Anthro #3

fully developed writing systems

Egyptian hieroglyphics and cuneiform 5000 years ago

top 3 internet languages

English Chinese Spanish

superstructure

the collective body of ideas, beliefs, and values by which a group of people makes sense of the world - its shape, challenges, and opportunities - and their place in it. the shared worldview

syncretism

the creative blending of indigenous and foreign beliefs and practices into new cultural forms

gender

the cultural elaborations and meanings assigned to the biological differentiation between the sexes

genocide

the deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group nation

linguistic divergence

the development of different languages from a single ancestral language

convergent evolution

the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by peoples who ancestral cultures are already somewhat alike

personality

the distinctive ways a person thinks, feels, and behaves

the most powerful force of linguistic change is...

the domination of one society over another ex: 500 years of European colonialism

infrastructure

the economic foundation of a society, including its subsistence practices, and the tools and other material equipment used to make a living

grammar

the entire formal structure of a language, consisting of all observations about its morphemes and syntax, constitutes the grammar of a langauge

ethnicity

the expression of the set of cultural ideas held by an ethnic group

body language

the gesture component of the gesture-call system of facial expressions and bodily postures and motions that convey intended and subconscious messages

code switching

the process of changing from one mode of speech to another as the situation demands whether or from one language to another or from one dialect of a language to another

politics

the process of determining who gets what, when, where, and how

moieties

the two major descent groups when a society is divided into two halves, each half consisting of one or more clans

animatism

widespread belief that nature is enlivened or energized by an impersonal spiritual power or supernatural potency Mana - force that you have (activate it or deactivate it)

revitalization movement

when people seek radical reform in response to social disruption and collective feelings of great stress and despair ex: Jehevah's Witnesses

Food Production: Horticulture

when small communities of gardeners work with simple hand tools, using neither irrigation nor the plow

group personality

while personalities are different due to unique experiences, individuals likely have similar traits that resemble others within the society

tribe

wide range of kin-ordered groups that are politically integrated by some unifying gator and whose members share a common ancestry, identity, culture, language, and territory

migration's effect...

world social geography contribute to cultural change and ideas 1. internal 2. external

the barrel model of culture (superstructure)

worldview: the perception of the self, society, and the world around us

caste

closed form of social class in which membership is determined by birth and fixed life

hard power

coercive power backed up by force

worldview

collective body of ideas that members of a culture generally share concerning the ultimate shape and substance of their reality

food foragers

combination of hunting, fishing, and gathering of wild plant foods - move as needed - small groups

modes of subsistence

food-foraging societies food-producing societies - horticulture (slash-and burn) - agriculture - pastoralism industrial societies

redistribution

form of exchange in which goods flow into a central place where they are sorted and reallocated

law

formal rules of conduct that when violated, lead to negative sanctions

age set

formally established group of people born during a certain time who move through the series of age grade and categories together

choice of spouse

free to choose arranged marriage cousin marriage same-sex marriage

force

from fear of loss of liberty, physical well-being, or material property

Intracultural variation subcategories

gender age

labor is always divided by

gender and age

temporal orientation

gives people a sense of their place in time

balanced reciprocity

giving and receiving are specific as to the value of goods and the time of their delivery

supernatural beings

gods and goddessess ancestral spirits other

imitative magic

magic based on the principle that like produces like; sometimes called sympathetic magic

patrilineal descent

male members inherit from their forefathers

symbolic indicators

marker of class ranking: occupation, wealth, dress, forms of recreation, residential location, and kind of car, are often used as markers of class ranking

global capitalism

market production schemes on other societies and ignoring cultural differences can have an unintended negative economic consequence

uncentralized political systems

marriage and kinships are essential decisions made by consensus bands and tribes

polygyny

marriage of a man to two or more women at the same time

polyandry

marriage of a woman to tow or more men at the same time

matrilocal

married couple lives in the wife's mother's family

neolocal

married couple living in a locality apart from either of their parents

patrilocal

married couples lives in the husband's father's family

lineage exogamy

marrying outside of the lineage

endogamy

marrying within a particular group of individuals

money

means of exchange used to make payments for other goods and services

Dual Sex Configuration

men and women carry out their work separately, as in societies segregated by gender, by the relationship between them is one of balanced complementarity rather then inequality

culture-bound syndrome

mental disorders specific to particular ethnic groups

kinesics

method for notating and analyzing body language

Food Production: Mixed Farming

mixed combines crop cultivation with raising animals for food, labor, or trade Eurasia and Africa where access to wild game, fish, or fowl was limited

technological development

modernization application of scientific knowledge and techniques borrowed from the industrialized West

forms of marriage

monogamy serial monogamy polygamy group marriage

normative orientation

moral values, ideals, and principles assigned cultural importance

nuclear family

most basic family unit

internal migration

movement within the boundaries of a country

revitalization movements

movements for radical cultural reform in response to widespread social disruption and collectie feelings of great stress and despair

for a society to survive...

must succeed in balancing the immediate self-interest of its individual members against the needs and demands of the collective well-being of society as a whole

myths

mythos: speech/story scared narratives that explain the fundamentals of human existence - where we and everything in our world came from, why we are here, and where we are going

the barrel model of culture (environment)

national resources in a society's habitat

civil disobedience

refusal to obey civil laws in an effort to induce change in governmental policy or legislation, characterized by the use of passive resistance or other nonviolent means

chiefdom

regional polity in which two or more local groups are organized under a single chief, who is the head of a ranked hierachry of people

transhumance

the action or practice of moving livestock from one grazing ground to another in a seasonal cycle, typically to lowlands in winter and highlands in summer. in France

negative reciprocity

the aim is to get something for as little as possible and may involve hard bargaining, manipulation, cheating, and theft

all societies regulate...

the allocation of land and water

Linguistic Nationalism

the attempt by ethnic minorities and even countries to proclaim independence by purging their language of foreign terms

ethnocentrism

the belief that one's own culture is superior to all others

totemism

the belief that people are related to particular animals, plants, or natural objects by virtue of descent from common ancestral spirits

magic

the belief that supernatural powers can be compelled to act in a certain way for good or evil purposes by recourse to a specific formula

modal personality

the body of character traits that occur with the highest frequency in a culturally bounded populations and are therefore the most representative of its culture

worldviews

the collective body of ideas that members of a culture generally share concerning the ultimate shape and substance of their reality

parallel cousin

child of a father's brother or a mother's sister

cross cousin

child of a mother's brother or father's sister

the common denominator that makes our actions intelligible to each other

culture

age

culture give their own meaning and timetable to the human life cycle

national character studies

focus on the modal characteristics of modern countries

sociolinguists/ethnolinguists

study language as it related to society and culture

4 types of political sytems

UNCENTRALIZED bands tribes CENTRALIZED chiefdoms states

segregated patten

- all work is gender divided - nomadic, intensive agriculture, and industrial societies - men are tough and aggressive

flexible/integrated pattern

- food foragers and subsistence farmers - 35% of activities are equal of gender - cooperation over competition - men and women are equal

Purpose of Kinship Terminologies

1. classify kinds of individuals into single specific categories 2. separate different kinds of individuals into distinct categories

3 motives in redistribution

1. gain a position of power 2. assure an adequate living for those who support the leadership 3. establish alliances with leaders of other groups

rites of passage

1. separation (pre-liminary) - removal of individual from society 2. transition (liminary) - isolation of individual following separation and prior to incorporation into society 3. incorporation (post-liminary) - reincorporation of individual into society in a news status

first world picture

1972

Ju/'hoansi

African culture were the work is divided (men hunt and women prepare food), but both men and women gather wild foods

root of ethnicity

GREEK ethnikos = nation ethnos = custom

descriptive linguistics: Morphology

Morphology: the study of the patterns or rules of word formation in a language morphemes: the smallest units of sound that carry a meaning in a language

Descriptive linguistics: Phonology

Phonetics: the system identification and description of distinctive speech sounds in a language phonology: the study of language sounds phonemes: the smallest units of sound

language is....

a communication system

culture adaptation

a complex of ideas, actives, and technologies that enables people to survive and even thrive in their environment

leveling mechanism

a cultural obligation compelling prosperous members of a community to give away goods, host, public feats, provide free service, or otherwise demonstrate generosity so that no one permanently accumulates more wealth than anyone else **collective well-being

crime in western society

clear distinction between offenses against the state and against the individual

consanguineal family

a family of "blood relations" consisting of related women, their brothers, and the women's offspring

negotiation

a formal discussion between people who are trying to reach an agreement

priests/priestesses

a full-time religious specialist authorized to perform sacred rituals and mediate between fellow humans and supernatural powers, divine spirits, or deities

language family

a group of languages descended from a single ancestral language

common-interest Associations

a grouping created by the act of joining based on sharing particular activities, objectives, values, or beliefs

divination

a magical procedure or spiritual ritual designed to learn what is not knowable by ordinary means, such as foretelling the future by interpreting omens (geomany, chiromancy, necromancy) witchcraft

adjudication

a mediation with the unbiased third party making the decision

Kinship

a network of relatives born and married into

cultural adaption

a people's cultural adaption consists of a complex of ideas, activities, and technologies that enable them to survive and thrive establishes the balance between the needs of a population and its environment

serial monogamy

a person has a series of partners in succession

Ambilineal Descent

a person has the option of affiliated with either the mother's or the father's descent group

shaman

a person who enters an altered state of consciousness - at will - to contact and utilize an ordinarily hidden reality in order to acquire knowledge, power, and to help others a religious go-between who acts on behalf of a client in a trance-like drama or performance

secularization

a process of cultural change in which a population tends toward a nonreligious worldview, ignoring or rejecting institutionalized spiritual beliefs and rituals

multiculturalism

a public policy for managing cultural diversity in a multiethnic society stresses mutual respect and tolerance for cultural differences with a county's borders pluralistic society which lacks a common cultural identity and heritage

revolution

a radical change in a society or culture

subculture

a set of standards and behavior patterns by which a group within a larger society operates

writing system

a set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a systematic way

agricultural development

a shift from subsistence to commercial farming modernization

conspicuous consumption

a showy display of wealth for social prestige (potlatch)

Iroquois System

a single term is used for father and his brother, and another for a mother and her sister parallel cousins are equated with brothers and sisters but distinguished from cross cousins

Pluralistic Society

a society in which two or more ethnic groups or nationalities are politically organized into one territorial state but maintain their cultural differences

Culture

a society's shared and socially transmitted ideas, values, and perceptions, which are used to make sense of experience and generate behavior and are reflected in that behavior

Cargo cults

a spiritual movement in Melanesia in reaction to disruption contact with western capitalism, promising resurrection of deceased relatives, destruction or enslavement of white foreigners, and the magical arrival of utopian riches

bilateral descent

a system where people trace descent from all ancestors regardless of gender or side of the family

reciprocity

a transaction between two parties whereby goods and services of roughly equivalent value are exchanged

phratry

a unilineal descent group of two or more clans that supposedly share a common ancestry

lineage

a unilineal kin-group descended from a known ancestor or founder, who lived 4 to 6 generations ago, and in which relationships between members can be stated in genealogical terms

Double Descent

a very rare system whereby descent is reckoned on both matrilineally and matrilineally

anthropologists imagine a culture as...

a well-structured system made up of distinctive parts that function together as an organized whole

spatial orientation

ability to get from one space or object to another

incest taboo

absolute forbiddance of sexual contact between certain close relatives (between parent-child and siblings)

ritual

acts or procedures established by custom or prescribed by authority as proper to a certain formal occasion 1. rites of purification 2. rites of passage 3. magic rituals

functions of witchcraft

addresses the issue of unmerited suffering explanation for unexplainable things basis and means for taking counteraction allows public scrutiny broad control of antisocial behavior

crime in non-state societies

all offense are viewed as an offense against individuals or kin-groups

witchcraft

an explanation of events based on the belief that certain individuals possess an innate psychic power capable of causing harm sorcery

clan

an extended unilineal kin-group, often consisting of several lineages, whose members claim common descent from a remote ancestor, usually legendary or mythological

society

an organized group or groups of interdependent people who share a common territory, language, and culture and who act together for collective survival and well-being. Culture is NOT a society

religion

an organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere or the supernatural, along with associated ceremonial practices by which people try to interpret and/or influence aspects of the universe otherwise beyond their control

social mobility

an upward or downward change in one's social class position in a stratified society easiest in open-class societies

Characteristics of Food Foragers

balanced diet limited possession of material goods leisure time mobility small size of groups

ancestral spirits

based on the idea that human beings are made up of a body and a should or vital spirit

contagious magic

based on the principle that things or persons once in contact can influence each other after the contact is broken

animism

belief that nature is animated or energized by distinct personalized spirit beings separable from bodies souls/ghosts dwell in humans/animals people are with nature, rather than superior to it

authority

belief that obedience is right

the gesture-call system

body language and paralanguage

monogamy

both partners have just one spouse

market exchange

buying and selling of goods and services, with prices set by rules of supply and demand

material culture

cars books smart phones clothing weapons of war

social class

category of individuals of equal or nearly equal prestige according to the system of evaluation

age grade

category of people organized by age

characteristics of chiefdoms

centralized single ruling authority hierarchy of minor and major authorities chief in charge of economy

characteristics of states

centralized large population social class structure formal law system of production and distribution of resources development of state institutions and bureaucracy not the same as nation

states

centralized political system that has the capacity and authority to make laws and use voce to maintain social order

cultural evolution

change of cultures over the course of time NOT Progress

cohabitation households

compromised of unmarried coulples

spirituality

concerned with the scared, but it is often individual rather than collective and does not require a distinctive format or traditional organization

types of cultural evolution

convergent parallel

spouse exchange

create or strengthen ties a man could lend his wife to another man for temporary sexual relationships

prestige economy

creation of a surplus for the express purpose of gaining prestige through a public display of wealth the is given away as gifts

Food Production: Agriculture

crop cultivation that involves irrigation, fertilizers, and the wooden and/or metal plow pulled by harnessed draft animals able to grow surplus for consumers

proxemics

cross-cultural study of humankind's perception and use of space

2 types of maintaing order

cultural social

internalized control

cultural in nature, self-imposed by encluturated individuals most effective form of maintaining order

object orientation

cultural meaning assigned to material objects

taboo

culturally prescribed avoidances involving ritual prohibitions, which, if not observed, lead to a supernatural punishment

marriage

culturally sanctioned union between two or more people that establishes certain rights and obligations between the people, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws

advantages of lineage exogamy

curbs sexual competition within the group and promote solidarity makes marriage a new alliance between lineages promotes open communication within a society

tradition

customary ideas and practices passed on from generation to generation

characteristics of tribes

decentralitized economy based on crops and herds higher population than bands clan is the organizing unit leadership is informal, but respected no formal law

3 main branches of linguistics

descriptive historical sociolinguists/ethnolinguists

3 ways cultures change

discoveries diffusion invention

gendered speech

distinct male and female speech patterns which vary accord social and cultural settings - (1970) gender and language cannot be studied independently

Tonal language

distinctive sound pitches of spoken words are not only an essential part of their pronunciation, but also key to their meaning 70% of language - Mandarin Chinese is an example

household

domestic unit of one or more persons living in the same residence

neolithic Revolution

domestication of plants and animals by people with stone-based technologies, beginning about 10,000 years ago and leading to radical transformations in cultural systems was known as the Neotlithic Revolution. led to the development of food production systems based on plant cultivation or pastoralism

the barrel model of culture (infrastructure)

economic base: the mode of subsistence

external migration

either voluntary or imposed movement between countries

how religion is in the culture

food-foragers: in everyday life - naturalistic worldview west: restricted to particular occasions

Crop-Producing Society Characteristics

emergence of fixed settlements division of labor was altered - development of tools, pottery, clothing, and housing social stratification began

industrialization

emphasis place in material forms of energy to drive machines modernization

Eskimo System

emphasizes nuclear family merges all other relatives in a given generation into a few large, generally undifferentiated, categories used by Euroamericans and foragers

types of kindreds

eskimo Hawaiian Iroquois Crow Omaha Sundanse Kariera Aranda

residence patterns

establish where a newly-married couple will live following marriage patrilocal matrilocal neolocal

unilineal (unilateral) descent

establishes descent group membership exclusively through the male or female line (matrilineal or patrilineal descent)

egalitarian society

everyone has equal rank, access to, and power over basic resources

descriptive linguistics

explains the features of a language at a particular time in its history recording descrvibing analyzing all of its features (structure) develops a linguistic catalog makes connections with other languages

social control

external enforcement through open coercion

sanctions

externalized social control encourage conformity to social norms pos: rewards or recognition by others neg: threat of imprisonment, fines, corporal punishment, or loss of face informal: norms formal: laws

why exogamy

family alliances resources political alliances trade reduce violence

conjugal family

family established through marriage

matrilineal descent

female members inherit from their foremothers horticulture societies

patterns of division of labor by gender

flexible/integrated pattern segregated pattern dual sex configuration

god(s)/goddess(es)

great, but remote beings, that control the universe or a specific part of it polytheism: many monotheism: one pantheon: collection of gods whether they recognize them, depends on how men and women relate to each other in everyday life

examples of social structures

households, families, associations, and power relations (politics)

linguistic relativity

how a language reflects the culturally significant aspects of a people's traditional natural environment

evaluation of culture

how well it satisfies the needs of those whose behavior it guides

non-material culture

human rights beauty patriotism religion deferring to elders

culture is a shared set of

ideas values perceptions standards of behavior

desecration

ideologically inspired violation of a sacred intended to inflict harm, if only symbolically, on people judged to have impure, false, or even evil beliefs and ritual practices ex: Tomb of Jonah blown up

government use ______ to legitimize political power

ideology religion

personal names are...

important devices for all self-definition in all cultures

cooperative labor

in every society community effort

independence training

independence training fosters individual self-reliance and personal achievement

nonindustrial societies

individual ownership of land is rare land controlled by kinship groups

intersexuals

individuals who do not fit neatly into either male or female biological standard or into a binary gender standard

cultural control

internalized form of self-control control through believes and values deeply internalized in the minds of individuals

alternative gender models

intersexuals transgenders

four categories of proxemics

intimate personal-casual social-consultive public

historical linguistics

investigates relationships between earlier and later forms of the same language

labor is a...

key resource in any economic system

descent group

kin-group with a membership lineally descending from a real (historical) or fictional common ancestor

customs and rules govern....

kinds of work done who does the work attitudes to the work how it is done who controls the resources

urbanization brought:

labor specialization formation of elite groups public management taxation policing

the most important symbolic component of culture

langauge

sociolinguistics focuses on...

language and gender issues and social dialects

industrial food production

large-scale businesses involved in mass food production, processing, and marketing that rely primarily on labor-saving machines

characteristics of culture

learned sharred based on symbols integrated dynamic

types of power in maintaining allegiance and social control

legitimacy coercion

origin of language

neadertals had the neurological and anatomical features necessary for speech (evidence: right handed tools means right side of brain developed for speech)

mediation

negotiation assisted by an unbiased third party

informal economy

network of producing and circling marketable commodities, labor, and services that for various reasons escape government control

bride service

occurs when the groom is expected to work for a period of time for the bride's family

polygamy

one individual has multiple spouses

exogamy

only marrying outside the group

rebellion

organization armed resistance to an established government or authority in power

economic system

organized arrangement for producing, distributing, and consuming goods

dowry

payment of a women's inheritance at the time of the marriage to her or her husband

bride-price (bride wealth)

payment of money or other valuables from the groom's to the bride's kin

ethnic group

people who collectively and publicly identify themselves as a distinct group based on cultural features such as shared ancestry and common origin, language, customs, and traditional beliefs

transgender

people who occupy a culturally accepted intermediate position in the binary male-female gender construction

nation

people who share a collective identity based on common culture, language, territorial base, and history states are often composed of more than one nation

structural violence

physical and/or psychological harm (repression, environmental, poverty, hunger, illness, and premature death) caused by impersonal, exploitative, and unjust social, political, and economic systems

centralized political system

political power and authority are concentrated in a single individual or a single body trade networks gain at the expense of others chiefdom and states

events that cause culture to change

population growth technological innovation environmental crisis intrusion of outsiders modification of behavior and values within the culture

urbanization

population movements from rural areas to cities modernization

structural power

power that organizes and orchestrates the systematic interaction within and among societies, directing economic and political forces as well as ideological forces that shape public ideas, values, and beliefs

global corporations

powerful forces for a worldwide integration power and wealth (which exceeds the government's) has increased because of media

soft power

pressuring others to change their ideas, beliefs, values, and behaviors sell the idea of globalization as positive

2 types of religious specialists

priests/priestesses shamans

primary resources in a culture

raw materials technology labor

2 forms of violent resistance

rebellion revolution

types of distribution and exchange

reciprocity trade and barter redistribution market exchange and the marketplace

Displacement

referred to things and events removed in time and space (humans and apes are capable)

band

relatively small and loosely organized, kin-ordered group that inhabits a specific territory and that may split periodically into smaller extended family groups that are politically and economically independent

pastoralism

relies on breeding and managing migratory herds of domesticated grazing animals, such as cattle, sheep, and goats nomadic 21 million in Africa and Asia

prayer

religions use various ways to make contact with the divine and supernatural

Pilgrimage

religiously inspired journey to a site believed to be metaphysically significant and typically demanding personal sacrifices from travelers

reasons for marriage

reproduction and who cares for the chid labor and the family unit sexual jealously and social stability the creation of economic units known as the household

rites of intensification

rituals that take place during a crisis in the life of the group and serve to bind individuals together

group marriage

several men and women have sexual access to one another eskimos

rights of marriage

sex labor property child rearing exchange status

mating

sexual relations only (biology)

Hawaiian System

simplest with all the relatives of the same generation and gender referred to by the same term

characteristics of bands

small loosely-organized nomadic societies egalitarian no formal law

kindred

small circle of paternal and maternal relatives

peasants

small-scale producers of crops and livestock that lived on self-owned land or rented the land, and we exploited by powerful groups in a complex society

the barrel model of culture (social structure)

social organization: the patterned social arrangements of individuals within a society

dependence training

socializes people to think of themselves in terms of the larger whole

marriage

socially binding a culturally recognized relationship (cultural construct)

stratified society

society divided into categories of people who do not share equally in wealth, influence, or prestige ex: by gender, age, social class

symbol

sound, gesture, mark, or other sign that is arbitrarily linked to something else and represents it in a meaningful way

naming ceremony

special event or ritual to name the child

paralanguage

specific voice effects that accompany speech and contribute to comm. this includes giggling, groaning, sighing, volume, intensity, pitch, and tempo

results of globalizations

structural violence overpopulation poverty hunger/obesity pollution and global warming

Historical linguistics

study of how languages change over time - deciphering "dead languages" - investigate relationships between earlier and later forms of the same language = study older languages to track the processes of change into modern ones - examine interrelationships among older languages

the barrel model of culture

superstructure social structure infrastructure environment

rites of purification

symbolic acts carried out by an individual or group to establish or restore purity when someone has violated a taboo or is otherwise metaphorically unclean

earliest evidence of elementary writing

symbols carved into 8600 year old tortoise shells in China

totems

symbols from nature that remind members of their common ancestry in the absence of residential unity

ecosystem

system composed of the natural environment and all organisms living within it. system boung by the activities of the organisms, as well as by such physical processes as erosion and evaporation

power

the ability of individuals or groups to impose their will upon others and make them do things even against their own wants or wishes

self-awareness

the ability to perceive and reflect upon themselves as individuals is needed for enculturation

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

the idea that each language provides a particular grooves of linguistic expression that predispose speakers of that language to perceive the world in a certain way - research with Hopi by Edward Sapir and student Benjamin Lee Whorf (1930's)

coercion

the imposition of obedience or submission by force or intimidation

acculturation

the massive culture change that occurs in a society when it experiences intensive firsthand contact with a more powerful society

political organization

the means through which a society creates and maintains social order

linguistics

the modern scientific study of all aspects of language

slash-and-brun

the natural vegetation is cut, the slash is burned, and crops are planted among the ashes

Progress

the notion that humans are moving forward to a better, more advanced stage in their development toward perfection

technology

the number and kinds of tools a society uses the knowledge about who to make and use these *food foragers have simple and fewer tools

syntax

the patterns or rules for the formation of phrases and sentences in a language

enculturation

the process by which a society's culture is transmitted from one generation to the next and individuals become members of their society begins soon after birth

modernization

the process of economic change whereby developing societies acquire some of the social and political characteristics of Western industrial societies 1. technological development 2. agricultural development 3. urbanization 4. industrialization 5. telecommunication

legitimacy

the right to political leaders to govern - to hold, use, and allocate power - based on the values a particular society embraces

social structure

the rule-governed relationships - with all their rights and obligations - that hold members of a society together establishes group cohesion and enables people to consistently satisfy their basic needs, including food

Fission

the splitting of a descent group into tow or more new descent groups

ethnolinguistics

the study of relationships between language and culture, and how they influence and inform each other - includes linguistic relativity

sociolinguistics

the study of the relationship between language and society through examining how social categories influence the use and interpretation of distinctive styles of speech

generalized reciprocity

the value of the gift is not calculated, not is time of repayment specified

ethnocide

the violent, deliberate and systematic destruction of the culture of an ethic group

core values

those values especially promoted by a particular culture

cultural relativism

to avoid ethnocentric judgements requires each culture to be examined in its own terms according to its own standards

trade

transaction in which two or more people are involved in the exchange of something

extended family

two or more closely related nuclear families clustered together in a large domestic group

family

two or more people related by blood, marriage, or adoption

brought on the intensification of agriculture

urbanization

dialects

varying forms of a language that reflect particular regions occupations, or social particular regions, occupations, or social classes and that are similar enough to be mutually intelligible ex: African American Vernacular English (AAVE)

barter

when no money is involved and parties negotiate a direct exchange of trade goods