ANTH 301-D1 Exam 2

cognitive archaeology

-"the archaeology of the mind" -Beginning in the 1960s, archaeologists specifically were beginning to think about ideology, symbol, and prehistory, which led to a new perspective in archaeology called cognitive archaeology -this has a lot of overlap with more cultural views than anthropology, specifically because it's dealing with ideas about belief systems, religion, cosmology, ideology, and iconography -early in the 1960s, you had this big focus on science, with this processual approach in a anthropology (where people are looking at process and the way in which cultures change through time); people are looking at trying to actually create testable hypotheses, which doesn't really seem like it would align with a more cognitive archaeology and archaeology of the mind. -but then, beginning in the 1980s, there was kind of this new resurgence of interest in the subject, and today, as part of more modern theoretical approaches, researchers really try to incorporate prehistoric belief systems in their studies of the past. More cultural anthropologists are incorporating belief systems in their studies of modern people.

Processual theoretical framework

-Processualists are focused on culture as process -How do we examine the process of cultural change and cultural development? -According to Binford and primarily Binford's students (who really formed the core of a processual perspective), there are three main levels of data that you can obtain. 1. Low level theory- data -This is simply data collection. -Data collection in archaeology could be excavation, archaeological survey and testing, environmental analysis, analysis of artifacts, museum collection, or taking measurements through archaeological excavation. -However, the facts don't just speak for themselves; this is where processualism is a reaction to the culture history that went before. Culture history had as its final goal to establish chronologies and sort through those through time and spaces; however, it was wasn't really interpreting those chronologies and typologies. -Processualism is looking to interpret those data sets. -Data are known, and we can discover these data through all of these field techniques. -However, the goal of science is to use these facts to generate theories. So, archaeology requires input from today's behavioral world in order to bridge that gap between the observations of facts and past behaviors. this is what is known as middle-range theory. 2. Mid-level theory "middle range theory" 3. High-level theory- ideology

middle-range research

-archaeologists, in particular, use middle-range research (or middle-range theory) to link the data (the archaeological record or the observations) with broader theories about people and their lives in the past, linking it primarily to high level theory that includes things about culture and belief systems and social structure -experimental archeology -ethnoarchaeology

research topics of cognitive archaeology

-cosmology: which is how people understand the universe and the things around them -ritual and religion: which means belief systems and religious ceremonies -ideology: which is broadly encompassing larger concepts and beliefs -iconography: which means symbols or art and pictures (this can include writing systems, such as Mayan or Egyptian hieroglyphs

processual archaeology

-examines culture as a process

processual agenda

-explains social, economic, and cultural change as a result of internal dynamics (processes) -materialistic conditions assumed to take causal priority over ideational factors in explaining change -anthropologists were looking at technology, reproduction, subsistence, material items, and material needs instead of looking at ideas, symbols, religion, etc. as way of explaining how cultures change. -they were focusing on material needs rather than ideas, as furthering change in societies. this is how processual archaeology obtained its name, which is primarily what these researchers were looking at.

formation processes (cultural)

-in order to accurately interpret the archaeological record, we first have to understand the factors and processes that act upon it and which influence what we recover today -because of a variety of factors, both natural factors and cultural factors, the archaeological record (in particular) is not usually a direct reflection of past behavior (sometimes cultural effects, sometimes natural effects, things called c transforms and n transforms that affect the archaeological record) -these processes have to be considered when we're talking about the application of more experimental research and ethno-archaeological studies (ethnoarchaeology being the observations of living people that help us understand people in the past) -depositional: this means cultural deposition; it basically transforms the materials from something that is used by a culture into an archaeological context -depositional processes are directly responsible for the accumulation of archaeological cites, it's basically what forms the archaeological record -e.g., when a ceramic pot is broken and discarded, it ceases to exist in the behavioral system, it's not really part of a thing that is used in the culture; it becomes part of the archaeological context because it's thrown away. this is cultural deposition, but it doesn't necessarily mean deliberate discard, so we can include things like when you lose something; this can be an example of depositional process -reclamation: reclamation processes are the transition of archaeological artifacts back into the cultural system -e.g., when archaeologists collect archaeological archaeological artifacts, which go into an archaeological lab or museum; this is a reclamation process, as it involves taking things out of the archaeological record and bringing them back into the cultural system -artifacts were reused in prehistoric times; it's been revealed that sometimes prehistoric people picked up and reused objects that were discarded hundreds or thousands of years before. -e.g., stone tools: people will occasionally pick up old knives, spear points, arrow points, or flakes and resharpen and reuse them. -another reclamation process that archaeologists have to be aware of is pot hunting or looting of archaeological sites. when a site is looted by modern artifact collectors, they take the complete objects (e.g., projectile points, pottery, or other tools) and leave behind the very skewed archaeological record. they might leave behind the very small pot shards or the small pieces of broken stone. archaeologists have to be aware of this because it can change an interpretation of a site. -e.g., if no arrow points are found on a site, does this mean that people didn't do any hunting? or does it mean that looters have collected all the complete points from a site and removed valuable data from the archaeological record? -disturbance: this process changes the context of things within a site, so it can include building, faming, or construction; it's basically anything that modifies or can perhaps destroy an archaeological site. -reuse: this process is also linked in with reclamation (this is kind of another form of reclamation), but it changes what the artifact looks like. this is the transformation of artifacts through different states in a behavioral system. -e.g., a ceramic pot is used in one way, and then perhaps it breaks, and the pot might be repaired. so, we do find (archaeologically) pots that are sewn back together through little holes drilled along a break, and it's therefore not watertight, but it could be used as a container. another example includes if a repair job breaks, and maybe the shards are ground up and used as temper (what's called grog temper) in a future pot. -these processes are all things that we have to be aware of when we're doing some studies of archaeological sites. they can all our affect middle-range research, our interpretation of the data we find, and our linking that to more high level theory. -taphonomic processes include erosion, seismic activity, volcanic activity, plant growth, animal burrowing, chewing, decay, and flooding

experimental archaeology

-one of the ways in which we do middle-range research in archaeology (specifically) is through experimental archaeology -this is one way in which archaeologists try to reconstruct how things were done in the past; experimental archaeology is often a way to determine or to interpret what we find in the ground by actually replicating what we think prehistoric people were doing. -it might help us understand how the things that we find were made, how they were used, and what archaeological signature of that might be. -e.g., the process of making chipstone tools -a way to determine the archaeological correlates of ancient technology. often conducted through replicative experiments

processual "new" archaeology

-processual new archaeology refers to processual perspectives -Louis Binford (1960s) coined the term -he was arguing for a new way of looking at human culture in the past; his ideas (this new archaeology) grew out of a dissatisfaction with culture history and descriptive archaeology -anthropologists had been compiling lists; creating trait lists, modern cultures, chronologies, and typologies in archaeology. Binford argued that this was not enough to explain how cultures operated in the past and present. -Binford retained chronology building and typology (practiced today) -however, he argued that we need to look at these through a new lens and perspective to try to understand culture change as a process

key characteristics

-processualism or processual perspectives in archeology and anthropology emphasize some evolutionary generalizations, not historical specifics -they're looking at change through time on a broad scale (on a holistic perspective) -it is very scientific, not necessarily historical, and closely linked to other social sciences (e.g., economics, political science, sociology, and ethnology) -processual perspectives used evolutionary theory and they explained changes as resulting from things like population pressure, hydrological systems (water systems), exchange networks, or limited resources -not using some evolutionary theories in the same biased ways that earlier researchers were using them (e.g., European civilization is at the "peak" and other civilizations are on different levels of evolution) -instead, they're saying let's look at things like natural selection, and how population pressure (for example) or a drought would drive a culture to do different kinds of things -the one key factor in processualism is that their researchers' goal was to produce universal laws of culture -basically, producing law-like generalizations that could be useful for understanding all societies, in these circumstances, humans are going to do this/practice this sort of behavior, they'll respond in this sort of way -processualists sought to discover these universal laws, and they felt that if they could figure out these laws, they could actually predict what societies were going to do (or what they would have done in the past) -their explanation systems were very scientific; they were looking at deductive models and were basing their research on the hard science -it was during this time in the 1960s that fields such as geology became incredibly important in archaeology -cultural anthropologists were using statistics and psychology in order to drive some of their theories as well -processual archaeology and similar theories in cultural anthropology were describing culture as humanity's extrasomatic means of adaptation;" basically, this is saying that we use culture to adapt to the world around us, and that environment and technology are very important in culture -they were also saying that religion and ideology don't have a lot of long-term explanatory value-- that these are the things that rise out of things like environment and technology -they were looking at culture from a systematic perspective; they were saying culture is the non-biological system though which people adapt to their environments, even though for processual perspectives, they're building on and reacting to some of the earlier theories; environment still plays a major role and they're saying that culture is the way in which we adapt to the environment around us -they also were really focusing on an etic perspective (etic: from the perspective of the outside observer-- sympathetic; as opposed to emic: from the perspective of the participant-- empathetic)

Inca agriculture

-some of the things that they grew (other than potatoes and occasionally corn): sometimes grew tomatoes; cotton, peanuts, and coca -as the Inca empire was created, and as they built these agricultural terraces that were very productive, and ad they figured out ways of irrigating their crops, the population increased -it was necessary for the organization of the Inca to become stronger; they needed both to physically protect themselves and also to have a strong government -even though they never had access to the wheel, this road system that they created allowed a linkage between a lot of the outlying villages and the major cities -the highest point in an Inca village was reserved for religious purposes; each of the mountains were often considered sacred mountains with small temples and deities up along the top -Machu Picchu -the main point of a village considered closest to the sun, which represented a major Incan god- the six major gods of the Inca were the moon, the sun, the earth, thunder, lightning, and the sea; the Inca had leaders who facilitated communication with these gods

Inca rituals

-the Inca also had a very rich ritual system, which included worship of a sound city and lots of sacrifices (including human sacrifices) -people also sacrificed food and other goods and animals -however, child sacrifice has been documented through some archaeological studies of mummies that have been recovered from the high Andes -particularly, as glaciers and snowmelt occurs, sometimes these sacrifices are exposed -the "Incan ice maiden" was a young girl; they were often drugged and dressed in extremely fine clothing and jewelry; they would have been sealed inside a tomb in the mountains and left to die. -the reason why they are so well preserved is because of the frozen environment, and it was extremely dry -archaeological sites that are in extremely cold conditions and extremely dry conditions tend to have excellent preservation

the Inca

-the Inca represent the largest native empire in the Americas (both by geography and by population) -date range: early 1400s AD to arrival of Spanish in 1532 -language: quechua -Inca territory consisted of very diverse geographic and environmental regions -known for their exceptional stonework -agricultural society that used extensive irrigation and terracing systems (partly as a way of turning very steep terrain into arable farmland) -crops: potato (many diverse varieties of potato), corn (in som areas) -domesticated animals included the llama and guinea pigs (which were raised for food/koi) -to communicate along a linear empire: they had an extensive road system that included over 12,000 miles of constructed road; the roads crossed mountain peaks, lakes, swamps, and they connected a lot of the major and minor Inca cities -many of the roads include stone blocks and some are actually raised roads -the Incas' only domesticated animals were the llama and guinea pigs, so these roads were all for foot traffic (not carts pulled by horses) -the roads served as the way in which the Incas were able to move goods and people around the empire; throughout this road network , there are storehouses and trade centers set up that stored agricultural surplus (and also had objects for trade)

flintknapping

-the process of making ("knapping") chipped-stone tools

ethnoarchaeology

-the study of contemporary peoples to determine how their behavior is translated into the archaeological record -we're using data that is gathered today to project into the past to explain some human behavior -this is where these archaeological studies (this middle-range research) actually links up with cultural anthropology and the observations of modern people -archaeologists and cultural anthropologists work together on this stage of middle-range research -e.g., in Kenya, we've been observing modern villages of modern herders/pastoralists who herd (primarily in this area) goats, sheep, donkeys, and cattle (but they don't necessarily keep them where we're working); but we have gone around while documenting the location of various villages. we've been when, how, and why people move the location of these villages because these are very temporary places, and then we come back as archaeologists, and we record the artifacts that are left behind in the archaeological signature. we do a lot of back and forth with cultural anthropologists in these studies. -interestingly, these kinds of ethnology-archaeological students can be applied to very modern American society. -e.g., The Garbage Project (William Rathje, U. of AZ) -A professor named William Rathje who was at the University of Arizona started a project that he called "The Garbage Project" (garbology); what he was trying to do was to apply archaeological methods to the analysis and description of modern societies. In some way, he wanted to test ethnoarchaeology as a reliable form of understanding human behavior. But, he wanted to really study contemporary America, so he began by saying that he was dissatisfied with the research techniques that were used with dealing with contemporary society. He said that the interviews and questionnaires that are usually given as part of an ethnoarchaeological research or part of a cultural anthropological study really weren't accurately depicting what people did in their day-to-day lives. He said that people who responded to those questionnaires or those interviews were always aware of their status as subjects, and this can create a form of bias. In other words, people don't always do what they say that they do. Rathje said that the garbage they discarded would be a more accurate reflection of what people actually do, and he conducted this study in such a way that it would expose those discrepancies. -e.g., (this is a kind of classic example of one of the outcomes of his garbology project), he asked people how many bottles of cans of beer they consumed each week (this was part of a questionnaire). he compared those results with what was actually thrown in the trash on any given week. he got permission to collect people's trash when they put it out to the curb. he found that households drastically understated their beer consumption. -he also discovered that at the time that he was doing the study (or at least when he started the study), it was back int he 1980s, he found that paper made up about half of American landfills. this was even after people began recycling, it's probably gone down slightly now, but not as much as we would like to think (despite our diligence in recycling). he was looking at the way in which things decomposed and found that paper and other organic materials didn't actually decompose in landfills. he said that the anaerobic conditions that are created by a large landfill serve to actually preserve organic things (like food remains), and this goes completely against the claims of waste management companies who claim that landfills biodegrade. in particular, he published some really horrific images of hot dogs that were at least 40 years old.

flintknapping techniques

-there are three main categories of flint snapping techniques; when you make an artifact (or a stone tool like a spear point for example), you use all three of these techniques in combination. -percussion flaking: this is when a piece of stone is struck directly with a soft or hard hammer -pressure flaking: this is when small flakes of stone are quite literally pushed off of the core -indirect percussion: this is when you have a punch (or almost like a little stick of antler, or sometimes a very hard wood), and you place that were you want the flake removed, and you strike that punch with another hammer

where do research questions in cognitive archaeology come from?

-they can come from a wide range of sources -they can come from ethnography (studies of modern people) -they can come from oral histories, personal experiences, brainstorms, scientific approaches, etc. -The research questions like anything in a scientific anthropology can come from anywhere; the important point is whether or not you're able to actually test those research questions -e.g., the case study on Hastorf and Johannessen's work on tree use among the Inca; this also encompasses a cognitive approach because they were looking at (firstly) changes in fuel consumption through time, but once they realized that the patterns of fuel use were different from what they expected, they looked more deeply and found that a cognitive approach yielded information about beliefs as they were tied with trees

Inca cities and fortresses

-they were often built on highlands and had steep slopes from the Andes mountains -the architecture of the Inca is still amazing, and lot of it is actually still standing -the blocks of the stones that they used can weigh several tons, but they are fit together so tightly that not even a razor bland can fit between them. -these are all custom cut to fit together as you see in this picture; they're not all uniformly square blocks; they're all custom cut and laid together-- this is done with no mortar -many of these walls are still standing; they were so finely built and fit together so well that even in major earthquakes, they don't typically fall down. -the center part of cities would be mostly used for government functions or ritual functions, but people lived in the outlying areas-- their homes were made from the same stone material -Inca society was arranged by a very strict hierarchical structure; there were many different levels with the sapa (or the high priest or ruler) who would have been at the top along with military commanders -temple priests, architects, regional army commanders would have probably been the second tier -the lowest classes consisted of artisans, farmers, herders, army captains; these people would have had to pay tax, often in the form of gold or goods to the upper classes

how are these research questions tested?

-what we may view as important (e.g., the rising of a particular star over the horizon) might not have been important to people in the past or people in other cultures -so, it requires very rigorous testing, just like more materialistic research questions (the questions are just different in nature) -so, it's very important to focus on beliefs and experiences of groups and of individuals

stages of Folsom point manufacture

1. blank or preform -begin with a thin piece of stone that's roughly in the shape of what would be the final spear point 2. shaping and thinning -the piece is then shaped and thinned 3. channel platform preparation (face a) -the flintknapper would isolate a small spot on the bottom of the point and strike that very hard in order to remove that channel flake 4. channel flake removal (face a) 5. channel platform preparation (face b) 6. channel flake removal (face b) 7. post fluting retouch -retouching the tip, grinding the edges of the base, and thinning

What did Walter Taylor call his new theoretical perspective in archaeology that focused on interpreting culture and cultural contexts?

Conjunctive approach

What is the theoretical perspective that Marvin Harris advocated in studies of India's cattle and other case studies?

Cultural materialism

Binford argues that residential and logistical mobility are opposing principles

False

In "Willow Smoke and Dogs' Tails", Binford discusses his efforts to find skeletal remains of dogs in archaeological sites.

False

Links between the Inca people and their land provide cultural incentives to remove trees through clearcutting.

False

Ndembu society is patrilineal.

False

"Mapping on" (i.e. residential mobility - moving consumers to goods) works best for what kind of subsistence-settlement strategy?

Forager

What subsistence-settlement system does Binford propose that consists of seasonal residential moves among resource patches?

Foraging

Response paper 4 assignment: first, read Turner's discussion of Ndembu ritual and symbol. Pay particular attention to his discussion of symbols and their meaning. For the text of your response paper, write a brief analysis of the symbolic meaning of the graduation cap (which you will all wear for your college graduation ceremony). Please present THREE different meanings of the graduation cap (similar to the way in which Turner presents three symbolic meanings of the mudyi tree). Be explicit about whether these are emic or etic interpretations and situate within the cultural context. I expect that you will refer back to Turner's article and some of the ways that we understand symbol as anthropologists. I will be looking for specific details. Your grade is based on writing clarity, your argument, use of sources and data, and application of theory.

Graduation ceremonies serve as commencement rituals that formally celebrate the conclusion of students' undergraduate experiences and their collective invitation into the professional workforce. Academic regalia (i.e., graduation cap) is presented to students for graduation ceremonies. The American Council of Education (ACE) asserts that cotton poplin, broadcloth, rayon, or silk (to match graduation gowns) are to be utilized for caps; doctoral tams are generally black velvet. Regarding form, the ACE highly recommends mortarboards (square caps). Black caps are promoted by the ACE, unless the institution chooses an alternate color for students' caps. A long tassel must be fastened to the middle point of the top of the cap; the color should be black (or a color appropriate to the subject), while doctoral caps may have a gold tassel. Permissible exceptions involve religious and institutional concerns. Turner identifies the symbol as the smallest unit of ritual. Regarding the graduation cap (in its entirety), it is regarded as a representative object of academic attainment/achievement. The general public recognizes the graduation cap as academic regalia; its meaning/significance is not challenged or debated among American society. After receiving their diplomas at graduation ceremonies, students typically move their tassels from the right side of their cap to the left; this action represents the successful transition from student to graduate. Additionally, at the conclusion of graduation ceremonies, student throw their caps in the air to symbolically celebrate their educational achievement and graduation. In direct contrast to the psychoanalytic approach, Turner maintains that ritual symbols serve as components of social action; therefore, they "must be analyzed within the social and temporal contexts in which they are expressed" (Turner, 1967). The analyses are provided with an emic perspective, as I was a senior that graduated from my high school. As a past participant, I am applying an empathetic perspective. Regarding the celebratory action involving tassels, the cultural context varies. Additionally, the action does not possess a clear historical basis/origin in American society. In recent years, graduates have frequently moved their tassels to signify their reception of a degree; however, this action is not formally dictated by institutions or official organizations within American society. While I moved my tassel during my high school graduation ceremony, my friend (who attended another school) remarked that she (and other students) did not participate in this action. However, my friend and I both participated in throwing our graduation caps in the air to celebrate our graduation from high school. When I ate at a restaurant with my family after the ceremony, various strangers congratulated my graduation. Within American society, cultural context does not vary greatly, in terms of tossing graduation caps and public recognition of the caps. Of course, graduation caps vary in their appearance and meaning (in a global context). For instance, Finland does not utilize mortarboards for graduation ceremonies. Cultural context of graduation caps may vary regionally, and especially globally. Contrary to Turner's perspective, it is necessary for anthropologists (and students of anthropology) to recognize how particular bias (i.e., Western bias) detrimentally affects reporting of data (i.e., cultural situations/rituals).

It is usually assumed that the Inca landscape was denuded of trees. What is alleged to have caused this?

Human occupation

Binford uses Murdock's description of settlement patterns to evaluate mobility. Which of the options below is NOT one of Murdock's categories?

Hunter-Gatherer

Response paper 3 assignment: first, read the summary (a book review) of William Rathje's garbology project (on Moodle "We Are What We Throw Away"), in which he and students interviewed Tucson, AZ, residents and then collected their garbage - comparing what people say they do with what they actually do. Then, try it yourself: make a list (without looking in your trash) of all the things you think you threw away in the past 24 hours, and then compare that list with what you find in your trash can. For the text of your response paper, write a brief analysis of your own experiment (your list and your trash can) and discuss how the two are different and why (is it differences in remembering, behavior, location, etc.). Be specific. Then, discuss middle-range research and how your experiment may expose flaws or biases in this approach. Be very specific and include a sentence or two about how those biases could be avoided. I will be looking for specific details. Your grade is based on writing clarity, your argument, use of sources and data, and application of theory.

Initial list: Lashes, cotton swabs, mail bags, dryer sheets, clothing tags, Post-it Notes Trash contents: Broken hanger, CCU playbill, lashes, cotton swabs, mail bags, dryer sheets, clothing tags, used tissues, chopsticks, boxes of Pocky (biscuit sticks), receipts, toothpaste tube, used makeup remover cotton pads, used disposable vape, empty pack of cigarettes, pink disposable Overt observation is a qualitative research method in which the research subjects are aware of the presence of the observer. A disadvantage of overt observation is the Hawthorne effect; this effect involves the modification and alteration of the research subjects' behaviors (due to their awareness of being observed). In The Garbage Project, William Rathje (the researcher) indirectly refers to this tendency, in regard to numerous participants mispresenting their consumption of food and alcoholic beverages (i.e., Lean Cuisine syndrome and Good Provider syndrome). When I created my initial list in regard to the contents of my trash, I was subjected to the Hawthorne effect. As the subject in the experiment, I reported what my perceived trash items were; out of embarrassment and other personal biases, I appeared to forget what the contents of my trash actually included. For instance, I did not initially report the discarded junk food (i.e., boxes of Pocky), nor did I mention my frequent intake of nicotine (i.e., in the material form of a disposable vape and empty pack of cigarettes). Other items that were not included in my initial list appeared after examining my trash contents; these objects (e.g., used makeup remover cotton pads and toothpaste tube) were not mentioned due to poor lapse of memory. Archaeologists utilize middle-range research to link data (from the archaeological record or observations) with broader theories about people and their lives in the past; they connect the data to high level theory that includes aspects regarding culture and belief systems and social structure. The garbage experiment I conducted serves as middle-range research, as I linked what I actually found to the larger question of people and their corresponding beliefs and behaviors in the present and remaining society. However, the garbology experiment exposes certain flaws and biases in middle-range research, as the approach is rather limited and narrow in its structure. Although human behavior can be discerned from trash (i.e., my trash demonstrates that I am a female college student who likes to apply makeup, shop, and smoke), trash does not appear as a universal panacea for the archaeological reconstruction of human behavior. Rathje asserts that the participants' garbage would be a more accurate reflection of what people actually do, while exposing various discrepancies. However, garbology is limited in its demonstration of the connection between human behavior and left remains. The archaeological record (e.g., trash) is not always a direct reflection of past behavior, as cultural and natural effects affect the record. Archaeologists must be aware of cultural formation processes (depositional in this garbage experiment/case of ethnoarchaeology) to avoid inaccurately linking data and misinterpreting the archaeological record.

What has Marvin Harris's arguments about the use of cattle in India has been exploited to justify?

NOT Anthrocentrism Unilineal evolution?

Binford says that his analysis of Eskimo life is using ethnographic research in mobility patterning to try to better understand spatial patterning in archaeological sites. What is this called?

NOT Cultural Ecology Middle-range research?

What subsistence-settlement strategy does Binford propose that consists of base camps from which which small groups venture out for specific tasks (but the main group stays at the base camp)?

NOT Foragers Collectors?

According to Binford, logistical mobility (moving goods to consumers) works best for what kind of subsistence-settlement strategy?

NOT Hunter-gatherer Collector?

Marvin Harris argued that the way in which cattle are used in India is

NOT for subsistence economic?

Do symbols always mean the same thing, even in different contexts?

No, symbols are culturally situated

Some anthropologists believe that we should ignore meanings of symbols that are not acknowledged by the people who use those symbols. Does Turner agree with this?

No. He feels that meanings that are not articulated by the people who use those symbols are also important in understanding the culture.

Hastorf and Johannessen were able to get a deeper understanding of tree use in Inca times through both archaeological research and ethnohistorical data.

True

Inca people may have planted and cultivated trees in the central Andes.

True

Reactions to potential fuel shortages in Inca times were situated within BOTH economic and cultural contexts, according to Hastorf and Johannessen.

True

Turner believes that as a social scientist, anthropologists do not create biased interpretations of cultures.

True

According to Binford, when is storage a good strategy?

When food is available seasonally

Walter Taylor lamented that students did not consider archaeological questions of humans as ____________________________________

biologically and socially functioning organisms.

Turner points out that to the Ndembu, white sap symbolizes milk, but what does red symbolize?

blood

Marvin Harris took an ecological approach to the use of cattle in India in his discussion of the use of ________________ as fuel.

dung

When Turner says that each ritual has its own teleology, what does he mean?

each ritual has its own design and purpose

What did Hastorf and Johannessen use as their middle-range research to gain additional information about fuel use?

ethnohistorical data

Walter Taylor argued that culture is a _____________ concept.

holistic

Walter Taylor argued that archaeologists should try to interpret their results in what way?

in terms of cultural behavior and the construction of fuller cultural contexts

How does Turner interpret the expression of conflict in Ndembu society?

it is acted out through ritual

What was one way in which wood was an important social resource in Inca times, according to Hastorf and Johannessen?

it was exchanged to cement social relationships

According to Turner, a symbol can represent many things. What is the term that he uses for this?

multivocality

Walter Taylor distinguished cultural phenomena from those that were

natural (such as biological, geological, or chemical)

Marvin Harris argues that one of the most important uses of cattle is for what task?

plowing

What does "praxis" mean in the contexts of sociocultural anthropology?

practice guided by theory

Binford suggests that the environment influences the subsistence-settlement system in what way?

shorter growing seasons mean more stored food and logistical strategies

The original Inca ancestors are argued to have descended from what as mother and father?

sun and moon?

According to Turner, what is the smallest unit of ritual?

symbol

When Hastorf and Johannessen are discussing fuel use in the Andes, what kind of fuel are they talking about?

wood

What kind of trend in wood use did Hastorf and Johannessen document in their study?

wood use initially declined, but then changed to a proportional increase during Inca times