches

multipolar neuron

single processes comes off cell body; several dendrites off cell body MOST COMMON

prostate gland

single, chestnut-shaped organ -inferior to bladder -contains the 1st part of the urethra (prostatic urethra)

gross anatomy of uterus

single, pear-shaped organ, in pelvic cavity cervix: the inferior, constricted part of the uterus -projects into the vagina

meiosis anaphase 2

sister chromatids pulled apart to opposite ends and become single stranded

tongue

skeletal muscle covered with stratified squamous epithelium functions: perceive taste, mechanical digestion

integument

skin (cutaneous membrane)

integumentary system

skin, exocrine glands in skin/hair/nails

amphiarthrosis

slightly moveable

most absorption of nutrients occurs in the

small intestine

lymphatic capillaries

smallest lymph vessels, intertwined with blood capillaries, wall composed of endothelium

alveoli

smallest units of respiratory system, SSE

plantar

sole of foot

trochlear nerve (CN IV)

somatic axons only, function: moves superior oblique muscle, test: double vision/diplopia

lacunae

spaces where osteocytes reside

Bony labryinth of inner ear

spaces/cavities inside the temporal bone, include the vestibule, semicircular canals and cochlea

dermatomes

specific areas that are the sensory components of nerves and it is mapped out

sperm (spermatozoa)

sperm will "shed" the cytoplasm from the spermatid, and develop: 1) head: contains DNA (nucleus) -on head is an acrosome cap (enzymes) 2) midpiece (mitochondria) 3) tail (flagellum) sperm are then released from the sustentacular cell cytoplasm, and enter the lumen of the seminiferous tubule

cochlea

spiral chamber that contains the cochlear duct Scala media, Scala tympani and other membranes

prevertebral ganglia

splanchnic nerves synapse here

epiglottis

spoon-shaped cartilage at top of larynx, function: it closes off larynx when we swallow food

classified by cell shape epithelia

squamous, cuboidal, columnar

dilation stage

start of regular contractions-fully dilated cervix (typically 6-12 hrs) 1) early labor 2) active labor

how does meiosis start?

start off with one cell that has 23 pairs of chromosomes one set of chromosomes came from mom and the other from dad

spermatogonia

start off with these each contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (total: 46 chromosomes-diploid) divide by mitosis and produce primary spermatocytes

infrahyoid muscles

sternohyoid, omohyoid, sternothyroid, thyrohyoid

cholesterol

strengthens cells

Interoceptors = Visceroceptors

stretch receptors in smooth muscle of blood vessels and hollow organs; some monitor chemicals, temperature, and relay pain info

2 ways to classify joints

structure and movement

histology

study of tissues

common fibular nerve splits into

superficial fibular nerve and deep fibular nerve

stratified squamous epithelium

superficial layers of cells are flattened and deeper layers are cuboidal for protection

corpa quadrigemina (4) of the midbrain is divided into:

superior colliculi (2)- visual reflex centers for coordinating head movement with what the eye is seeing inferior colliculi (2)- auditory reflex center

elevation

superior movement

nasal cavity projections

superior, middle and inferior nasal concha, function: increase air turbulence in nasal cavity, so foreign particles are more likely to get trapped in mucus

rotations of forearm

supination and pronation

dorsum

surface of foot

myringotomy

surgical procedure to put "tubes" into the tympanic membrane to help drain fluid in the middle ear for those that have chronic ear infections

plasma/cell membrane

surrounds cell and gives it form

fibrous joints types

suture, syndesmosis, and gomphosis

sympathetic pathway 1

synapse in sympathetic trunk and leave through the gray ramus to the spinal nerves out to skin and blood vessels

sympathetic pathway 2

synapse in the sympathetic trunk and leave anteriorly to go to thoracic organs

arteries

take blood away from the heart and to other tissues, they transport blood high in O2 except pulmonary arteries, has thicker walls than veins, smaller lumen than veins, retains circular shape and BP is higher in arteries

veins

take blood to the heart, transport blood low in O2 and high in CO2, except pulmonary veins, walls are thinner and collapsible compared to arteries, lumen is generally much larger than arteries and BP is lower in veins

motor (efferent) neurons

take information FROM CNS to other parts of the body always multipolar

asthma

takes place at the bronchiole level, smooth muscle is inflamed and constricted, also mucus is thickened, air is trapped in alveoli and since bronchioles don't have cartilage nothing keeps them open so you can breathe

columnar

taller than wide

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

target: adrenal cortex function: stimulates adrenal cortex to release its hormones

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

target: kidneys (and blood vessels) function: inhibits urine formation/production

prolactin (PRL)

target: mammary glands function: stimulates breastmilk production

growth hormone (GH)

target: most body cells, but especially bone & skeletal muscle function: stimulates growth

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

target: ovaries/testes

luteinizing hormone (LH)

target: ovaries/testes

oxytocin (OT)

target: reproductive organs function: stimulate smooth muscle contraction in reproductive organs (esp. uterine) function: stimulate breastmilk release

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

target: thyroid gland function: stimulates thyroid to produce/release its own hormones

examples of short bones

tarsal, carpal

subcutaneous layer

technically not a part of integument -stores fat and anchors integument to underlying tissue -areolar and adipose connective tissue

What does the prosencephalon divide into?

telencephalon (will contain the cerebrum) diencephalon (will contain the epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus)

abducts thigh

tensor fasciae latae which connects to the iliotibial tract

last of the conducting portion

terminal bronchioles

external anatomy of testes

testes suspended in scrotum function of scrotum: to keep testes in a cooler external environment (3 degrees C cooler than internal body temp), to allow for normal sperm production a spermatic cord runs from each testis into the abdomen -contains blood vessels, nerves, and the ductus (vas) deferens

3 parts of the Dicephalon

thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus note: also contains the 3rd ventricle

common bile duct opens into duodenum at

the (major) duodenal papilla -here, bile and pancreatic juices are secreted

respiratory membrane

the SSE of the alveolus and the SSE of t a pulmonary capillary

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that contains some CN's (Cn III, VII, IX and X) and parts of sacral spinal cord (S2-S4), it maintains a homeostatic environment, rest and digest response, usually discrete and localized activity

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that originates in lateral horns of T1-L2 and is responsible for the fight or flight response and mass activation effect

Which primary germ layer is the nervous system formed from?

the ectoderm

conductive system of the heart

the heart is autorhythmic and is added by sinoatrial node

in females, at puberty

the hypothalamus secretes hormones to the anterior pituitary anterior pituitary releases FSH and LH which act on ovaries (and testes) these hormones then start gamete maturation and increased sex hormone production by the gonads

the illiacus and psoas major are collectively referred to as ___.

the illiopsoas

the brain stem consists of ___

the mesencephalon, the pons, and the medulla oblongata (pons and medulla are part of the metencephalon)

axons

the pons is chiefly composed of ___.

What do the alar plates of the mesencephalon become?

the posterior (dorsal) horns posterior 1/2 of the gray comissure

primary visual cortex (of the occipital lobe)

the region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual system

corpus luteum

the ruptured follicle that underwent ovulation -yellowish -function: secrete estrogen and progesterone (which helps uterus to develop)

primary motor cortex

the section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement in precentral gyrus

Describe the general microscopic layers of a skeletal muscle

the skeletal muscle is composed of fascicles, which are groups of muscle fibers. Each muscle fiber has a plasma membrane (sarcolemma) and cellular organelles like lysosomes ribosomes, and a sarcoplasmic reticulum Each muscle fiber is also composed of myofilaments (elongated proteins), which have a cytoplasmic fluid in between them called the sarcoplasm myofilaments are composed of either actin or myosin protein

What classifies as the CNS?

the spinal cord and brain

two kinds of myofilaments

thick myofilaments: contain myosin thin myofilaments: contain actin

dura mater

thick, outermost layer of the meninges surrounding and protecting the brain and spinal cord

femoral

thigh

varying thickness of skin

thin and thick

epicardium

thin serous membrane and some fat it is the visceral layer, contains fibrous and serous pericardium

pia mater

thin, delicate inner membrane of the meninges

effacement

thinning of the cervix

which nerves form plexuses?

thoracic nerves do not form plexuses, they remain as individual nerves spinal nerves form plexuses

thorax

thoracic region

semicircular canals

three canals within the inner ear that contain the semicircular ducts

trisomy

three sets instead of 2

dorsiflex the foot/ankle

tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus

Canaliculi

tiny channels that radiate from lacunae; nutrients/waste exchanged between osteocyte and central canal

ciliary body tension and vision

to get far vision ciliary body tenses up and near vision ciliary body relaxes

why do lymphatic capillaries have one way flaps?

to push the blood away from limbs and allow it so it won't pool at your feet

medial and lateral pterygoids

together they elevate, protract the mandible; alone they can move the mandible side to side

medial

toward midline

rostral

toward the nose/mouth

mucosa of ureter

transitional epithelium

mucosa of urinary bladder

transitional epithelium

tubular secretion

transport of additional things the body does NOT want -from blood into tube

sympathetic postganglionic axons

travel directly to target organ

interlobar arteries

travel in the renal columns

extensors of the forearm/elbow joint

triceps brachii, anconeus

lateral flexion

trunk of body moves in coronal plane laterally, away from body

blood vessel layers

tunica externa, tunica media, tunica intima

arterioles

tunica media has 6 or fewer layers of smooth muscle, they send blood to capillaries

labia majora

two elongated, skin folds between legs-covered with pubic hair -homologous to male scrotum

Thalamus

two masses centrally located: functions as a relay point and processing center for all sensory impulses going to the cerebral cortex (except smell)

bipolar neuron

two processes off of the cell body; one axon and one dendrite

labia minora

two thin, hairless skin folds between the labia minora are 1) urethral orifice (opening) 2) vaginal orifice (opening) 3) openings for the greater vestibular glands 4) clitoris

somatic sensory input

type of sensory division of the PNS; sends information from receptors to CNS includes 5 senses as well as balance and temperature also information from the skeletal muscles (proprioception = sense of body position)

visceral sensory input

type of sensory division of the PNS; sends information from receptors to CNS receives information from the internal organs (stretching, pain; chemical composition of blood)

muscularis

typically contains two layers of smooth muscle 1. inner circular layer 2. outer longitudinal layer exception: stomach has 3 layers responsible for peristalsis: alternate waves of contraction and relaxation

leukocytes

typically larger than erythrocytes, they are diapedesis (they can slip out of capillary blood vessels) and there are many different types: (most to least common) neutrophils lymphocytes monocytes eosinophils basophils function: help the body fight disease

gallbladder

underneath liver function: it stores bile secreted by liver

meiosis telophase 2

up to 4 new haploid daughter cells, each with 23 single stranded chromosomes (each with only 1 chromatid) these 4 cells are gametes

brachium

upper arm

continuous with mesencephalic (cerebral) aqueduct (part of the pons)

upper part of the fourth ventricle

liver

upper right part of abdomen functions: 1) produces and secretes bile (an agent that helps with fat/lipid digestion) 2) it processes the products of digestion (including ingested alcohol and drugs)

urinary tract

ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

process of releasing urine

urination or micturition

female accessory reproductive organs

uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, mammary glands

thyroid cartilage

v shaped with the laryngeal prominence (men's are bigger)

vagus and heart

vagus brings parasympathetic info to the heart

elastic arteries

vessel wall contains large amounts of elastic protein fibers, largest of arteries, ex: aorta, common carotid and common iliac, they send blood to muscular arteries

on the circular folds of mucosa and submucosa

villi folds of mucosa only function: help increase surface area (along with the microvillous border) and provide a greater distance for materials to be absorbed in the center of each villus are blood vessels and a lacteal 1. lymphatic capillary function: absorb lipids (fats) and lipid-soluble vitamins (ADEK)

general histology of the GI tract (esophagus to large intestine)

wall contains 4 layers or tunics 1. mucosa 2. submucosa 3. muscularis 4. serosa or adventitia

Why does the blood need to be filtered?

waste products, pH levels LIFE SUSTAINING

absorption

water and food molecules pass through to GI lymphatics and blood vessels most nutrients absorbed in blood vessels -lacteals

secrete saliva

water, mucus, amylase (an enzyme that a digests carbohydrates), lysozyme (antibacterial agent), antibodies

target

what cells respond to it

goblet cells

white ovals secrete mucus for lubrication example: lines most of GI tract

inner ear

within the temporal bone contains the bony and membranous labyrinths

middle ear

within the temporal bone, lateral border is eardrum and medial border is oval and round windows of inner ear, it contains auditory ossicles and eustachian tube

where does the spinal cord rest?

within the vertebral canal

carpal

wrist