Anthro #3
fully developed writing systems
Egyptian hieroglyphics and cuneiform 5000 years ago
top 3 internet languages
English Chinese Spanish
superstructure
the collective body of ideas, beliefs, and values by which a group of people makes sense of the world - its shape, challenges, and opportunities - and their place in it. the shared worldview
syncretism
the creative blending of indigenous and foreign beliefs and practices into new cultural forms
gender
the cultural elaborations and meanings assigned to the biological differentiation between the sexes
genocide
the deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group nation
linguistic divergence
the development of different languages from a single ancestral language
convergent evolution
the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by peoples who ancestral cultures are already somewhat alike
personality
the distinctive ways a person thinks, feels, and behaves
the most powerful force of linguistic change is...
the domination of one society over another ex: 500 years of European colonialism
infrastructure
the economic foundation of a society, including its subsistence practices, and the tools and other material equipment used to make a living
grammar
the entire formal structure of a language, consisting of all observations about its morphemes and syntax, constitutes the grammar of a langauge
ethnicity
the expression of the set of cultural ideas held by an ethnic group
body language
the gesture component of the gesture-call system of facial expressions and bodily postures and motions that convey intended and subconscious messages
code switching
the process of changing from one mode of speech to another as the situation demands whether or from one language to another or from one dialect of a language to another
politics
the process of determining who gets what, when, where, and how
moieties
the two major descent groups when a society is divided into two halves, each half consisting of one or more clans
animatism
widespread belief that nature is enlivened or energized by an impersonal spiritual power or supernatural potency Mana - force that you have (activate it or deactivate it)
revitalization movement
when people seek radical reform in response to social disruption and collective feelings of great stress and despair ex: Jehevah's Witnesses
Food Production: Horticulture
when small communities of gardeners work with simple hand tools, using neither irrigation nor the plow
group personality
while personalities are different due to unique experiences, individuals likely have similar traits that resemble others within the society
tribe
wide range of kin-ordered groups that are politically integrated by some unifying gator and whose members share a common ancestry, identity, culture, language, and territory
migration's effect...
world social geography contribute to cultural change and ideas 1. internal 2. external
the barrel model of culture (superstructure)
worldview: the perception of the self, society, and the world around us
caste
closed form of social class in which membership is determined by birth and fixed life
hard power
coercive power backed up by force
worldview
collective body of ideas that members of a culture generally share concerning the ultimate shape and substance of their reality
food foragers
combination of hunting, fishing, and gathering of wild plant foods - move as needed - small groups
modes of subsistence
food-foraging societies food-producing societies - horticulture (slash-and burn) - agriculture - pastoralism industrial societies
redistribution
form of exchange in which goods flow into a central place where they are sorted and reallocated
law
formal rules of conduct that when violated, lead to negative sanctions
age set
formally established group of people born during a certain time who move through the series of age grade and categories together
choice of spouse
free to choose arranged marriage cousin marriage same-sex marriage
force
from fear of loss of liberty, physical well-being, or material property
Intracultural variation subcategories
gender age
labor is always divided by
gender and age
temporal orientation
gives people a sense of their place in time
balanced reciprocity
giving and receiving are specific as to the value of goods and the time of their delivery
supernatural beings
gods and goddessess ancestral spirits other
imitative magic
magic based on the principle that like produces like; sometimes called sympathetic magic
patrilineal descent
male members inherit from their forefathers
symbolic indicators
marker of class ranking: occupation, wealth, dress, forms of recreation, residential location, and kind of car, are often used as markers of class ranking
global capitalism
market production schemes on other societies and ignoring cultural differences can have an unintended negative economic consequence
uncentralized political systems
marriage and kinships are essential decisions made by consensus bands and tribes
polygyny
marriage of a man to two or more women at the same time
polyandry
marriage of a woman to tow or more men at the same time
matrilocal
married couple lives in the wife's mother's family
neolocal
married couple living in a locality apart from either of their parents
patrilocal
married couples lives in the husband's father's family
lineage exogamy
marrying outside of the lineage
endogamy
marrying within a particular group of individuals
money
means of exchange used to make payments for other goods and services
Dual Sex Configuration
men and women carry out their work separately, as in societies segregated by gender, by the relationship between them is one of balanced complementarity rather then inequality
culture-bound syndrome
mental disorders specific to particular ethnic groups
kinesics
method for notating and analyzing body language
Food Production: Mixed Farming
mixed combines crop cultivation with raising animals for food, labor, or trade Eurasia and Africa where access to wild game, fish, or fowl was limited
technological development
modernization application of scientific knowledge and techniques borrowed from the industrialized West
forms of marriage
monogamy serial monogamy polygamy group marriage
normative orientation
moral values, ideals, and principles assigned cultural importance
nuclear family
most basic family unit
internal migration
movement within the boundaries of a country
revitalization movements
movements for radical cultural reform in response to widespread social disruption and collectie feelings of great stress and despair
for a society to survive...
must succeed in balancing the immediate self-interest of its individual members against the needs and demands of the collective well-being of society as a whole
myths
mythos: speech/story scared narratives that explain the fundamentals of human existence - where we and everything in our world came from, why we are here, and where we are going
the barrel model of culture (environment)
national resources in a society's habitat
civil disobedience
refusal to obey civil laws in an effort to induce change in governmental policy or legislation, characterized by the use of passive resistance or other nonviolent means
chiefdom
regional polity in which two or more local groups are organized under a single chief, who is the head of a ranked hierachry of people
transhumance
the action or practice of moving livestock from one grazing ground to another in a seasonal cycle, typically to lowlands in winter and highlands in summer. in France
negative reciprocity
the aim is to get something for as little as possible and may involve hard bargaining, manipulation, cheating, and theft
all societies regulate...
the allocation of land and water
Linguistic Nationalism
the attempt by ethnic minorities and even countries to proclaim independence by purging their language of foreign terms
ethnocentrism
the belief that one's own culture is superior to all others
totemism
the belief that people are related to particular animals, plants, or natural objects by virtue of descent from common ancestral spirits
magic
the belief that supernatural powers can be compelled to act in a certain way for good or evil purposes by recourse to a specific formula
modal personality
the body of character traits that occur with the highest frequency in a culturally bounded populations and are therefore the most representative of its culture
worldviews
the collective body of ideas that members of a culture generally share concerning the ultimate shape and substance of their reality
parallel cousin
child of a father's brother or a mother's sister
cross cousin
child of a mother's brother or father's sister
the common denominator that makes our actions intelligible to each other
culture
age
culture give their own meaning and timetable to the human life cycle
national character studies
focus on the modal characteristics of modern countries
sociolinguists/ethnolinguists
study language as it related to society and culture
4 types of political sytems
UNCENTRALIZED bands tribes CENTRALIZED chiefdoms states
segregated patten
- all work is gender divided - nomadic, intensive agriculture, and industrial societies - men are tough and aggressive
flexible/integrated pattern
- food foragers and subsistence farmers - 35% of activities are equal of gender - cooperation over competition - men and women are equal
Purpose of Kinship Terminologies
1. classify kinds of individuals into single specific categories 2. separate different kinds of individuals into distinct categories
3 motives in redistribution
1. gain a position of power 2. assure an adequate living for those who support the leadership 3. establish alliances with leaders of other groups
rites of passage
1. separation (pre-liminary) - removal of individual from society 2. transition (liminary) - isolation of individual following separation and prior to incorporation into society 3. incorporation (post-liminary) - reincorporation of individual into society in a news status
first world picture
1972
Ju/'hoansi
African culture were the work is divided (men hunt and women prepare food), but both men and women gather wild foods
root of ethnicity
GREEK ethnikos = nation ethnos = custom
descriptive linguistics: Morphology
Morphology: the study of the patterns or rules of word formation in a language morphemes: the smallest units of sound that carry a meaning in a language
Descriptive linguistics: Phonology
Phonetics: the system identification and description of distinctive speech sounds in a language phonology: the study of language sounds phonemes: the smallest units of sound
language is....
a communication system
culture adaptation
a complex of ideas, actives, and technologies that enables people to survive and even thrive in their environment
leveling mechanism
a cultural obligation compelling prosperous members of a community to give away goods, host, public feats, provide free service, or otherwise demonstrate generosity so that no one permanently accumulates more wealth than anyone else **collective well-being
crime in western society
clear distinction between offenses against the state and against the individual
consanguineal family
a family of "blood relations" consisting of related women, their brothers, and the women's offspring
negotiation
a formal discussion between people who are trying to reach an agreement
priests/priestesses
a full-time religious specialist authorized to perform sacred rituals and mediate between fellow humans and supernatural powers, divine spirits, or deities
language family
a group of languages descended from a single ancestral language
common-interest Associations
a grouping created by the act of joining based on sharing particular activities, objectives, values, or beliefs
divination
a magical procedure or spiritual ritual designed to learn what is not knowable by ordinary means, such as foretelling the future by interpreting omens (geomany, chiromancy, necromancy) witchcraft
adjudication
a mediation with the unbiased third party making the decision
Kinship
a network of relatives born and married into
cultural adaption
a people's cultural adaption consists of a complex of ideas, activities, and technologies that enable them to survive and thrive establishes the balance between the needs of a population and its environment
serial monogamy
a person has a series of partners in succession
Ambilineal Descent
a person has the option of affiliated with either the mother's or the father's descent group
shaman
a person who enters an altered state of consciousness - at will - to contact and utilize an ordinarily hidden reality in order to acquire knowledge, power, and to help others a religious go-between who acts on behalf of a client in a trance-like drama or performance
secularization
a process of cultural change in which a population tends toward a nonreligious worldview, ignoring or rejecting institutionalized spiritual beliefs and rituals
multiculturalism
a public policy for managing cultural diversity in a multiethnic society stresses mutual respect and tolerance for cultural differences with a county's borders pluralistic society which lacks a common cultural identity and heritage
revolution
a radical change in a society or culture
subculture
a set of standards and behavior patterns by which a group within a larger society operates
writing system
a set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a systematic way
agricultural development
a shift from subsistence to commercial farming modernization
conspicuous consumption
a showy display of wealth for social prestige (potlatch)
Iroquois System
a single term is used for father and his brother, and another for a mother and her sister parallel cousins are equated with brothers and sisters but distinguished from cross cousins
Pluralistic Society
a society in which two or more ethnic groups or nationalities are politically organized into one territorial state but maintain their cultural differences
Culture
a society's shared and socially transmitted ideas, values, and perceptions, which are used to make sense of experience and generate behavior and are reflected in that behavior
Cargo cults
a spiritual movement in Melanesia in reaction to disruption contact with western capitalism, promising resurrection of deceased relatives, destruction or enslavement of white foreigners, and the magical arrival of utopian riches
bilateral descent
a system where people trace descent from all ancestors regardless of gender or side of the family
reciprocity
a transaction between two parties whereby goods and services of roughly equivalent value are exchanged
phratry
a unilineal descent group of two or more clans that supposedly share a common ancestry
lineage
a unilineal kin-group descended from a known ancestor or founder, who lived 4 to 6 generations ago, and in which relationships between members can be stated in genealogical terms
Double Descent
a very rare system whereby descent is reckoned on both matrilineally and matrilineally
anthropologists imagine a culture as...
a well-structured system made up of distinctive parts that function together as an organized whole
spatial orientation
ability to get from one space or object to another
incest taboo
absolute forbiddance of sexual contact between certain close relatives (between parent-child and siblings)
ritual
acts or procedures established by custom or prescribed by authority as proper to a certain formal occasion 1. rites of purification 2. rites of passage 3. magic rituals
functions of witchcraft
addresses the issue of unmerited suffering explanation for unexplainable things basis and means for taking counteraction allows public scrutiny broad control of antisocial behavior
crime in non-state societies
all offense are viewed as an offense against individuals or kin-groups
witchcraft
an explanation of events based on the belief that certain individuals possess an innate psychic power capable of causing harm sorcery
clan
an extended unilineal kin-group, often consisting of several lineages, whose members claim common descent from a remote ancestor, usually legendary or mythological
society
an organized group or groups of interdependent people who share a common territory, language, and culture and who act together for collective survival and well-being. Culture is NOT a society
religion
an organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere or the supernatural, along with associated ceremonial practices by which people try to interpret and/or influence aspects of the universe otherwise beyond their control
social mobility
an upward or downward change in one's social class position in a stratified society easiest in open-class societies
Characteristics of Food Foragers
balanced diet limited possession of material goods leisure time mobility small size of groups
ancestral spirits
based on the idea that human beings are made up of a body and a should or vital spirit
contagious magic
based on the principle that things or persons once in contact can influence each other after the contact is broken
animism
belief that nature is animated or energized by distinct personalized spirit beings separable from bodies souls/ghosts dwell in humans/animals people are with nature, rather than superior to it
authority
belief that obedience is right
the gesture-call system
body language and paralanguage
monogamy
both partners have just one spouse
market exchange
buying and selling of goods and services, with prices set by rules of supply and demand
material culture
cars books smart phones clothing weapons of war
social class
category of individuals of equal or nearly equal prestige according to the system of evaluation
age grade
category of people organized by age
characteristics of chiefdoms
centralized single ruling authority hierarchy of minor and major authorities chief in charge of economy
characteristics of states
centralized large population social class structure formal law system of production and distribution of resources development of state institutions and bureaucracy not the same as nation
states
centralized political system that has the capacity and authority to make laws and use voce to maintain social order
cultural evolution
change of cultures over the course of time NOT Progress
cohabitation households
compromised of unmarried coulples
spirituality
concerned with the scared, but it is often individual rather than collective and does not require a distinctive format or traditional organization
types of cultural evolution
convergent parallel
spouse exchange
create or strengthen ties a man could lend his wife to another man for temporary sexual relationships
prestige economy
creation of a surplus for the express purpose of gaining prestige through a public display of wealth the is given away as gifts
Food Production: Agriculture
crop cultivation that involves irrigation, fertilizers, and the wooden and/or metal plow pulled by harnessed draft animals able to grow surplus for consumers
proxemics
cross-cultural study of humankind's perception and use of space
2 types of maintaing order
cultural social
internalized control
cultural in nature, self-imposed by encluturated individuals most effective form of maintaining order
object orientation
cultural meaning assigned to material objects
taboo
culturally prescribed avoidances involving ritual prohibitions, which, if not observed, lead to a supernatural punishment
marriage
culturally sanctioned union between two or more people that establishes certain rights and obligations between the people, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws
advantages of lineage exogamy
curbs sexual competition within the group and promote solidarity makes marriage a new alliance between lineages promotes open communication within a society
tradition
customary ideas and practices passed on from generation to generation
characteristics of tribes
decentralitized economy based on crops and herds higher population than bands clan is the organizing unit leadership is informal, but respected no formal law
3 main branches of linguistics
descriptive historical sociolinguists/ethnolinguists
3 ways cultures change
discoveries diffusion invention
gendered speech
distinct male and female speech patterns which vary accord social and cultural settings - (1970) gender and language cannot be studied independently
Tonal language
distinctive sound pitches of spoken words are not only an essential part of their pronunciation, but also key to their meaning 70% of language - Mandarin Chinese is an example
household
domestic unit of one or more persons living in the same residence
neolithic Revolution
domestication of plants and animals by people with stone-based technologies, beginning about 10,000 years ago and leading to radical transformations in cultural systems was known as the Neotlithic Revolution. led to the development of food production systems based on plant cultivation or pastoralism
the barrel model of culture (infrastructure)
economic base: the mode of subsistence
external migration
either voluntary or imposed movement between countries
how religion is in the culture
food-foragers: in everyday life - naturalistic worldview west: restricted to particular occasions
Crop-Producing Society Characteristics
emergence of fixed settlements division of labor was altered - development of tools, pottery, clothing, and housing social stratification began
industrialization
emphasis place in material forms of energy to drive machines modernization
Eskimo System
emphasizes nuclear family merges all other relatives in a given generation into a few large, generally undifferentiated, categories used by Euroamericans and foragers
types of kindreds
eskimo Hawaiian Iroquois Crow Omaha Sundanse Kariera Aranda
residence patterns
establish where a newly-married couple will live following marriage patrilocal matrilocal neolocal
unilineal (unilateral) descent
establishes descent group membership exclusively through the male or female line (matrilineal or patrilineal descent)
egalitarian society
everyone has equal rank, access to, and power over basic resources
descriptive linguistics
explains the features of a language at a particular time in its history recording descrvibing analyzing all of its features (structure) develops a linguistic catalog makes connections with other languages
social control
external enforcement through open coercion
sanctions
externalized social control encourage conformity to social norms pos: rewards or recognition by others neg: threat of imprisonment, fines, corporal punishment, or loss of face informal: norms formal: laws
why exogamy
family alliances resources political alliances trade reduce violence
conjugal family
family established through marriage
matrilineal descent
female members inherit from their foremothers horticulture societies
patterns of division of labor by gender
flexible/integrated pattern segregated pattern dual sex configuration
god(s)/goddess(es)
great, but remote beings, that control the universe or a specific part of it polytheism: many monotheism: one pantheon: collection of gods whether they recognize them, depends on how men and women relate to each other in everyday life
examples of social structures
households, families, associations, and power relations (politics)
linguistic relativity
how a language reflects the culturally significant aspects of a people's traditional natural environment
evaluation of culture
how well it satisfies the needs of those whose behavior it guides
non-material culture
human rights beauty patriotism religion deferring to elders
culture is a shared set of
ideas values perceptions standards of behavior
desecration
ideologically inspired violation of a sacred intended to inflict harm, if only symbolically, on people judged to have impure, false, or even evil beliefs and ritual practices ex: Tomb of Jonah blown up
government use ______ to legitimize political power
ideology religion
personal names are...
important devices for all self-definition in all cultures
cooperative labor
in every society community effort
independence training
independence training fosters individual self-reliance and personal achievement
nonindustrial societies
individual ownership of land is rare land controlled by kinship groups
intersexuals
individuals who do not fit neatly into either male or female biological standard or into a binary gender standard
cultural control
internalized form of self-control control through believes and values deeply internalized in the minds of individuals
alternative gender models
intersexuals transgenders
four categories of proxemics
intimate personal-casual social-consultive public
historical linguistics
investigates relationships between earlier and later forms of the same language
labor is a...
key resource in any economic system
descent group
kin-group with a membership lineally descending from a real (historical) or fictional common ancestor
customs and rules govern....
kinds of work done who does the work attitudes to the work how it is done who controls the resources
urbanization brought:
labor specialization formation of elite groups public management taxation policing
the most important symbolic component of culture
langauge
sociolinguistics focuses on...
language and gender issues and social dialects
industrial food production
large-scale businesses involved in mass food production, processing, and marketing that rely primarily on labor-saving machines
characteristics of culture
learned sharred based on symbols integrated dynamic
types of power in maintaining allegiance and social control
legitimacy coercion
origin of language
neadertals had the neurological and anatomical features necessary for speech (evidence: right handed tools means right side of brain developed for speech)
mediation
negotiation assisted by an unbiased third party
informal economy
network of producing and circling marketable commodities, labor, and services that for various reasons escape government control
bride service
occurs when the groom is expected to work for a period of time for the bride's family
polygamy
one individual has multiple spouses
exogamy
only marrying outside the group
rebellion
organization armed resistance to an established government or authority in power
economic system
organized arrangement for producing, distributing, and consuming goods
dowry
payment of a women's inheritance at the time of the marriage to her or her husband
bride-price (bride wealth)
payment of money or other valuables from the groom's to the bride's kin
ethnic group
people who collectively and publicly identify themselves as a distinct group based on cultural features such as shared ancestry and common origin, language, customs, and traditional beliefs
transgender
people who occupy a culturally accepted intermediate position in the binary male-female gender construction
nation
people who share a collective identity based on common culture, language, territorial base, and history states are often composed of more than one nation
structural violence
physical and/or psychological harm (repression, environmental, poverty, hunger, illness, and premature death) caused by impersonal, exploitative, and unjust social, political, and economic systems
centralized political system
political power and authority are concentrated in a single individual or a single body trade networks gain at the expense of others chiefdom and states
events that cause culture to change
population growth technological innovation environmental crisis intrusion of outsiders modification of behavior and values within the culture
urbanization
population movements from rural areas to cities modernization
structural power
power that organizes and orchestrates the systematic interaction within and among societies, directing economic and political forces as well as ideological forces that shape public ideas, values, and beliefs
global corporations
powerful forces for a worldwide integration power and wealth (which exceeds the government's) has increased because of media
soft power
pressuring others to change their ideas, beliefs, values, and behaviors sell the idea of globalization as positive
2 types of religious specialists
priests/priestesses shamans
primary resources in a culture
raw materials technology labor
2 forms of violent resistance
rebellion revolution
types of distribution and exchange
reciprocity trade and barter redistribution market exchange and the marketplace
Displacement
referred to things and events removed in time and space (humans and apes are capable)
band
relatively small and loosely organized, kin-ordered group that inhabits a specific territory and that may split periodically into smaller extended family groups that are politically and economically independent
pastoralism
relies on breeding and managing migratory herds of domesticated grazing animals, such as cattle, sheep, and goats nomadic 21 million in Africa and Asia
prayer
religions use various ways to make contact with the divine and supernatural
Pilgrimage
religiously inspired journey to a site believed to be metaphysically significant and typically demanding personal sacrifices from travelers
reasons for marriage
reproduction and who cares for the chid labor and the family unit sexual jealously and social stability the creation of economic units known as the household
rites of intensification
rituals that take place during a crisis in the life of the group and serve to bind individuals together
group marriage
several men and women have sexual access to one another eskimos
rights of marriage
sex labor property child rearing exchange status
mating
sexual relations only (biology)
Hawaiian System
simplest with all the relatives of the same generation and gender referred to by the same term
characteristics of bands
small loosely-organized nomadic societies egalitarian no formal law
kindred
small circle of paternal and maternal relatives
peasants
small-scale producers of crops and livestock that lived on self-owned land or rented the land, and we exploited by powerful groups in a complex society
the barrel model of culture (social structure)
social organization: the patterned social arrangements of individuals within a society
dependence training
socializes people to think of themselves in terms of the larger whole
marriage
socially binding a culturally recognized relationship (cultural construct)
stratified society
society divided into categories of people who do not share equally in wealth, influence, or prestige ex: by gender, age, social class
symbol
sound, gesture, mark, or other sign that is arbitrarily linked to something else and represents it in a meaningful way
naming ceremony
special event or ritual to name the child
paralanguage
specific voice effects that accompany speech and contribute to comm. this includes giggling, groaning, sighing, volume, intensity, pitch, and tempo
results of globalizations
structural violence overpopulation poverty hunger/obesity pollution and global warming
Historical linguistics
study of how languages change over time - deciphering "dead languages" - investigate relationships between earlier and later forms of the same language = study older languages to track the processes of change into modern ones - examine interrelationships among older languages
the barrel model of culture
superstructure social structure infrastructure environment
rites of purification
symbolic acts carried out by an individual or group to establish or restore purity when someone has violated a taboo or is otherwise metaphorically unclean
earliest evidence of elementary writing
symbols carved into 8600 year old tortoise shells in China
totems
symbols from nature that remind members of their common ancestry in the absence of residential unity
ecosystem
system composed of the natural environment and all organisms living within it. system boung by the activities of the organisms, as well as by such physical processes as erosion and evaporation
power
the ability of individuals or groups to impose their will upon others and make them do things even against their own wants or wishes
self-awareness
the ability to perceive and reflect upon themselves as individuals is needed for enculturation
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
the idea that each language provides a particular grooves of linguistic expression that predispose speakers of that language to perceive the world in a certain way - research with Hopi by Edward Sapir and student Benjamin Lee Whorf (1930's)
coercion
the imposition of obedience or submission by force or intimidation
acculturation
the massive culture change that occurs in a society when it experiences intensive firsthand contact with a more powerful society
political organization
the means through which a society creates and maintains social order
linguistics
the modern scientific study of all aspects of language
slash-and-brun
the natural vegetation is cut, the slash is burned, and crops are planted among the ashes
Progress
the notion that humans are moving forward to a better, more advanced stage in their development toward perfection
technology
the number and kinds of tools a society uses the knowledge about who to make and use these *food foragers have simple and fewer tools
syntax
the patterns or rules for the formation of phrases and sentences in a language
enculturation
the process by which a society's culture is transmitted from one generation to the next and individuals become members of their society begins soon after birth
modernization
the process of economic change whereby developing societies acquire some of the social and political characteristics of Western industrial societies 1. technological development 2. agricultural development 3. urbanization 4. industrialization 5. telecommunication
legitimacy
the right to political leaders to govern - to hold, use, and allocate power - based on the values a particular society embraces
social structure
the rule-governed relationships - with all their rights and obligations - that hold members of a society together establishes group cohesion and enables people to consistently satisfy their basic needs, including food
Fission
the splitting of a descent group into tow or more new descent groups
ethnolinguistics
the study of relationships between language and culture, and how they influence and inform each other - includes linguistic relativity
sociolinguistics
the study of the relationship between language and society through examining how social categories influence the use and interpretation of distinctive styles of speech
generalized reciprocity
the value of the gift is not calculated, not is time of repayment specified
ethnocide
the violent, deliberate and systematic destruction of the culture of an ethic group
core values
those values especially promoted by a particular culture
cultural relativism
to avoid ethnocentric judgements requires each culture to be examined in its own terms according to its own standards
trade
transaction in which two or more people are involved in the exchange of something
extended family
two or more closely related nuclear families clustered together in a large domestic group
family
two or more people related by blood, marriage, or adoption
brought on the intensification of agriculture
urbanization
dialects
varying forms of a language that reflect particular regions occupations, or social particular regions, occupations, or social classes and that are similar enough to be mutually intelligible ex: African American Vernacular English (AAVE)
barter
when no money is involved and parties negotiate a direct exchange of trade goods
