Animal Diversity Test 4

Monogamous Relationship

one male mates with one female

Human Evolution

-Darwin devoted the book the descent of man and selection in relation to set to human evolution -the idea of humans sharing common descent with apes was repugnant to victorian world at the time -the search for "missing link" began when two Neanderthal skeletons were collected in the 1880's -in 1891, Eugene Dubois discovered java man, homo erectus -increased support for Darwin's Hypothesis -modern biochemical studies and comparative cytology have also shown that humans, apes, and chimpanzees are genetically similar and lend confirmation to the idea that humans depended from apes

Pioneers of Ethology

-Konrad Lorenz -Karl Von Frisch -Niko Tinbergen

Ultimate

or "why," questions about behavior address the evolutionary significance of a behavior

Basic Ethology Concepts

-Lorenz and Tinbergen (1938) examined egg-rolling behavior in the greylag goose -if the egg slipped away, she continued the motion -once started, the behavior must be completed in a specific way -stereotypical behavior

Migration and Navigation

-about half of all bird species do this, most North American and European species take a biannual journey -routes of most migratory birds follow established north-south-routes -most birds breed in the northern hemisphere where most land mass is, migrate south during the northern winter months -some seabirds do the opposite and may use different routes in the fall and spring -some species, like the Bar-tailed godwits, make rapid journeys and fly non-stop for 9-days from Alaska to New Zealand, relying only on fat stored for the journey -other species, like warblers, take 50-60 days to migrate and stop along the way to feed rather than leisurely from Central America to Canada -smaller species migrate at night and feed by day while others are daytime migrants or can travel both day and night, as in wading birds and waterfowls -many birds follow landmarks, while some fly over large bodies of water

Learning

-also considered a behavioral process -the modification of behavior based on specific experiences -learned behaviors range from very simple to very complex

Social Behavior and Reproduction: Most Monogamous

-although most birds are this, recent DNA analyses have shown that many species of songbirds are "unfaithful" and engage in extra-pair copulations -nests of many species may contain 30% of young with fathers other than attendant male -the possible benefits of extra-pair copulations include: -increased genetic diversity of the young -permitting males increased reproductive success with increased number of offspring -improvement of genetic quality and fitness of offspring for both males and females

Homo Erectus

-appeared 1.9 mya and was taller, with a low distinct forehead and strong brow ridges -had more advanced tools and the use of fire as seen by many charcoal deposits -thought to have migrated out of Africa about 1.8 mya and traveled to Eurasia

Social Behavior and Reproduction: Cuckoos and Cowbirds

-are nest parasites and lay eggs in other bird's nests -the "adopted" eggs then hatch and the foster parents feed them like their own hatchlings but usually outcompete the hosts own young -hatchlings generally develop in two basic ways in most bird species -precocial birds are covered down with feathers when hatched and are able to feed and run or swim as soon as their plumage is dry -parental care is still present for a short time -altricial birds are naked and unable to walk at birth so must be in the nest for a week or more

Control of Behavior

-biologists study the ways of both genes and the environment influence the development of behavioral phenotypes -behavior that is developmentally fixed is called innate behavior and is under strong genetic influence -does not need to be practiced

Disadvantages of Social Behavior

-camouflage may be less effective -not enough food to support numerous individuals

Thomas Henry Huxley

-classified birds with theropod dinosaurs due to numerous similarities -both dinosaurs and birds have a long, mobile, S-shaped neck -dromeosaurs, a group of theropods that includes Velociraptor, shared many additional derived characters with birds: -furcula (fused clavicles)- wishbone -wrist bones that permit swiveling motions used in flight

Social Behavior and Reproduction

-cooperative behavior in birds is reflected in the adage-"birds of a feather flock together" -sea birds often gather in huge colonies to nest and rear young -land birds tend to seek isolation for rearing their brood -birds that isolate during breeding may congregate for migration or feeding -organized social interactions of birds are most noticeable during breeding season

Ardipithecus Ramidus

-dates to 4.4 million years ago -commonly called "Ardi" and had long limbs, fingers, toes, and bipedal posture that may have been arboreal -woodland dweller based on associated fossils deposits

Benefits of Social Behavior

-defense (passive and active) from predators -easier to find a mate -synchronize reproductive behavior (increases likelihood of offspring survival) -parental care increases survival of offspring -cooperative hunting -huddling to avoid severe weather -division of labor

Home Range

-differs from a territory in that is is not defended -includes the total area an individual utilizes in its activities -an animal may have a larger home range that includes a smaller, defended territory

Modern Humans

-diverged from H. erectus about 800,000 years ago -these ancestral humans were divided into two groups: -Homo antecessor -Homo Hedidelbergensis

Migration and Navigation: Directional Finding

-during migration of birds is chiefly by sight according to many experiments -birds recognize topographical landmarks and follow familiar migratory routes -flock migration pools navigational resources and the experience of older birds -birds have a highly accurate sense of time; instinctive navigational abilities that are calibrated with existing landmarks, and can learn from experience -recent research indicates birds can navigate by the earth's magnetic field

Origin and Evolution of Mammals: Teeth Types

-earliest mammals of late Triassic were small and mouse-or shrew-sized -enlarged crania, redesigned jaws and new tees of definition, called diphyodonts -diphyodont teeth replaced only once as deciduous and permanent teeth while ancestral amniotes had continuous teeth replacement called poluphyodonts

Homo

-earliest members of this group were tool markers and their migration -the species and the definition of the genus are both controversial -Homo Habilis is recognized as the earliest and was similar to Australopithecus sp. in being adapted to arboreal life and bipedalism -had long arms, short legs, larger brain and the ability to use stone and bone tools -shared the early Pleistocene era with other hominids like Paranthropus, Kenyanthropus rudolfensis, and homo erectus

Origin of Bipedalism

-evolution of skeletal differences between humans and other hominids are associated with changes in diet and posture -human jaws are less robust and have smaller canines than other hominids -indicate omnivorous diets -position of the foramen magnum, which is the hole in which the spine passes to the skull, has shifted to directly below the braincase -indicating upright posture and bipedalism -shorter pelvic bones, s-shaped vertebral column, longer hind limbs, and parallel digits of the feet -further support bipedalism -bipedalism provided a better view of the landscape and freed hands for using tools, defense, carrying young, and gathering food

Structural and Functional Adaptations: Feathers

-feathers are lightweight and yet have remarkable tensile strength and toughness to achieve flight -different types of feathers have different functions -hollow quill emerges from skin follicle and continues as a shaft or rachis; bears numerous barbs in a parallel fashion -barbules from two neighboring barbs overlap and "zip" together with tiny hooks

Modern Birds

-flightlessness has appeared independently among many groups of birds, from ancient to modern, even in the Neognathae -penguins are flightless but use wings to "fly" in the water -birds living on islands that lack terrestrial predators also become flightless; some are able to run at great speeds, like the ostrich

Homo Sapiens

-fossil evidence showing them coming out of Africa about 200,000 years ago, moving into the area vacated by the neanderthals about 30,000 years ago -they were taller and had culture, art, and language that was different from homo neanderthals -speech was possible for both them and h. neanderthals due to unique skull modifications and genetic changes -mutation, isolation, genetic drift, and natural selection have affected human populations much like most other creatures -resulting in speciation and extinction -our early arboreal lifestyle allowed us binocular vision, and manipulative use of hands

Archaeopteryx Lithographica

-fossil in 1861 -demonstrated phylogenetic relationship between birds and theropod dinosaurs -skull resembled modern birds but had a break-like jaw with teeth in sockets -skeleton was reptilian with clawed fingers, abdominal ribs, and a long bony tail -feather were unmistakable imprinted along wings -Archaeopteryx sp. evolved into modern birds

Australopithecus Afarensis

-fossils date back between 3.7 and 3 million years -includes "Lucy," a short, bipedal hominid with a brain slightly larger than a chimpanzee -discovered in 1974 -Lucy was one of the most complete skeletons of an early human ever found

Migration and Navigation: G. Kramer

-german ornithologist, used special cages to show birds navigate by sun at daytime called sun-azimuth orientation -using the sun as a compass requires accurate internal clock as the sun changes position in relation to time -E.Sauer and S. Emlen's planetarium experiments revealed that birds use the North Star as an axis to navigate at night

Mammalian Traits

-hair evolved in a common ancestor of all mammals and has been retained in varying degrees -mammals use hair for: -protection -concealment -waterproofing, buoyancy -behavioral signaling -sensory function -thermal insulation -hair allows mammals to: -maintain constant body temperature in all climates -supports high levels of activity

Bird Populations and Their Conservation: Hunting Groups

-have acquired wetlands as refuges and sanctuaries for migratory bird species and enabled the recovery of game and nonage bird species -songbird species in N. America that were abundant 40 years ago are now in decline due to many factors -agriculture has intensified with increased use of pesticides and other substances that have affected ground nesting species -fragmentation of forests exposes nests to nest predators and parasites -house cats are predators that kill millions of songbirds yearly -loss of tropical forests also derives about 390 migratory songbirds of wintering homes -stressors in any part of the bird migration will affect reproduction

Evolutionary Diversification of Primates

-have developed significant features such as: -grasping fingers -flat fingernails -forward-pointing eyes -binocular vision and depth perception

The Genetics of Behavior

-hereditary transmission of behavior is often complex -occasionally, a behavior will follow median rules -"hygienic" bees uncap hive cells and remove rotting larvae -controlled by two genes -homozygous recessive individuals show the traits -hybrids may show intermediate or confused behavior -each species of Agapornis has its own method or carrying nest-bulidng material -in the bill -tucked into feathers on the back -hybrids tried both, but performed both incorrectly

Bird Populations and Their Conservation

-humans have been responsible for numerous bird extinctions due to habitat destruction, competition with introduced species and hunting -since the dodo went extinct in 1681, more than 140 bird species have become extinct -the passenger pigeons of North America used to darken the skies according to historical records more than 150 years ago -modern game birds are now well-managed in North America with legally hunted species not being endangered anymore

Social Behavior and Reproduction: Mating Systems

-in animals range from having one to many mates during the breeding period -over 90% of bird species are monogamous and only mate with one partner each breeding season, while polygamy is common for most other animals -in a few species, such as swans and geese, partners are chosen for life and remain together throughout the year -seasonal monogamy is more common where most migrant birds pair up only during that mating event and live independent lives after

Migration and Navigation: Stimulus For Migration

-in birds is closely related to reproductive cycles and seasonal changes -longer days of late winter and early spring activate development of gonads and fat deposits, which are important internal cues for bird migration -increasing day length stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary that releases pituitary gonadotropic hormone, resulting in a gonad growth, fat deposition, migration, courtship, mating behavior, and others

Fixed Action Pattern Examples

-in male sticklebacks, the sign stimulus for attack behavior, is the red underside of an intruder -when presented with unrealistic models, as long as some red is present, the attack behavior occurs -no attack occurs with the realistic model that lacks red -male english robins will attack a bundle of red feathers placed in their territory, but will ignore a stuffed juvenile (no red) -there are costs involved with attack behavior -inappropriate attack responses can be costly -red ties are not common in the environment

Hominids

-includes all apes -family hominidae -chimpanzees form sister group to humans

Mammalian Traits: Unique Traits

-innovations in the middle ear bones for transmitting sound to the inner ear -mammary glands for nourishing young -large brain -diaphragm for efficient ventilation of lungs -highly developed sense of smell -most mammals have: -intrauterine vascular placenta -special heterodont teeth and jaws for feeding on a variety of foods -upright gait for fast, efficient locomotion

Habituation

-is a loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information -if a noxious stimulus is applied, the animal becomes sensitized to the stimulus

Imprinting

-is a type of behavior that includes both learning and innate components and is generally irreversible -Lorez imprinted goslings -is distinguished from other types of learning by a sensitive period- a limited phase in an animal's development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned -Konrad Lorenz showed that when baby geese spent the first few hours of their life with him, they imprinted on him as their parent -conservation biologists have taken advantage of imprinting in programs to save the whooping crane from extinction

H. Heidelbergenesis

-is known to have spread around Africa, Europe, and Middle East -braincase is larger than other early humans -lived when the climate was colder and had long glacial conditions

Territoriality

-is observed when individuals defend an area that includes a limited resource -when territories are first established, there may be more frequent aggressive encounters -songbirds use their song to establish their territory

Old World Monkeys Vs. New World Monkeys

-lack a grasping tail -have close set nostrils -better opposable thumbs -two molars on each side of the jaw (new world have 3 molars)

Apes Vs. Old World Monkeys

-larger cerebrum -more dorsal scapula -the loss of tail

Prosimians

-lemurs, tarsiers, and lorises -arboreal tree-dwellers

Benefits of Marsupials

-less investment in gestation and easier to replace lost young -placental and marsupial patterns evolved independently and are successful in their own unique situations

Structural and Functional Adaptations: Ruminants

-like cattle, buffalo, goats, sheep, and giraffes, have a large four chambered stomach and long tract for increased fermentation and digestion -carnivores feed on vertebrates and invertebrates -high protein diet is easily digestible: digestive tract is shorter -omnivores feed on both plants and animals, which include pigs, raccoons, rats, bears, and most pirates (including humans)

Simian Clades

-major clades include: 1. new world monkeys of central and south america including howler monkeys, spider monkeys, and tamarins 2. old world monkeys including baboon, mandrill, and colobus monkeys 3. the apes that include humans, orangutans, gorillas, and chimpanzees

Feeding Specializations of Major Trophic Groups of Placental Mammals

-mammals do no continually replace teeth -first, have one deciduous set, also known as milk teeth (temporary) -replaced by a permanent set when the skull has grown large enough -generally incisors, canines, and premolars are deciduous while molars are a singe permanent set that must last the lifetimes of the animals

Origin and Evolution of Mammals

-mammals evolved from synapsids and have a pair of temporal openings in the skull for the attachment of jaw muscles -synapsids were first amniotes to diversify widely into terrestrial habitats -collectively called pelycosaurs -early carnivorous synapsid gave rise to the therapsids -cynodonts were the only therapsid subgroup that survived into the Mesozoic

Mammalian Traits: Occupants

-mammals occupy every environment that supports life -about 5,700 living species of the most highly differentiated groups in the animal kingdom -mammals are exceedingly diverse in size, shape, form and function -can range in size from Kitti's hognose bat (2g) to Blue whale (170 metric tons)

Simians or Anthropoids

-monkeys and apes

Socially Coordinated Behavior

-occurs when an individual adjusts its behavior when others are present -agnostic and competitive encounters -territoriality

Cooperative Behavior

-occurs when an individual performs activities that benefit others because this will ultimately be beneficial -cooperative foraging -cooperative breeding behaviors

Structural and Functional Adaptations: Beaks

-of birds can reveal their food habits -have a high metabolic rate -small birds require more food per body mass than large birds since oxygen use increases on 3/4 as fast as body weight -hummingbirds use oxygen 12 times faster than a pigeon and 25 times as fast as a chicken -a 3 gram hummingbird eats 100% of body weight each day -birds lack teeth so foods that require grinding are cut apart in the gizzard

Structural and Functional Adaptations: Respiratory Systems

-of birds differ radically from lungs of non avian reptiles and mammals -bird lungs are the most efficient system -adapted to meet the high metabolic demands of flight -system of 9 interconnecting air space that are in pairs within the thorax, abdomen, and as tiny tubes in long bones -need 2 respiratory cycles for a single breath air to pass through system

Structural and Functional Adaptations: Circulatory System

-of birds is similar to mammals but evolved independently -4-chambered heart -large with strong ventricular walls and have a complete separation of respiratory and systemic circulations that birds share with mammals -red blood cells (erythrocytes) of birds are nucleated and biconvex while mammals have enucleated biconcave cells

Structural and Functional Adaptations: Reproductive Cycles

-of most mammals coincide with most favorable time to give birth and rear young -adult male mammals are fertile at any given time -females usually restricted to a fertile period during the estrus cycle also called "in heat" or estrus -timing of females estrus varies among mammals -some have one single breeding season, called monoestrous -others have several cycles within a year, called polyestrous -monkeys, apes, and humans have a post-ovulation cycle terminated by menstruation

Migration and Navigation: Advantages

-of moving between southern wintering regions and northern summer breeding areas 1. can exploit seasonal changes in abundance of insects and avoid bird predators since appearing one time a year prevents buildup of specialized predators 2. migration also expands living space and reduces aggressive territorial behavior between populations in the area 3. migration favors homeostasis, allowing birds to avoid climatic extremes and food shortages due to changing weather patterns

Polyandrous

-one female mates with many males -the females are often more showy than the males

Learning New Social Techniques

-one macaque, Imom discovered the ease of removing sand by washing sweet potatoes -behavior spread through the troop -she also found that if she threw wheat mixed with sand into the water, the wheat float, while sand sinks -this behavior also spread

Polygyny

-one male mates with many females -the males are often more showy and larger than the females

Proximate

-or "how," questions about behavior focus on the environmental stimuli that trigger a behavior -focus on the genetic, physiological, and anatomical mechanisms underlying a behavioral act

Fixed Action Pattern

-or FAP -is a sequence of unlearned, innate behaviors that is unchangeable -once initiates, it is usually carried to completion -it is triggered by an external sensory stimulus known as a sign stimulus -ex. the egg -sea turtle nesting

Structural and Functional Adaptations: Molting

-or shedding is needed since fully-grown feather is a dead structure -is a gradual process that prevents leaving bare spots -flight and tail feathers are lost in pairs, one on each side, to maintain balance -in some species, replacement is continuous so that flight is unimpaired -in many water birds, primary feathers are molted all at once -most birds molt once year, usually in late summer after the nesting season

Homo Neanderthalensis

-replaced H. heidelbergensis in Europe while homo sapiens 300,000 to 200,000 years ago -they were more robust, with heavy muscles and adapted to the cold while primarily eating animals -had similar brain size of modern humans and more advanced tools than H. Erectus -worked in groups while hunting large animals like bison, wooly mammoth, and rhinoceros -had the first recorded burial rituals but not much art and cultural records

Structural and Functional Adaptations: Fibrous Plant Diet

-requires numerous adaptations to facilitate processing -cellulose is a chain of glucose molecules that is a nutritious food resource, but hard to digest -no vertebrates can make the enzymes needed to break down cellulose -herbivores use anaerobic fermentation chambers that have microorganisms to produce cellulase enzymes that metabolize cellulose in their guts -rodents like rabbits eat fecal pellets (coprophagy) in order to provide additional fermentation and absorption of nutrients

Avian and Non-avian Shared Similarities

-skull connects the first neck vertebra by a single occipital condyle (bony knob) -birds have single middle ear bone, the stapes -lower jaw of birds consists of five or six bones, while mammals have one denture bone -birds excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid, while mammals excrete urea -have large yolked eggs

Migration and Navigation: Narrow Migration

-some have narrow migration lanes and keep closely to coastlines nearer to food, while others have wide migration lanes -the arctic tern is the greatest globe spanner; it breeds north of the arctic circle during northern summer and migrates to antartica for the northern winter (summer time in antarctic regions) for a total of 18,000km (11,200 miles)

Social Behavior and Reproduction: Reproductive System

-testes are very small until the approach of the breeding season when they enlarge up to 300 times -males of most bird species lack a penis so copulation involves bringing cloacal surfaces in contact with males behind females -some swifts and hawks can mate in flight -in most female birds, left ovary and oviduct develop while the right ovary and oviduct degenerate to vestigial structures

Structural and Functional Adaptations: Skeletons

-that are light yet sturdy is a major structural requirement for flight -modern birds have light, delicate bones laced with air cavities called pneumatized bones that make it strong and rigid -bird feet are mostly bone, tendon, and tough scaly skin, which makes them resistant to damage and temperature changes

Evolution of Flight

-the "trees-down" (arboreal) hypothesis has birds passing tree to tree by climbing to high place and gliding down -modern examples like arboreal squirrels and lizards glide among trees -the "ground-up" (cursorial) hypothesis has running birds with primitive wings flapping to laugh themselves to the air from the ground -bipedal ground-dwelling ancestral birds may have used feathered wings to snare and capture insects or to refine the aerodynamic control their leaps as they try to feed -primitive wings became larger and become more capable of powered flight -debate about the origin of flight has not been settled

Uniformity in Structure: Birds

-the feather is a unique and essential feature- the hallmark of birds -despite 150 million years of evolution, birds are still readily recognized due to uniformity in structure -forelimbs are modified as wings -not all are capable of flight (penguins) -hindlimbs are adapted for walking, swimming, or perching -all birds have horny, keratinized beaks with no teeth -all lay eggs

Agnostic or Competitive Behavior Examples

-the loser of a ritualized battle will indicate submission to end the encounter quickly -many species set up a dominance hierarchy or pecking order (first observed in chickens)

Behavioral Ecology

-the modern scientific discipline of this extends observations of animal behavior by studying -how behavior is controlled -how it develops -evolves -contributes to survival -contributes to reproductive success

Mating Behavior

-the product of a form of natural selection called sexual selection -the mating relationship between males and females varies a great deal from species to species

Structural and Functional Adaptations: Metabolic Rate

-the smaller the animal, the greater this is and food requirement per unit size -small mammals must spend much more time hunting and eating food than large mammals -a small shrew weighing 2 grams must eat more than its body weight each day and will starve if deprived of food for a few hours -in contrast, a mountain lion may kill an average of one deer a week

Origin and Evolution of Mammals: Earliest Mammals

-were endothermic, although their body temperature was lower than modern placental mammals -hair was essential for insulation and indicates sweat glands were present to facilitate thermoregulation -mammary glands evolved before end of the Triassic but lack fossil evidence -young early mammals would have hatched from eggs and relied on maternal milk and protection, much like modern monotremes -living mammals are now divided into monotremes, marsupials, and placentals

Earliest Primates

-were small, nocturnal creature (like the tree shrews) and may have split into two major lineages -prosimians -simians or anthropoids

Competition

-when resources are limited, this happens for the limiting resource -food, water, mates, shelter

Adaptations Necessary For Flight

-wings used for lift and propulsion -respiratory system must meet high oxygen demands of flight and cool the body -bones are light but provide a rigid frame -digestion and circulation is fast and efficient to meet-high energy needs of flight -nervous system must have superb sensory systems and acute sense for high-velocity flight -vision and smell

Imprinting Examples

-young male white-crowned sparrows learn their song by listening to their father -a bird raised in isolation will have an abnormal song -if he hears a recording of the song during a critical period, he will learn it- even the local dialect -he can only learn the song of his species

Structural and Functional Adaptations: 3 Reproductive Patterns In Mammals

1. egg-laying monotremes lay eggs with one breeding season per year 2. marsupials are pouched, viviparous mammals that have brief gestation and give birth to tiny young that are still embryos 3. placental mammals are called eutherians and are viviparous mammals with prolonged gestation and lactation -humans have slower developmental period than any other mammal which is one distinctive feature that sets humans apart

Behavior Class Questions

1. those that focus on the immediate stimulus and mechanism for the behavior 2. those that explore how the behavior contributes to survival and reproduction

Territory

a fixed area from which others are excluded

Hominins

are all hominid fossils placed closer to humans than to chimpanzees

Interspecific

exclude any individual that might be after the resource being guarded, regardless of species

Intraspecific

exclude only members of the same species

Paleognathae

flightless birds with a flat sternum and poorly developed pectoral muscles

Neognathe

flying birds with a keeled sternum and strong flight muscles

Ritualized Threat Displays

get the meaning across usually without injury

Benefits of Placentals

higher reproductive rate

Mating Systems

in many species, mating is promiscuous, with no strong pair bonds or lasting relationships

Social Behavior

includes any interaction resulting from a response of one animal to another animal of the same species

Aggressive or Agnostic Behavior

includes physical action or threat that causes another to abandon something

Kenyanthropus Rudolfensis

is slightly more robust and with a larger braincase than H. habilis

Ethology

is the scientific study of animal behavior, particularly in natural environments

Polyestrous

several breeding cycles per year

Monoestrous

single breeding season per year

Behavior

what an animal does and how it does it