anthro
Georges-Louis Comte Leclerc de Buffon (Leading to NS)
(1707-1788), a French naturalist, recognized the dynamic relationship between the external environment and living forms. In his 36-volume Histoire Naturelle (Natural History), first published in 1749, he recognized that different regions have unique plants and animals. He also stressed that animals had come from a "center of origin," but he never discussed the diversification of life over time. Even so, Buffon recognized that alterations of the external environment, including the climate, were agents of change in species. PPT: Wrote Natural History (1749) , Importance in change of universe; dynamic between nature and living beings, Did not believe in evolution
Thomas Malthus (Leading to NS)
(1766-1834) in 1798 wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population. This important essay inspired both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in their separate discoveries of natural selection. It's interesting that, although Malthus had an enormous influence on these two men, he wasn't interested in species change at all. Instead, he was arguing for limits to human population growth. Even though humans can reduce constraints on population size by producing more food, Malthus argued that the lack of sufficient food and water would always be a constant source of "misery" and famine for humankind if our numbers continued to increase. Both Darwin and Wallace extended Malthus' principles to all organisms, not just humans. Moreover, they recognized the important fact that when population size is limited by resource availability, there is constant competition. PPT: English clergyman and economist. Wrote An Essay on the Principles of Population (1798). Noted that population size increases exponentially but food supplies remain static.
Zygote
A cell formed by the union of an egg cell and a sperm cell. it contains the full complement of chromosomes (in humans, 46) and has the potential of developing into an entire organism.
mutation
A change in DnA. the term can refer to changes in DnA bases (specifically called point mutations) as well as to changes in chromosome number and/or structure.
Evolution
A change in the genetic structure of a population. the term is also frequently used to refer to the appearance of a new species.
messenger RNA (mRNA) and process in replication
A form of rNA that's assembled on a sequence of DNA bases. it carries the DNA code through the cell membrane to the ribosome in the cytoplasm during protein synthesis. The mRNA molecule forms on the DNA template in pretty much the same way that new DNA molecules do. As in DNA replication, the two DNA strands separate, but only partially, and one of these strands attracts free-floating RNA nucleotides (also produced in the cell), which are joined together on the DNA template. The formation of mRNA is called transcription because, the DNA code is being copied. Transcription continues until a section of DNA called a terminator region (composed of one of three specific DNA triplets) is reached and the process stops. At this point, the mRNA strand, comprising anywhere from 5,000 to perhaps as many as 200,000 nucleotides, peels away from the DNA model, and a portion of it travels through the nuclear membrane to the ribosome. Meanwhile, the bonds between the DNA bases are reestablished and the DNA molecule is once more intact. As the mRNA strand arrives at the ribosome, its message is translated. Just as each DNA triplet specifies one amino acid, so do codons. Therefore the mRNA strand is "read" in codons. Moves to Endoplasmic Reticulum Ribosome latches on
Species
A group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Members of one species are reproductively isolated from members of all other species (i.e., they cannot mate with them to produce fertile offspring).
Savanna
A large flat grassland with scattered trees and shrubs. savannas are found in many regions of the world with dry and warm-to- hot climates
Hemoglobin
A protein molecule that occurs in red blood cells and binds to oxygen molecules carrying it to cells throughout the body.
gene
A sequence of DnA bases that specifies the order of amino acids in an entire protein, a portion of a protein, or any functional product, such as rnA. A gene may be composed of thousands of DnA bases. a segment of DNA that specifies the sequence of amino acids in a particular protein. is a sequence of base pairs on a strand of DNA that can make: A protein Or a segment of genetic material that will perform a function
Continuum
A set of relationships in which all components fall along a single integrated spectrum (e.g., color). All life reflects a single biological continuum.
RNA
A single-stranded molecule similar in structure to DnA. three forms of rnA are essential to protein synthesis: messenger rnA (mrnA), transfer rnA (trnA), and ribosomal rnA (rrnA). It's single-stranded.(This is true for mRNA but not true for all forms of RNA.) It contains a different type of sugar. It contains the base uracil as a substitute for the DNA base thymine. (Uracil binds to adenine in the same way thymine does.) And has an extra oxygen
Nucleus
A structure (organelle) found in all eukaryotic cells. the nucleus contains DNA and RNA, among other things. a discrete unit surrounded by a thin membrane called the nuclear membrane. Inside the nucleus are two kinds of molecules that contain the genetic information that controls the cell's functions. These two molecules are the nucleic acids DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). The nucleus is surrounded by a gel-like substance called cytoplasm, w
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
A type of rnA that binds to specific amino acids and transports them to the ribosome during protein synthesis. The ribosome then joins that amino acid to another amino acid in the order dictated by the sequence of mRNA codons (or, ultimately, DNA triplets). In this way, amino acids are linked together to form a molecule that will eventually be a protein or part of a protein. But it's important to mention that if a DNA base or sequence of bases is changed through mutation, some proteins may not be made or they may be defective. In this case, cells won't function properly, or they may not function at all. -matches the correct amino acid to each codon (three bases) on the mRNA Anticodon = The three complementary bases that match the mRNA codon The other end of the tRNA holds the amino acid that corresponds to the mRNA codon
Adaptation
Ananatomical, physiological, or behavioral response of organisms or populations to the environment. Adaptations result from evolutionary change (specifically as a result of natural selection).
behavior
Anything organisms do that involves action in response to internal or external stimuli; the response of an individual, group, or species to its environment. such responses may or may not be deliberate, and they aren't necessarily the result of conscious decision making (which is absent in single-celled organisms, insects, and many other species).
Nucleotides
Basic units of the DnA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of four DnA bases. AKA made up of three components: a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group (a molecule composed of phosphorus and oxygen), and one of four nitrogenous bases. In DNA, nucleotides are stacked on top of one another to form a chain that is bonded by its bases to another nucleotide chain. Together the two chains twist to form a spiral, or helical shape.
Somatic cells
Basically, all the cells in the body except those involved with reproduction. Somatic cells make up the body tissues, such as muscles, bones, organs, and the brain.
Culture
Behavioral aspects of human adaptation, including technology, traditions, language, religion, marriage patterns, and social roles. Culture is a set of learned behaviors transmitted from one generation to the next by nonbiological (i.e., nongenetic) means. Quite simply, and in a very broad sense, culture can be seen as the strategy by which humans adapt to the natural environment.
Carolus Linneaus (Leading to NS)
Book: (1707-1778) was a Swedish naturalist who developed a method of classifying plants and animals. In his famous work Systema Naturae (System of Nature), first published in 1735, he standardized Ray's use of genus and species terminology and established the system of binomial nomenclature. He also added two more categories: class and order. Linnaeus' four-level system became the basis for taxonomy, the system of classification we still use today. Linnaeus also included humans in his classification of animals, placing them in the genus Homo and species sapiens. (Genus and species names are always itali- cized or underlined.) PPT: Swedish naturalist. Developed binomial system- Systema Natura (1735), He added class and order, Humans classified as Homo sapiens
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (Leading to NS)
Book: (1744-1829) suggested a dynamic relationship between species and the environment such that if the external environment changed, an animal's activity patterns would also change to accommodate the new circumstances. This would result in the increased or decreased use of certain body parts (that is, "use it or lose it"); consequently those body parts would be modified. According to Lamarck, the parts that weren't used would disappear over time. However, the parts that continued to be used, perhaps in different ways, would change. Such physical changes would occur in response to bodily "needs," so that if a particular part of the body felt a certain need, "fluids and forces" would be directed to that point, and the structure would be modified. Because the alteration would make the animal better suited to its habitat, the new trait would be passed on to offspring. This theory is known as the inheritance of acquired characteristics, or the use-disuse theory. PPT: First to propose an explanation of the evolutionary process. Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics. EX: Giraffe theory that acquired traits of one's lifetime could be passed to offspring= Wrong yet should still be appreciated. Coined Biology. Manual: Lamarck theorized that organisms evolved through a process known as the inheritance of acquired characteristics.Lamarck hypothesized that variation arose due to biological demands during an organism's lifetime, and that such acquired or developed variation could be passed on to the next generation. An example is the idea that giraffes developed long necks because they would stretch in order to reach the leaves in tall trees, and this stretched, longer neck would then be passed on to the giraffe's offspring.
Charles Lyell (Leading to NS)
Book: (1797-1875) is considered the founder of modern geology. He was a lawyer, a geologist, and, for many years, Charles Darwin's friend and mentor. Before meeting Darwin in 1836, Lyell had earned acceptance in Europe's most prestigious scientific circles, thanks to his highly praised Principles of Geology, first published during the years 1830-1833. In this extremely important work, Lyell argued that the geological processes we see today are the same as those that existed in the past. This theory, called geological uniformitarianism, didn't originate entirely with Lyell, having been proposed by James Hutton in the late 1700s. Even so, it was Lyell who demonstrated that forces such as wind, water erosion, local flooding, frost, decomposition of vegetable matter, volcanoes, earthquakes, and glacial movements had all contributed in the past to produce the geological landscape that we see today. Lyell changed the framework within which scientists viewed the geological past. Thus the concept of "deep time" remains one of Lyell's most significant contributions to the discovery of evolutionary principles, because the immensity of geological time permitted the necessary time depth for the inherently slow process of evolutionary change. PPT: Author of Principles of Geology (1830-1833) and founder of modern geology. Uniform processes (uniformitarianism) could account for present geological features. His ideas provided the time depth necessary for biological evolution to have occurred
Theory
Book: A broad statement of scientific relationships or underlying principles that has been substantially verified through the testing of hypotheses. But in science, theories are proposed explanations of robust relationships between natural phenomena. Theories usually concern broader, more universal views than hypotheses, which have a narrower focus and deal with more specific relationships between phenomena. But like hypotheses, theories aren't facts. They are tested explanations of facts. PPT: Theories are not absolute truths - they may always be disproved in light of new evidence
Forensic anthropology
Book: An applied anthropological approach focused on the application of osteology and archaeology to legal matters. Forensic anthropologists work with coroners and others in identifying and analyzing human remains. Technically, this approach is the application of anthropological (usually osteological and often archaeological) techniques to legal issues, such as personal identification of human remains and the analysis of skeletal trauma for law enforcement agencies. Forensic anthropologists help identify skeletal remains for law enforcement agencies, as well as in mass disasters or genocide investigations. PPT: Application of techniques and methods to the law- Medical Examiner/Coroner cases, assist in making positive ID in badly decomposed/skeletonized cases, Human Rights Violations, Mass Disasters
Scientific Method
Book: An approach to research whereby a problem is identified, a hypothesis (provisional explanation) is stated, and that hypothesis is tested by collecting and analyzing data. (1) Once a question or problem has been identified, the first step is usually to explore the existing literature (books and journals) to determine what other people have done to resolve the issue. Based on this preliminary research and other observations, (2) one or even several tentative explanations (hypotheses) are then pro- posed. (3) The next step is to develop a research design or methodology to test the hypothesis. These methods involve collecting information, or data, that can then be studied and analyzed. During the data collection and analysis phase, it's important for scientists to use a strictly controlled approach so that they can precisely describe their techniques and results. This precision is critical because it enables others to repeat the experiments and allows scientists to make comparisons between their study and the work of others. PPT: The Scientific Method is Testing hypotheses through the collection of data. Rejecting ideas based on 'disproof' Why? Repeatable, Objective. The ultimate goal = reject hypothesis
Charles Darwin
Book: Darwin applied his knowledge of domesticated species to naturally occurring ones, and he recognized that in undomesticated organisms, the selective agent was nature, not humans. late 1830s, Darwin had realized that biological variation within a species was crucial. he realized that sexual reproduction increased variation, although he didn't know why. Then, in 1838, he read Malthus' essay, and there he found the answer to the question of how new species came to be. competition for resources and biological diversity was all Darwin needed to develop his theory of natural selection. PPT: (1809-1882) Proposed the first credible mechanism for evolutionary change, Natural Selection, The Origin of Species (1859). Studied theology at Christ's College- Galapagos Island finches (led away from Christianity). Reaction to Darwin's book- Initially, negative, Scientific community gradually accepted theory,Where are we today? Manual: On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, begins with a discussion of variation and a practice that Darwin called artificial selection. Darwin spent considerable time with plant and animal breeders and noted they selected specific traits they preferred. Over time, each lineage of pigeons changed enough to become recognized as a distinct breed. As a naturalist, Darwin re-interpreted Malthus' work as it relates to plant and animal populations. he realized that there must be competition over available resources, only allowing those best suited for obtaining limited resources to survive and reproduce. He termed this competition the struggle for existence.
Copernicus (Of the SR)
Book: In 1514, a Polish mathematician challenged a notion proposed more than 1,500 years earlier, in the fourth-century b.c., by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle had taught that the sun and planets existed in a series of concentric spheres that revolved around the earth (fig. 2-2), a system that was, in turn, surrounded by the stars. Thus it came to be accepted that the earth was the center of the solar system. In fact, scholars in India had figured out that the earth orbited the sun long before Copernicus did; but Copernicus is generally credited with changing the idea that earth was the center of the universe. Copernicus' theory was discussed in intellectual circles, but it didn't attract much attention from the Catholic Church. (Catholicism was the only form of Christianity until the 1520s.) Nevertheless, the theory did contradict a major premise of church doctrine, which at that time wholeheartedly embraced the teachings of Aristotle. By the 1300s, the church had accepted these teachings as dogma because they reinforced the notion that the earth, and the humans on it, were the central focus of God's creation and must therefore have a central position in the solar system. PPT: 1514 A.D. solar system is heliocentric. Contrast to Aristotle
Georges Cuvier (Leading to NS)
Book: Lamarck's most vehement opponent was a French vertebrate paleontologist (1769-1832). Cuvier introduced the concept of extinction to explain the disappearance of animals represented by fossils; this concept was elaborated in his 1813 publication Essay on the Theory of the Earth. Cuvier was a brilliant anatomist, but he never grasped the dynamic concept of nature and continued to insist on the fixity of species. So, rather than assuming that similarities between fossil forms and living species indicate evolutionary relationships, Cuvier proposed a variation of a doctrine known as catastrophism. PPT: French vertebrate paleontologist Introduced idea of extinction to explain fossils Catastrophism as the idea that the earth's geological features are a result of catastrophic events - The Great Flood
17th century (Of the SR)
Book: Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, European scientists devel- oped other methods and theories that revolutionized scientific thought. The seven- teenth century, in particular, saw the discovery of the principles of physics (such as motion and gravity), and the invention of numerous scientific instruments, includ- ing the microscope. These advances made it possible to investigate many previously misunderstood natural phenomena. Even with these advances, the idea that living forms could change over time simply didn't occur to people. PPT: Laws of physics, motion and gravity were developed
Natural Selection by Darwin
Book: With Malthus' ideas, he saw how selection in nature could be explained. In the struggle for existence, those individuals with favorable variations would survive and reproduce, but those with unfavorable variations would not. The basic processes, as he understood them, are as follows- 1. All species are capable of producing offspring at a faster rate than food supplies increase. 2. There is biological variation in all species. 3. In each generation more offspring are produced than survive, and because of limited resources. 4. Individuals who have favorable traits have an advantage (greater fitness) 5. The environmental context determines whether or not a trait is beneficial. 6. Traits are inherited and passed on to the next generation. 7. Over long periods of time, successful variations accumulate in a population= nxt generation a new species. 8. Geographical isolation also contributes to the formation of new species. Natural selection operates on individuals, either favorably or unfavorably, but it's the population that evolves. PPT: That natural selection acts upon variation within a species.No one was able to explain the source of variation. No understanding of how variation passed generation to generation either (No concept of genetics yet). Mendel's pea plant studies ignored until early 20th century. Belief in blending of traits of parents.
Fitness
Book: a measure of the relative reproductive success of individuals. fitness can be measured by an individual's genetic contribution to the next generation compared with that of other individuals. the terms genetic fitness, reproductive fitness, and differential net reproductive success are also used. Manual: refers to the average number of offspring produced by parents with a particular genotype relative to the number of offspring produced by other members of the same population with different genotypes. A genotype is the complete set of an organism's genes, or the segments of DNA that code for specific protein products. A phenotype is the observable physical expression of an organism's genotype.
John Ray (Leading to NS)
Book: a minister educated at the University of Cambridge, developed the concept of species. He recognized that groups of plants and animals could be differentiated from other groups by their ability to mate with one another and produce fertile offspring. He placed such groups of reproductively isolated organisms into categories, which he called species (sing., species). Ray also recognized that species frequently share similarities with other species, and he grouped these together in a second level of classification he called the genus (pl., genera). He was the first to use the labels genus and species in this way, and these terms are still in use today. PPT: (1627-1705) Minister at Cambridge University. Grouped plants and animals by ability to produce offspring- These groups were coined species, He also coined the term genus by recognizing that similar species could be grouped together
Physical Anthropology (Biological)
Book: a scientific discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral characteristics of human beings, as well as those of our closest relatives, the nonhuman primates (apes, monkeys, tarsiers, lemurs, and lorises), and our ancestors. This kind of research helps us explain what it means to be human and how we came to be the way we are. physical anthropology is, in large part, human biology seen from an evolutionary perspective. Physical is the original term, and it reflects the initial interests anthropologists had in describing human physical variation. Biological reflects the shift in emphasis to more biologically oriented topics, such as genetics, evolutionary biology, nutrition, physiological adaptation, and growth and development. This shift occurred largely because of advances in the field of genetics and molecular biology since the late 1950s. PPT: The study of human evolution, biology, variation and adaptation. Biological Concentrations- Primatology, Paleoanthropology, Human Biology, Skeletal Biology/ Osteology, Forensic anthropology
Erasmus Darwin (Leading to NS)
Book: is best known as Charles Darwin's grand- father. But he was also a physician, poet, and leading member of an important intellectual community in England (known as the Lunar Society of Birmingham). In fact, Darwin counted among his friends some of the most important figures of the industrial revolution—a time of rapid technological and social change. In his most famous poem, Darwin expressed the view that life had originated in the seas and that all species had descended from a common ancestor. Thus he introduced many of the ideas that his grandson would propose 56 years later. These concepts include vast expanses of time for life to evolve, competition for resources, and the importance of the environment in evolutionary processes. PPT: (1731-1802) Charles Darwin's grandfather-free thinking physician, Wrote about evolutionary ideas
Archaeology
Book: is the study of earlier cultures by anthropologists who specialize in the scientific recovery, analysis, and interpretation of the material remains of past societies. Archaeologists obtain information from artifacts and structures left behind by earlier cultures. Archaeological research may focus on specific localities or peoples and attempt to identify, for example, various aspects of social organization, subsistence practices, or factors that led to the collapse of a civilization. PPT: The study of past cultures, social adaptations and lifeways through the interpretation of cultural material. Methodical- Academic, Cultural Resource Management
Primate Paleontology
Book: is the study of the primate fossil record, which extends back to the beginning of primate evolution some 65 million years ago (mya). Subfield of paleoanthropology. By studying fossil primates and comparing them with anatomically similar living species, primate paleontologists are learning a great deal about factors such as diet or locomotion in earlier forms. They can also try to identify aspects of behavior in some extinct primates and attempt to clarify what we know about evolutionary relationships between extinct and modern species, including ourselves.
Middle Ages Beliefs (History of ET)
Book: one predominant feature of the European worldview was that all aspects of nature, including all forms of life and their relationships to one another, never changed. This view was partly shaped by a feudal society that was itself a rigid class system that had barely changed for centuries. But the most important influence was an extremely powerful religious system in which the teachings of Christianity were held to be the only "truth." Consequently it was generally accepted that all life on earth had been created by God exactly as it existed in the present and the belief that life-forms could not and did not change. PPT: Stasis and fixity of species. Christian teachings that God created all life were taken literally. The Great Chain of Being- Ranking of life proposed by Aristotle in 4th Century B.C., Belief that earth was young, James Usher- Archbishop calculated world created in 4004 B.C.
Hypotheses
Book: provisional explanations of phenomenon. hypotheses require verification or falsification through testing. There's one more extremely important fact about hypotheses and theories: Any proposition that is stated as absolute or does not allow the possibility of falsification is not a scientific hypothesis and should never be considered as such. PPT: a provisional statement of a phenomenon following initial observations and data collection. Explanation of observed fact (Fact = verifiable truth) If it cannot be falsified - it eventually rises to the level of a theory
Evolutionary Theory
Book: stands as the most fundamental unifying force in biological science, and evolutionary biologists can explain many evolutionary processes in ways that were impossible even a decade ago. Because physical anthropology is concerned with all aspects of how humans came to be and how we adapt physiologically and behaviorally to the external environment, the details of the evolutionary process are crucial to the field. PPT: Evolution Unifying theory of biological sciences. Central importance to physical anthropology - Long history of development Manual: Contrary to popular belief, Charles Darwin was not the first scientist to propose the idea of evolution.
Bioarchaeology
Book: the reconstruction of past human behavior through the study of human skeletal remains from archaeological contexts. Bioarchaeologists study human remains and their archaeological context to make interpretations about diet, skeletal and dental health, activity patterns, nutritional stress, social status, and relationships between earlier human populations. PPT: Investigates health, disease, trauma, nutrition and behavior of ancient cultures
Paleoanthropology
Book: the study of anatomical and behavioral evolution as revealed in the human fossil record, is a major subfield of physical anthropology. the interdisciplinary approach to the study of earlier hominins—their chronology, physical structure, archaeological remains, habitats, and so on. it's the ultimate goal of paleoanthropological research to identify the various early human and human- like species, establish a chronological sequence of relationships among them, and gain insights into their adaptation and behavior. PPT: Study of the human and primate fossil record Institute of Human Origins - ASU, Donald Johansen The Leakey Family
Osteology
Book: the study of skeletal material. human osteology focuses on the interpretation of skeletal remains from archaeological sites, skeletal anatomy, bone physiology, and growth and development. some of the same techniques are used in paleoanthropology to study early hominins. In fact, a thorough knowledge of skeletal structure and function is still critical to the interpretation of fossil material today. For this reason, osteology has long been viewed as central to physical anthropology. PPT: Macroscopic and microscopic study of the human skeleton
Catastrophism
Book: the view that the earth's geological landscape is the result of violent cataclysmic events. Cuvier promoted this view, especially in opposition to Lamarck. Cuvier's version of catastrophism suggested that a series of regional disasters had destroyed most or all of the local plant and animal life in many places. These areas were then restocked with new, similar forms that migrated in from unaffected regions. In order to be consistent with emerging fossil evidence, which indicated that organisms had become more complex over time, Cuvier proposed that after each disaster, the incoming migrants were more similar to living species because they had been produced by more recent creation events. In this way, Cuvier's explanation of increased complexity over time avoided any notion of evolution, but it still managed to account for the evidence of change so well preserved in the fossil record.
The multiplication of cells & replication of DNA
Cells multiply by dividing to make exact copies of themselves. This enables organisms to grow and injured tissues to heal. There are two kinds of cell division. In the simpler form, a cell divides one time to produce two identical "daughter" cells each of which receives a full set of genetic material. This is important, because a cell can't function properly without the right amount of DNA. But before a cell can divide, its DNA must replicate. Replication begins when enzymes break the bonds between bases throughout the DNA molecule, separating the two previously joined strands of nucleotides and leaving their bases exposed. These exposed bases then attract unattached DNA nucleotides that have been made by DNA elsewhere in the cell nucleus. the two previously joined parental nucleotide chains serve as models for forming new strands of nucleotides. As each new strand is formed, its bases are joined to the bases of an original strand. When the process is complete, there are two double-stranded DNA molecules exactly like the original one. Importantly, each newly formed molecule consists of one original nucleotide chain joined to a newly formed chain.
Hominins
Colloquial term for members of the evolutionary group that includes modern humans and all extinct bipedal relatives
19th Century Constraints on Evolutionary Theory
Darwin didn't understand was where the variation came from. In the 19th century, this remained an unanswered question, plus no one understood how offspring inherited traits from their parents. w/o exception, 19th century scientists believed inheritance to be a blending process in which parental characteristics were mixed together to produce intermediate expressions in offspring.
Galapagos Finches
Darwin, recognizing a relationship between finch beak size and diet (for example, seed hardness), began to consider that traits reflected adaptations to specific environments. Darwin began to consider the factors that could lead to the modification of one species into many. He realized that the various Galápagos finches had all descended from a common mainland ancestor and had been modified over time in response to different island habitats and dietary preferences. Darwin began to develop his views on what he called natural selection. borrowed from animal breeders, who choose as breeding stock those animals that possess certain traits that the breeders want to emphasize in offspring. Animals with undesirable traits are "selected against," or prevented from breeding. PPT: The Islands- 600 miles from the mainland of South America, Species found in no other parts of the world, Different types of finches on each island. Darwin assumed that the variation among the finches already existed in nature and nature selected for the best beak shape.
Ethnography
Detailed descriptive studies of human societies. in cultural anthropology, an ethnography is traditionally the study of a non- Western society.
Mitchondrial DNA (mtDNA)
DnA found in the mitochondria. Mitochondrial DnA is inherited only from the mother. which directs mitochondrial activities. Mitochondrial DNA has the same molecular structure and function as nuclear DNA (that is, DNA found in the nucleus), but it's organized somewhat differently.
Noncoding DNA
DnA that does not direct the production of proteins. however, such DnA segments produce thousands of molecules (e.g., rnA) that are involved in gene regulation. thus the term noncoding DnA is misleading.
Paradigm Shift
How ET came about. A transition from one conceptual framework or prevailing and widely accepted viewpoint to another. the acceptance of the discovery that the sun is the center of our solar system is an example of a paradigm shift. PPT: Led to the Scientific Revolution. Revolution developed as ideas of earth and biology overturned.
Sexual Selection
Manual: According to Darwin, sexual selection "depends, not on a struggle for existence, but on a struggle between the males for possession of the females; the result is not death to the unsuccessful competitor, but few or no offspring." Sexual selection operates both when males directly compete for reproductive access to females and when females choose male partners. on the basis of a particular characteristic. Females' eggs are a limited resource as females are born with a finite number of eggs. Males can produce sperm throughout their entire lives. Pregnancies are also energetically expensive, so females often are the choosier sex, selecting the male most likely to father the best and most fit offspring. Sexual selection often results in sexual dimorphism, or a measurable difference in size, appearance, and/or behavior between sexes of the same species.
Adaptation
Manual: Beneficial variations that increase within a population over successive generations. In order for a characteristic to be known as an adaptation, it must be gene-based, its frequency must have increased within a population over time, and it must provide a measurable benefit to the organism that possesses it. Natural selection explains how adaptations arise. Remember that natural selection acts on variation already present within a population. Variations that are beneficial within a given environment are preserved through the process of natural selection. Therefore, what is an adaptation is environmentally specific. A characteristic beneficial in one environment will not necessarily be beneficial in a different environment.
Primates
Members of the mammalian order primates (pronounced "pry-may ́- tees"), which includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and human
Alfred Russel Wallace
PPT: (1823-1913) Developed a theory of natural selection in S.E.Asia. Asked Darwin for advice - prompted Darwin to publish his results. Book: In 1855, Wallace published an article suggesting that current species were descended from other species and that the appearance of new ones was influenced by environmental factors This article caused Lyell and others to urge Darwin to publish, but he continued to hesitate. Then, in 1858, Wallace sent Darwin another paper, "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type." In it, Wallace described evolution as a process driven by competition and natural selection. When he received Wallace's paper, Darwin realized that if he continued to wait, Wallace might get credit for a theory (natural selection) that he himself had developed.
Natural Selection defined
PPT: A process whereby individuals with favorable variations survive and reproduce at a higher rate than those with unfavorable variations. Principles- A trait must be inherited, Variation must be present, Fitness is a relative measure; changes when environment changes, Only acts upon traits that affect reproduction. Manual: Natural selection, one of the four forces of evolution, acts on variation already present in a population and is not a random or sudden process. Natural selection causes populations to accumulate gene- based changes from generation to generation, making them better adapted to their current environment. Darwin also recognized sexual selection as a type of natural selection. Sexual selection produces differences in size, appearance, and/or behavior between males and females of the same species. Darwin presented his rationale for natural selection. Darwin theorized: 1) variation among organisms is real, 2) this variation is passed from parents to offspring, and 3) many organisms produce more offspring than could possibly survive given the limited resources of their environment. Darwin formulated his idea of natural selection, whereby organisms possessing beneficial variations of a trait within a given environment would be more likely to survive and reproduce at a greater rate than those without such variation. As a result of this differential reproductive success, Darwin hypothesized that beneficial variations would increase in frequency throughout the population over successive generations.
Evolution among the public & Opposition
PPT: Religious opposition- Conflicts with literal interpretations. The mechanisms of natural selection are complex. Less than 50% of the American public deems evolution as fact. Religion -relies on faith, not amenable to scientific testing and falsification. Fundamentalists of any faith may reject all scientific explanations of evolution Book: The mechanisms of evolution are complex and do not lend themselves to simple explanations. Understanding them requires some familiarity with genetics and biology, a familiarity that most people don't have unless they've taken related courses in school. Another thing to consider is that regardless of their culture, most people are raised in belief systems that don't emphasize biological continuity between species or offer scientific explanations for natural phenomena.
Primatology
PPT: Study of non-human primates. Anatomy, behavior, understanding of evolutionary component The 'Leakey 3'. Dian Fossey - gorillas, Jane Goodall-chimpanzees, Birute Galdikas - orangutans Book: Because nonhuman primates are our closest living relatives, identifying the underlying factors related to their social behavior, communication, infant care, reproductive behavior, and so on helps us develop a better understanding of the natural forces that have shaped so many aspects of modern human behavior.
Linguistic Anthropology
PPT: The study of language, the diversity and connections of languages and how culture and language interact Book: focuses on the relationship between human speech and language and different aspects of culture, such as the role of symbols in society, social identity, and cultural beliefs and ideologies. In a broader sense, the field explores the origins of language in general as well as specific languages.
Amino Acids
Small molecules that are the components of proteins. there are 20 amino acids, 8 of which must be obtained from foods. These are known as essential amino acids.The remaining 12 are produced in cells and are known as nonessential amino acids. These 20 amino acids are combined in different amounts and sequences to produce at least 90,000 different proteins. What makes proteins different from one another is the number and sequence of their amino acids. In part, DNA is a recipe for making a protein, because it's the sequence of DNA bases that ultimately determines the order of amino acids in a protein. In the DNA instructions, a triplet, or group of three bases, specifies a particular amino acid.
Hormones
Substances (usually proteins) that are produced by specialized cells and that travel to other parts of the body, where they influence chemical reactions and regulate various cellular functions. AKA produced by specialized cells and then released into the bloodstream to circulate to other parts of the body, where they produce specific effects in tissues and organs. For example, insulin—a hormone produced by cells in the pancreas—causes cells in the liver to absorb energy-producing glucose (sugar) from the blood.
Cultural Anthropology (social)
The study of human societies, their belief systems, their cultural adaptations and social behavior Uses ethnography as a data collection tool
Four bases of DNA
These bases are adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine, usually referred to by their initial letters: A, G, T, and C. When the double helix is formed, one type of base is able to pair, or bond, with only one other type: A can pair only with T, and G can pair only with C. This specificity is absolutely essential to the DNA molecule's ability to replicate.
Anthropological Perspective
To understand human beings and how our species came to be, we must broaden our viewpoint through both time and space.
Cells
are the fundamental units of life in all organisms. In some life-forms, such as bacteria, the entire organism consists of only a single cell. However, more complex multicellular forms, such as plants and animals, are composed of billions of cells.
The 4 fields
concerns all aspects of humanity across space and time. Each subdiscipline emphasizes different aspects of the human experience, but together they offer a means of explaining variation in human biological and behavioral adaptations.
Modern population studies also
examine other important aspects of human variation, including how different groups respond physiologically to different kinds of environmentally induced stress Such stresses may include high altitude, cold, or heat.
Selective Pressures
forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals.
worldview
general cultural orientation or perspective shared by the members of a society.
Regulatory genes
genes that influence the activity of other genes. regulatory genes direct embryonic development and are involved in physiological processes throughout life. they are critically important to the evolutionary process.
Genetic
having to do with the study of gene structure and action, and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to offspring. genetic mechanisms are the foundation of evolutionary change.
Galileo Galilei (Of the SR)
in the early 1600s, an Italian mathematician restated Copernicus' views, using logic and mathematics to support his claim. To his misfortune, Galileo was eventually confronted by the highest-ranking officials of the Catholic Church (including his former friend, Pope Urban VIII), and had to face the Roman Inquisition (the court of justice associated with the church). He spent the last nine years of his life under house arrest, but continued to publish scientific works (outside of Italy) that were far less controversial. Nevertheless, in intellectual circles there had been a paradigm shift. The solar system had changed; the sun was now at its center, and the earth and other planets revolved around it as the entire system journeyed through space.
a eukaryotic cell AKA eukaryote
is a three-dimensional structure composed of carbohydrates, lipids (fats), nucleic acids, and proteins. It also contains several kinds of substructures called organelles, one of which is the nucleus. appeared approximately 1.7 billion years ago, they are the kind of cell found in multicellular organisms. - cell(s) have internal compartments separated by membranes Compartments = organelles
Applied Anthropology
is the practical use of anthropological theories and methods outside the academic setting, In fact, applied anthropology relies on the research and theories of academic anthropologists and at the same time has much to contribute to theory and techniques. Hence, many anthropologists contribute their expertise to both academic and applied research.
Genetics
is the study of how genes work and how traits are passed from one generation to the next.
Anatomy
is yet another important area of interest for physical anthropologists. In living organisms, bones and teeth are intimately linked to the soft tissues that surround and act on them. Consequently a thorough knowledge of soft tissue anatomy is essential to understanding the biomechanical relationships involved in movement. Such relationships are important in assessing the structure and function of limbs and other components of fossilized remains. For these reasons and others, many physical anthropologists specialize in anatomical studies.
Artifacts
objects or materials made or modified for use by hominins. the earliest artifacts are usually tools made of stone or occasionally bone
Reproductively isolated
pertaining to groups of organisms that, mainly because of genetic differences, are prevented from mating and producing offspring with members of other such groups. for example, dogs cannot mate and produce offspring with cats
Gametes
reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals) developed from precursor cells in ovaries and testes. There are two types of gametes: egg cells, produced in female ovaries, and sperm cells, which develop in male testes. The sole function of a sex cell is to unite with a gamete from another individual to form a zygote, which has the potential of developing into a new individual. In this way, gametes transmit genetic information from parent to offspring.
Introns
segments of genes that are initially transcribed and then deleted. Because introns are not expressed, they aren't involved in protein synthesis
Exons
segments of genes that are transcribed and are involved in protein synthesis. (the prefix ex denotes that these segments are expressed.)
Focus of human variation studies has
shifted completely away from the visible differences we see in people to the underlying genetic factors that influence these and many other traits. This shift occurred partly because the examination of genetic variation between populations and individuals of any species helps to explain biological change over time, which is precisely what the evolutionary process is all about. Today, physical anthropologists are concerned with human variation because of its possible adaptive significance and because they want to identify the factors that have produced not only visible physical variation but genetic variation as well.
Ribosomes
structures composed of a form of rnA called ribosomal rnA (rrnA) and protein. ribosomes are found in a cell's cytoplasm and are essential to the manufacture of proteins (protein synthesis)
Mitochondria
structures contained within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that convert energy, derived from nutrients, to a form that can be used by the cell. produce energy and can be thought of as the cell's engines. Mitochondria are structures enclosed within a folded membrane and contain their own distinct DNA, called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
Molecules
structures made up of two or more atoms. Molecules can combine with other molecules to form more complex structures.
Nutritional Anthropologists
study the relationships between various dietary components, cultural practices, physiology, and certain aspects of health and disease. Investigations of human fertility, growth, and development are also closely related to the topic of nutrition. These fields of inquiry, which are fundamental to studies of adaptation in modern human populations, can also provide insights into hominin evolution.
Paleopatholgy
the branch of osteology that studies the evidence of disease and injury in human skeletal (or, occasionally, mummified) remains from archaeological sites. Paleopathologists investigate the prevalence of trauma, certain infectious diseases (such as syphilis and tuberculosis), nutritional deficiencies, and numerous other conditions that may leave evidence in bones and teeth. This research can tell us a great deal about the lives of individuals and populations in the past. Paleopathology also yields information regarding the history of certain disease processes, and for this reason it's of interest to scientists in biomedical fields.
DNA
the double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code. DnA is a main component of chromosomes. DNA is the very basis of life because it directs all cellular activities. The DNA molecule is composed of two chains of even smaller units called nucleotides. the DNA molecule is described as forming a double helix that resembles a twisted ladder. If we follow the twisted ladder analogy, the sugars and phosphates represent the two sides while the bases and the bonds that join them form the rungs. The exact physical and chemical properties of DNA were unknown until 1953. It's impossible to overstate the importance of this achievement because it completely revolutionized the fields of biology and medicine and forever altered our understanding of biological and evolutionary mechanisms.
Genome
the entire genetic makeup of an individual or species. in humans, it's estimated that the human genome comprises about 3 billion DnA bases.
Protein Synthesis
the manufacture of proteins; that is, the assembly of chains of amino acids into functional protein molecules. protein synthesis is directed by DnA. include breaking down nutrients and converting them to other substances, storing and releasing energy, eliminating waste, and manufacturing proteins. protein synthesis must occur accurately, because if it doesn't, physiological development and cellular activities can be disrupted or even prevented. Protein synthesis actually takes place outside the cell nucleus, in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes. But the DNA molecule can't leave the cell's nucleus. Therefore the first step in protein synthesis is to copy the DNA message into a form of RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA).
Natural Selection (History of ET)
the most critical mechanism of evolutionary change, first described by Charles Darwin; the term refers to genetic change or changes in the frequencies of certain traits in populations due to differential reproductive success between individuals. Also Alfred Russel Wallace reached this same conclusion. But actually if Darwin and Wallace hadn't made their simultaneous discoveries, someone else soon would have, and that someone would probably have been British or French. That's because the groundwork had already been laid in Britain and France, and many scientists there were prepared to accept explanations of biological change that would have been unacceptable even 25 years before.
biocultural evolution
the mutual interactive evolution of human biology and culture; the concept that biology (anatomy, neurological attributes, etc.) makes culture possible and that developing culture further influences the direction of biological evolution; this is a basic concept in understanding the unique components of human evolution.
Fixity of Species
the notion that species, once created, can never change is diametrically opposed to theories of biological evolution. The plan of the entire universe was viewed as God's design. In what is called the "argument from design," anatomical structures were held to have been engineered to meet their intended purpose. Limbs, internal organs, and eyes all fit the functions they performed; and they, along with the rest of nature, were part of the Grand Designer's deliberate plan. Also, the Grand Designer was thought to have completed his works as recently as 4004 b.c. The prevailing belief in the earth's brief existence, together with fixity of species, was a virtually insurmountable obstacle to the development of evolutionary theory.
Reproductive Success
the number of offspring an individual produces and rears to reproductive age, or an individual's genetic contribution to the next generation.
Cytoplasm
the semifluid, gel-like substance contained within the cell membrane. the nucleus and numerous structures involved with cell function are found within the cytoplasm. contains many other types of organelles involved in activities related to the function of the cell and organism.
uniformitarianism
the theory that the earth's features are the result of long- term processes that continue to operate in the present just as they did in the past. elaborated on by Lyell, this theory opposed catastrophism and greatly contributed to the concept of deep geological time.
Proteins
three-dimensional molecules that serve a wide variety of functions through their ability to bind to other molecules. Proteins are made up of chains of smaller molecules called amino acids. they function in countless ways. Some, such as collagen (the most common protein in the body), are structural components of tissues. Enzymes are also proteins, which regulate chemical reactions. For example, a digestive enzyme called lactase breaks down lactose, or milk sugar, into two simpler sugars. Another class of proteins includes many types of hormones. many kinds of proteins can enter a cell's nucleus and attach directly to a cell's DNA. This is very important because when these proteins bind to the DNA, they can regulate its activity.
Condons
triplets of messenger rnA bases that code for specific amino acids during protein synthesis.
Molecular Anthropologists
use cutting-edge technologies to investigate evolutionary relationships between human populations as well as between humans and nonhuman primates. To do this, they examine similarities and differences in DNA sequences between individuals, populations, and species. What's more, by extracting DNA from certain fossils (for example, Neandertals), these researchers have contributed to our understanding of evolutionary relationships between extinct and living species.
Visible physical variation
was the other major area of interest for early physical anthropologists. Enormous effort was spent in measuring, describing, and explain- ing visible differences between various human populations, with particular attention being focused on skin color, body proportions, and the shape of the head and face. Although some of these early approaches were misguided and even racist, they gave birth to many body measurements that are sometimes still used. They've been used to design everything from wheelchairs to office furniture. They have also been used to determine the absolute minimum amount of leg room a person needs in order to remain sane during a 3-hour flight on a commercial airliner. Lastly, they are also very important to the study of skeletal remains from archaeological sites. was the other major area of interest for early physical anthropologists.
