Answers to questions for the exam.
Intonation of questions. Alternative and disjunctive questions
*Alternative questions generally form a combined tune in speech.a) Low-Rise + Fall (High, Mid, Low),b) Mid-High Rise + Fall (High, Mid, Low).The first pattern is suitable in all kinds of situations while the second conveys a more formal attitude. The Falling nuclear tone in the last intonation-group shows that the list of alternatives is complete.—Is he 'coming on Wednesday | or on Saturday?When the list of alternatives is incomplete the last intonation-group has the same tone as the preceding one — the Mid- High Rise or a Low Rise.—'Can she 'play the piano or the violin?*The typical intonation patterns of Tag Questions are combined tunes of the following two types:a) Fall (High / Mid/ Low) + Rise (Low, Mid, Mid-High)—You like this dress, | don't you?b) Fall (High / Mid / Low) + Fall (High / Mid / Low)—It's 'rather a 'long way, | isn't it?The intonation pattern of the first type shows that the speaker is not sure of the answer. The second type shows that the speaker is sure of the answer.
The intonation of questions. General and special questions
*General questions are often pronounced with a Mid or Mid-High Rising preceded by a high level or stepping head and normal or high prehead. Such general questions may sound light, airy, formal and businesslike.—I saw a film last ,night.— Did you like it?A High Narrow Rise is typical pronounced on General questions which convey Interrogative Repetitions, i.e. questions or parts of the speaker's remark repeated by the listener.— 'Do you 'know his name?— Do I know his name? Why, certainly.Questions with low Rise or Falling tone shows the speaker's interest. They are called Friendly General questions.—'Are you tired?*The most common intonation pattern of Special questions is a Falling tone with a normalor high prehead and a high or stepping head.—'What has been troubling you?This questions pronounced with a low Rise preceded by a high-pitched convey the speaker's interest and his warm attitude to the listener.—'What's the matter with you? Intonation of questions. Alternative and disjunctive questions *Alternative questions generally form a combined tune in speech.a) Low-Rise + Fall (High, Mid, Low),b) Mid-High Rise + Fall (High, Mid, Low).The first pattern is suitable in all kinds of situations while the second conveys a more formal attitude. The Falling nuclear tone in the last intonation-group shows that the list of alternatives is complete.—Is he 'coming on Wednesday | or on Saturday?When the list of alternatives is incomplete the last intonation-group has the same tone as the preceding one — the Mid- High Rise or a Low Rise.—'Can she 'play the piano or the violin?*The typical intonation patterns of Tag Questions are combined tunes of the following two types:a) Fall (High / Mid/ Low) + Rise (Low, Mid, Mid-High)—You like this dress, | don't you?b) Fall (High / Mid / Low) + Fall (High / Mid / Low)—It's 'rather a 'long way, | isn't it?The intonation pattern of the first type shows that the speaker is not sure of the answer. The second type shows that the speaker is sure of the answer.
The Sliding Head. The Scandent Head
*The Sliding Head -is formed by a sequence of slides, i.e. downward pitch movements on each fully stressed syllable of the head. The stressed syllables in the Sliding Head may start on the same pitch or form a gradual ascent or descent.Partially stressed syllables in the given type of head behave in the same way as the unstressed ones: when a full stress is given only to the first notional word and the other prenuclear notional words are given partial stresses. Sounds lively, expressive conversation and in reading emotionally colored.*The Scandent head of an utterance is sometimes formed by a sequence of 'climbs', i.e. upward pitch-changes associated with each of the stressed syllables which are indicated with an upward arrow.The initial points of the stressed syllables most typically take the same level above or below the middle of the voice-range.The stressed syllables may also form a descending or an ascending contour (the Descending Scandent Head and the Ascending Scandent Head, respectively).Combined with the Low Rise in imperative utterances this head has a reassuring, encouraging meaning and is often used in speaking to children.
The Stepping Head. The High Head. The Broken Head
*The Stepping is characterized by a descending overall contour.Each fully stressed syllable beginning with the second is lower in pitch than the preceding one. Unstressed and partially stressed syllables are said on the same pitch as the preceding fully stressed syllable.The Stepping Head is common for reading aloud, formal conversation, lecturing, etc.*The High Head - all the syllables in this type of head are said on the same rather high pitch. There is only one fully stressed syllable on the first important word. The High Head is common for conversation (more frequently than the Stepping Head).*The Broken Descending Stepping Head -is characterized by an upward break somewhere in the middle of the head, after witch a downward movement is continued. The break is usually made on any fully stressed syllable beginning with the third.The Broken Head is used in order to avoid the monotonous effect ofthe Stepping Head within an intonation-group that contains more than 3 stressed syllables.
Principles of classification of consonants.
According to the manner of articulation consonants may be of four groups: 1. Occlusive. 2. Constrictive. 3. Occlusive-constrictive (affricates). 4. Rolled. According to the position of the active organ of speech against the point of articulation consonants may be: 1. Labial 2. Lingual 3. Glottal According to the place of obstruction consonants may be: 1.interdental 2.dental. 3.alveolar 4.post-alveolar 5.palatal-alveolar.
Reduction of functional words in English
An important feature of English pronunciation is the weakening and reduction of functional words in an unstressed position in an utterance. Not all functional words are always reduced when unstressed. Some of them may be both weak and strong. There is yet another group of functional words which are never reduced. Unstressed position functional words can be divided into three groups.1. Words always weak in an unstressed positionthe, a, an, as, and, but, he, she, you, us2. Words which may be both weak and strong in an unstressed positionat, am, are, can, could, does, have, has, from, shall, should, was, were, must3. Words always strong in an unstressed positionis, are, do, does, when, then, on, off, in, will, some, shall, that
Absence of assimilation in some consonant clusters
Clusters of alveolar and labio-dental fricatives with interdental sounds and those of labiodental fricatives with the bilabial sonorant [w] at syllable and word junctures present special difficulty for learners of English. In pronouncing these clusters care should be taken to avoid assimilation according to the place or manner of articulation, which means that the quality of the adjacent sounds should be preserved:Ex.: booths, baths, paths.
Intonation of Conversational Formulas
Conversational formulas include Greetings, Farewells, Apologies and expressions of Gratitude.According to their function in speech, conversational formulas can be defined as formulas of politeness.According to the degree of politeness expressed, it is possible to divide conversational formulas of all types into 3 broad groups:normal (neutral), friendly (very polite, warm, lively), casual (perfunctory). In each type of conversational formulas (Greetings, Expressions of Gratitude, etc.) these three groups would be distinguished in oral speech by intonation.The common feature of all friendly formulas is that they are pronounced with a Falling-Rising tone (Undivided or Divided), preceded by a high level or a sliding head: Thanks a lot. All casual formulas take a Low-Rising tone: Not at all. Normal Greetings, Expressions of Gratitude and Apologies are characterized by the Falling nuclear tone: I'm 'sorry I'm late. Normal Farewells are pronounced with a Lоw-Rise: Good- bye. 'So long.
Elision in consonant clusters. Elision of [t], [d], [h]
Elision means the dropping of a sound or sounds either within a word or at a junction of words in rapid colloquial speech. Formal speech tends to retain the full form under the influence of spelling.A group of consonants may be reduced by an elision of [t] or [d] between two other consonants:e.g. friends; mostly. Pronouns with the initial [h] and the auxiliary verbs have, has, had commonly lose [h] when they are unstressed within an utterance.
Falling Tones. Classification and cases of usage
Falling intonation is used for asking and giving information in a normal, quiet, unemphatic style, conveys certain emotions, such as completion, finality, confidence.It is used in categorical statements, orders, commands (imperative sentences), in urgent requests, in special questions, exclamations, in the first part of disjunctive questions (universal truth), in the last part of alternative questions, direct address (initial), greetings.
Intonation of Imperatives
Imperative sentences are used in speech for different communicative purposes, the most typical of which are to express a command or an instruction, to ask for a favour or to give a warning. Accordingly, we can talk about different communicative subtypes of imperatives: commands and instructions, requests and warnings.Mid Fall is typical for instructions.— Check your answer with the key.Commands with a Low Fall produce a calm, serious and categoric effect.— Get the children indoors!Requests can be pronounced with a Low Rise or Fall Rise. They sound friendly.— Try not to be late!Fall Rise Divided is used to show warning.— Be careful.Imperatives can be pronounced with a Low Rise and show casual or unimportant.— Switch on the light.
Combinations of voiceless consonants with [r].Combinations of alveolar and interdental consonants with [r].
In the clusters of voiceless consonants with the sonorant [r] complete or partial devoicing of the sonorant takes place —progressive assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords. The sound [r] is completely or almost completely devoiced when it is preceded by a voiceless plosive consonant [p, t, k] in a stressed syllable: train, pride, cry. In an unstressed position, at a word boundary or when [p, t, k] are preceded by [s] the devoicing of [r] is partial: waitress, temperature, spread, quite right. The clusters [tr, dr] are actually characterized by double assimilation since the sonorant [r] is modified as well under the influence of the noise consonants [t,d] it becomes fricative, and after [t], as was mentioned above, it is also devoiced. In the clusters [ interdental [s] and [z] with [r] ] the post-alveolar frictionless sound [r] is often replaced by an alveolar tap, or a flapped variety of [r].In the cluster[interdental [s] with [r] ], besides, there is partial devoicing of the sonorant [r].
Intonation of reported phrases and reported speech.
Initial Reporting phrases generally form a separate intonation-group. The most frequent nuclear tone of these groups in conversation is Mid Level.The nuclear syllable is pronounced on a steady (unmoving) pitch about the middle of the voice-range and is prolonged in its duration as compared with a prenuclear syllable carrying a static tone.In reading aloud the most common pattern for initial Reporting phrases is Low Rise.Fall-Rise Divided is used instead of Low Rise when the Reporting phrase contains a word contrasted in meaning with another word (in the given context).A Falling nuclear tone (High or Low) can be used on a Reporting phrase when it is semantically and grammatically complete in itself and requires greater prominence.A Reporting phrase may form part of the expanded nucleus of a Falling-Rising Divided tune. .When a final Reporting phrase is long, it may form a separate intonation-group similar in its nuclear tone direction to the pattern of Quoted speech but lower in pitch.
Intonation and its functions
Intonation is the variation of pitch while are you speaking.Key components of intonation.*Pitch - the degree of high of voice in speech.*Sentence stress - provides rhythm in connected speech.*Rhythm - changing of stressed and unstressed words.Functions of intonation*Attitudinal - allow us to express emotions.Sounds serious, weighty, categorical,*Accentual - pay attention to the context. We can choose where to place accent.*Grammatical(Delimiting) - the placement of boundaries between phrases.*Discourse - intonation can signal a "new" information. We can use this function to show friendly, informal, warm attitude.
Loss of plosion. Nasal plosion. Lateral plosion.
Loss of plosion When two plosive consonants having the same place of articulation, are in contact within a word or at a word junction, there is a complete loss of plosion of the first consonant.For example:midday, big girl, deep purple, back gate, bad times. the phenomenon of the loss of plosion actually takes place in any cluster of two plosive consonants: stopped, knocked, dark blue. Nasal plosion At the junction of the plosive consonants [t, d, p, b, k,] with the nasal sonorants [m, n] the articulation of the sonorant starts when the articulation of the plosive consonant is not yet finished. As a result, instead of removing the obstruction in the mouth cavity, the air stream passes through the nasal cavity producing the effect of a nasal plosion: shouldn't, wouldn't. Meet my friend. Lateral plosion At the junction of a plosive consonant with the lateral sonorant [l] the plosion is produced during the pronunciation of the sonorant as the air stream passes along the sides of the tongue, lowered for the articulation of [l]. This phenomenon is known as lateral plosion: place, blow, glance, kettle, I'd like...
The intonation of non-final parts of utterances.
Non-final intonation-groups of any syntactic structure can be pronounced with various nuclear tones, yet there are more typical and less typical intonation patterns for each kind of syntactic structure. When a Low Rise is used, it indicates for the hearer that the utterance is not finished and there is a continuation without which the information is incomplete. This pattern is typically pronounced in grammatically incomplete parts of utterances, such as: a) adverbial phrases b)enumeration c) initial subordinate clauses d)principal clauses that are incomplete in meaning without a continuation, e.g. clauses formed by the author's words in reported speech. A Rising tone can also be used in an initial part of a compound sentence. A Falling nuclear tone, due to its categoric and definite character, adds greater semantic weight to a non-final group in comparison with the Low Rising pattern. Compare:| live near the /bus-stop and the\metro | station.
Principles of classification of vowels
On the articulatory level the description of vowels notes changes: 1. in the stability of articulation; 2. in the tongue position; 3. in the lip position; 4. in the vowel length. Stability of Articulation. All English vowels are divided into three groups: pure vowels or monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids. Tongue Positions. The changes in the position of the tongue determine largely the shape of the mouth and pharyngeal cavities. The tongue may move in horizontal and vertical directions, thus changing the quality of vowel sounds. Lip Position. The shape of the mouth cavity is also largely dependent on the position of the lips. When the lips are neutral or spread the vowels are termed unrounded. Such is the position of the lips for the English vowels [ɪ], [i:], [ɒ], [ʌ], [a:], [e], [æ], [ə], [ə:]. When the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is more or less round the vowel is called rounded. This is the position for the English vowels [ɒ], [ɔ:], [ʊ], [u:]. Vowel Length. Vowels are capable of being continued during a longer or a shorter period. All English vowels (with the exception of diphthongs) are generally divided into long and short.
INTONATION OF PARENTHESES
Parenthetical words and phrases at the beginning of an utterance are used for various purposes: a) to gain time while the speaker is framing the main remark or to call the listener's attention to what is going to follow; b) to show the speaker's attitude towards the subject-matter: supposition, certainty, satisfaction, regret, etc. A common pattern for an initial parenthetical phrase is a Low Rising nuclear tone preceded by a normal (or high) prehead and high head (if there is any): | As you /know, | words in an | English /utterance are | linked to\ gether. Parentheses pronounced with a Falling nuclear tone sound weighty and make the whole utterance more important. Additional emphasis or contrast is imparted to the parenthetical phrase by a Falling-Rising nuclear tone.Additional prominence is achieved when final parentheses are said as part of the nucleus of a falling-rising tune (divided). Parentheses inserted in the middle of the principal remark usually convey a side-thought and is pronounced on a lower pitch and at a quicker tempo than the main remark.
Rising-Falling Tones. Classification and cases of usage
Rise-Fall gives the impression that what the speaker admits or denies is in conflict with his own or his interlocutor's previous opinion. That is why it is sometimes called a quizzical tone.The rising-falling tone in utterance givesmore expression and liveliness. The rising-falling nuclear tone can be compared with the falling-rising nuclear tone both in form and in function.The rising-falling tone is a bidirectional, or complex, tone (like the Fall-Rise), because it comprises two elements - a rise and a fall - which can be combined within one syllable: the voice first rises from a fairly low (or mid) to a high pitch and then quickly falls to the bottom of the voice-range.According to the number of syllables involved in the pitch change can be three structured variants of the nuclear rising-falling tone are distinguished: one-syllable type, two-syllable type, three-syllable type.
Rising tones. Classification and cases of usage
Rising tone express various emotions, such as non-finality, incompleteness, question, surprise, doubt, hesitation, interest, request and suggestion, politeness, readiness to continue the conversation, lack of confidence, and even insecurity.Rising intonation is used in general questions, in introductory phrases (at the beginning of the sentence), in the first part of alternative questions (before "or"), in the second part of tag questions (when we need answer), in direct address (mid, final), and in enumerating items in a list(except the last component), initial parentheses, part of sentence with a continuation.
Components of intonation. Static and Kinetic tones
Static tones may be high, mid and low with two relevant gradations within each type - very high, rather high; mid high, mid low; rather low, very low.This tone is associated with a stressed syllable, its realization often involves the unstressed syllables attached to the stressed one, particularly those following it. Rising pitch change is always carried by the unstressed syllables and not by the stressed one.The general classification of English kinetic tones may be represented as follows.1. Fall (High, Mid, Low)2. Rise (High, Mid, Low)3. Fall-Rise (High, Mid, Low)4. Rise-Fall (High, Low)Static tones give prominence to words. The high varieties are usually associated with greater prominence, which, in turn, signifies greater semantic importance.Kinetic tones are more significant to the utterancea) indicate the communicative type of an utterance;b) express the speaker's attitude;c) single out the centre of new information.The total number of tones in an utterance is determined by the number of important words, and most typically there are from 1 to 5 tones.
Intonation of statements
Straightforward Statements are pronounced with the nuclear Falling tone (high, mid or 1ow) which is normally carried by the last important word of an utterance and is commonly combined with a High Level head.Straightforward statements sound final, complete, definite and categoric.Thus, straightforward statements with a High Fall sound light, energetic and have the effect of a speaker's personal involvement in the situation. A Low Fall gives a considered, serious and weighty note to a statement. Statements with a Mid Fall convey a neutral, calm and quiet attitude. Statements pronounced with the nuclear Falling-Rising tone (Divided or Undivided) are known as implicatory statements. Friendly statements are characterised by the nuclear Low Rising tone and a high-pitched prenuclear part.
The Ascending Stepping Head. The Low Head
The Ascending Stepping Head - the first fully stressed syllable is said on a low pitch, while each following fully stressed syllable begins higher than the preceding one. Unstressed syllables are pronounced on the same pitch as the preceding stressed syllable to which they are attached.The Ascending Stepping Head is often used to show the feeling of impatience, surprise, protest, disbelief, enthusiastic approval, support, etc.*The Low Head -all the syllables (stressed and unstressed) are pronounced on a low pitch. Prominence on the relevant syllables in this type of head is achieved by a greater force of articulation and longer duration.The Low Head is often used to show a cool, phlegmatic, disinterested or disapproving attitude.
INTONATION OF DIRECT ADDRESS.
The Falling tone on a Direct Address shows the speaker's serious attitude to what he is going to say. he Falling-Rising tone is normally used on an initial Direct Address in informal conversation to convey the speaker's warm and friendly attitude.Final Direct Address as well as Medial may become part of a Falling-Rising Divided nucleus.When this intonation pattern is used,the utterance sounds warmer and the address is more prominent.Direct Address placed in the middle of an utterance is pronounced in the same way as final address
Falling- Rising Tones. Classification and cases of usage
The fall-rise expresses nonfinality, signals continuation of the utterance, emphasizes the word on which it is used, and may express polite warning, suggestion, correction, contrast, and so on. The voice falls down and goes up within one word.The falling-rising tone gives the impression that the speaker intends the hearer to understand more than the words themselves convey.The falling-rising tone has an important modification: the so-called Fall-Rise Divided. The two elements of the Fall-Rise in this case are realized on two different words, which both acquire nuclear prominence.The Fall-Rise tone can variously indicate1)Doubt / Uncertainty- Politeness (especially in requests, suggestions and contradicting statements)2)Curiosity / Interest / Engagement (mainly in questions)3)Intimacy / Gentleness / Friendliness4) Also in Yes/no questions
Classifications of Basic Intonations Patterns
The word 'basic' is used here to denote several ideas. First of all, it implies meaningfulness.Secondly, the basic intonation patterns are pronounced and used in much the same way by all the educated English speaking people.Thirdly, associated with a complete communicative unit.1. Intonation Contour 1: (Low Pre-Head+) (Descending/Stepping Head+) Low Fall(+Tail)2. Intonation Contour 1a: (Low Pre-head+) (Low Head+) Low Fall (Low-Level Tail)3. Intonation Contour 2: (Low Pre-Head+) (Descending Head+) Low Rise (+Tail)4. Intonation Contour 2a: Low Head + Low Rise5. Intonation Contour 3: (Low Pre-Head+) (Descending Head+) High Fall (+Tail)6. Intonation Contour 3a: Low Head + High Fall7. Intonation Contour 4: (Descending Head+) High Rise (+Tail)8. Intonation Contour 5: (Low Pre-Head+) (Falling Head+) Fall-Rise Undivided(+Tail)9. Intonation Contour 5a: (Low Pre-Head+) Fall-Rise Divided (+Tail)10.Intonation Contour 6: (Low Pre-Head+) (Descending Head+) Rise-Fall (+Tail).
Classification of Head Types
The head of an intonation group extends from the first fully stressed syllable (including it) up to the nucleus.The head plays an important role in conveying the speaker's attitude and feelings towards the listener, the subject-matter and the situation, in other words, it is relevant for expressing the attitudinal meaning and emotional colouring of an utterance.Descriptions and classification of heads are based on the following major criteria.1) the general contour of pitch movement over the head - descending, ascending and level.2) the pitch movement within each stress-group - stepping, sliding and scandent heads.3) the distribution of relative prominence among the semantic units in the prenuclear part - one-peak head, diffuse head, mixed type of head.
Components of intonation. The pitch. The tune
The pitch component of intonation, or speech melody, is commonly referred to as variations in the height of the voice during speech, & is generally described in terms of pitch-changes & levels. A pitch-level is a certain height within the speaker's voice-range.A pitch-change is a feature perceived more easily than a pitch-level.The basic unit used to describe the pitch component is the tone. Depending on whether the pitch of the voice varies or remains unvaried tones are subdivided into kinetic and static.
Vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables in English
Unstressed syllables in English words are in most cases pronounced with the neutral vowel [è] which is historically the result of the reduction, or weakening, of various vowels in an unstressed position. In unstressed syllables containing the letter "e" the sound [I] is often pronounced, which is also regarded as a case of weakening since the letter "e" in a stressed syllable normally corresponds to either [i:] or [e]. In some English words, however, there is no reduction, i.e. the unstressed syllables in them retain a full-quality vowel. This means that the letter-sound correlation here is the same as in stressed syllables.
Components of intonation. Utterance-stress
Utterance-stress is a prosodic phenomenon of speech with a linguistic function of indicating the relative importance of various elements in an utterance.The main function of the sentence stress is to single out the communicative centre of the utterance. The most prominent part of a sentence is the last stressed syllable which takes the nuclear tone.We differentiate 3 types of utterance stress.1. Normal or syntactical2. Logical3. Emphatic*Normal utterance-stress is used to arrange words into sentences or intonation groups phonetically. It expresses the general idea of the sentence and indicates its communicative center.*Logical stress gives special prominence to a new element in a sentence. The logical stress is one of the most expressive means of oral speech.*Both normal and logical stresses can be unemphatic or emphatic (emotional). Pronounce with High Fall or Rise-Fall.
Combinations of plosive and fricative consonants. Linking [r].
When a plosive consonant precedes a fricative consonant in a word or at a junction of words it has its release during the pronunciation of the fricative. This phenomenon is called fricative plosion: e. g,: let's, wha's, kinds, upside, stops, walks When a word ending in shwa sound is immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel, the sound [r] is very often inserted at the end of the first word joining it to the next one. When the spelling of the word ends in the letter "r"(or "-re"), the inserted r-sound is called the linking [r].When there is no "r" in spelling, the inserted r-sound is called the intrusive. Notice, however, the absence of linking [r] in such "inconvenient" word sequences as "a roar of laughter".
Alveolar consonants before interdental sounds.Combinations of consonants with [w].
When the sonorant [w] is preceded by a voiceless consonant, there is also some devoicing of the sonorant (progressive assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords). The devoicing is especially strong after [t, k] in a stressed syllable and is weaker in unstressed syllables and at a syllable or word boundary. Thus in clusters [tw, kw, sw] double assimilation takes place:twenty, quiet, sweep.