Anthropology - Chapter 9
The Neanderthals
Neandertal: Distinctive hominin group that inhabited Europe and the Middle east from 130,000 to 39,000 B.P. First discovered in western Europe in Germany's Neander Valley. • At the time of discovery, there was no framework to understand human evolution. • There have been numerous subsequent discoveries in Europe and the Middle East, and extending eastward to central Asia and even Siberia
Cold-adapted Neanderthals
Neandertals were stocky, with large trunks relative to their limb length. • Phenotype that minimizes surface area and conserves heat. Massive nasal cavities of Neandertal fossils suggest they had long, broad noses to expand area for warming and moistening air. Neandertals' front teeth were extremely large and exhibited evidence of wear. • Probably used for many tasks that were later performed using tools. Mousterian: Middle Paleolithic • Neandertal tool tradition. Included a variety of tools designed for different jobs.
Figure 9.5: Examples of Mousterian Tools: (a) Scraper, (b) Point, (c) Scraper, (d) Point, (e) Hand Ax
The Neandertals manufacture of diverse tool types for special purposes confirms Neandertal sophistication.
Figure 9.4: Geographic Distribution of Neandertal Fossils
Also shown is maximum extent of glaciation. Neandertals were well adapted to live in the cold climates of Europe at the end of the Pleistocene.
Neanderthals, Denisovans, and Anatomically Modern Humans
Based on DNA analysis, a common ancestor lived between 660,000 B.P. • Around 460,000, descendants split into two lineages—one ancestral to • Neandertals and Denisovans, the other to A M Hs. • Neandertal-Denisovan group spread across Europe and Asia. == Split between Neandertals and Denisovans occurred around 400,000 B.P. • A M Hs remained in Africa for a period of time. == Spread to Europe prior to 270,000 B.P. == Some mated with ancestral Neandertals.
Homo Floresiensis
Bones and tools of a group of tiny humans were discovered in Flores, Indonesia. • Remains date to as far back as 700,000 years ago. • Skull size was remarkably small. • Proportions of lower limbs and feet were similar to those of some African apes. == Caused by evolutionary forces in Flores that pushed some animals toward gigantism and others toward dwarfism. • Evidence of A M H presence on the island indicates that their arrival may have contributed to the demise of Homo floresiensis. == Anecdotes from Ngadha and Manggarai people describe little people who lived in caves till the 16th century.
Life as a Neanderthal
Capable of feeling emotion. • Care for the disabled, burial of dead, Used some form of language. • Possibly tones and whistles. Possessed excellent mechanical skills. Engaged in close-range hunting. Engaged in cannibalism at times. No evidence of long-distance trade. Limited imagination is evident from unchanging tool designs.
Adaptive Strategies of Homo Erectus
Changes in biology and culture increased human adaptability. • Improved tools helped expand range. • Biological changes permitted long-distance stalking and endurance during the hunt. • Homo erectus's average cranial capacity (about 1,000 cm3) wasdouble that of australopiths. • Homo erectus's face, teeth, and jaws were larger than those of contemporary humans but smaller than those of australopiths. Discovery of hearths confirm that fire had become part of the adaptive kit controlled by Homo erectus. • Protection. • Survive winter cold. • Cooking. Was language an additional advantage? • Archaeological evidence confirms cooperative hunting. • Plausible to assume rudimentary speech.
The Neanderthals and Modern People
Current prevailing view proposes that Homo heidelbergensis split into two groups. • One group ancestral to Neandertals. • Another group ancestral to A M Hs. Neandertals' possessed: • Heavy brow ridges and slanting foreheads. • Larger cranial capacity. • Comparatively rugged skeletons. • Greater sexual dimorphism compared to A M Hs. Erroneous interpretations of Neandertal remains resulted in an inaccurate stereotype. • Differences were exaggerated on the basis of a misinterpretation of a skeleton found at La Chapelle-aux-Saints. == Much publicized Neandertal "cave man" was actually an aging man affected by osteoarthritis. Reconstruction of the complete Neandertal genome provides evidence of some interbreeding with A M Hs after the latter left Africa.
The Denisovans
Denisovans were distant cousins to Neandertals. • Named for Denisova cave, Siberia. • Lived from 400,000 to 50,000 B.P. Human jawbone recovered from Baishiya Karst cave is evidence that Denisovans adapted to high-altitude, low-oxygen environments. • Modern humans living in the Tibetan plateau have inherited a Denisovan gene variant that facilitates adaptation to high-altitude hypoxia.
The Evolution and Expansion of Homo Erectus
Dmanisi fossils suggest the rapid spread of early Homo out of Africa and into Eurasia between 1.8 and 1.7 m.y.a. Homo erectus remains found in Java date back to at least 700,000 and perhaps as much as 1.6 million years. Fossils also found in China, Algeria and Morocco, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and South Africa. • Homo erectus increased range probably in pursuit of meat. • Largest find at the Zhoukoudian cave in China, dated to 780,000 to 500,000 years ago.
Homo Hablis and Homo Erectus: Hunting, Tools, and Teeth
Ecological niche separating Homo erectus from earlier hominins involved greater reliance on hunting along with improved cultural means of adaptation. • Greater variety of tools with symmetry, uniformity, and functional differentiation. Evolved tools and dietary changes eased the burden on the chewing muscles. • Resulted in lesser development in chewing muscles and supporting structures. • Size of teeth is under stricter genetic control than jaw size and bone size.
Homo Hablis and Homo Erectus
First representatives of Homo habilis ("able man") has been dated to 1.8 m.y.a. • Homo hablis: Early homonin species, first discovered by L.S.B and Mary Leaky in 1960, is presumed to possess the ability to make tools. • O H 62: Small, with ape-like limb bones. == Suggests greater tree-climbing ability than later hominins. • Cranial capacities range between 600 and 700 cm3. Based on two skulls dated to 1.6 m.y.a., Homo erectus had attained a cranial capacity of 900 cm3 and a modern body shape and height. • Homo erectus: Highly successful form of early human expanded from Africa into Eurasia by 1.77 m.y.a.
Homo Luzonensis
Fossilized remains of unknown species of Homo dating between 67,000 B.P and 50,000 B.P were recovered from Callao Cave in Luzon. • Species was given the name Homo luzonensis. • There is no evidence that A M Hs reached the Philippines until thousands of years after these dates of existence for Homo luzonensis. == Discovery of stone tools and butchered rhinoceros bones confirm the presence of hominins on Luzon more than 700,000 years ago. • Both Homo luzonensis and Homo floresiensis show a combination of modern features and primitive traits that differ from those of Homo erectus.
Ice Age of the Pleistocene
Glacials: Major advances of continental ice sheets. • Separated by interglacials. == Extended warm periods between glacials. • Würm: Last glacial that occurred from 75,000 to 12,000 B.P. == Interstadials: Brief periods of warmth during glacials.
Homo rudolfensis
Homo rudolfensis is based on the K N M-E R 1470 skull found at Koobi Fora in Kenya. • Dated to 2.4 to 1.8 m.y.a. • Brain size more human than that of the australopiths. • Molars more like those of the hyperrobust australopiths. • Decades later, fossils dated 2.03 to 1.78 m.y.a. were discovered near Lake Turkana. == Confirmed that Homo rudolfensis lived in the same region as at least two other species; Homo habilis and Homo erectus. == Provided more information on Homo rudolfensis.
Acheulean tools
Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age, has three divisions. • Lower (early) Paleolithic. • Middle Paleolithic. • Upper (late) Paleolithic. Acheulean: Lower Paleolithic toolmaking tradition associated with Homo erectus. • Example: Manufacture of hand axes. == Suggests creation from a predetermined template in mind. Other tools. • Cleavers: Used for heavy chopping and hacking. • Stone picks: Used for digging. • Flakes: Used to make incisions. Illustrate trends in the evolution of technology. • Manufacture of more varied tools with predetermined forms designed for specific tasks.
Middle Pleistocene Hominins
Pleistocene: Geological epoch considered the epoch of early human (as opposed to merely hominin) life. • Lower Pleistocene (2.6 m.y.a. to 781,000 B.P.). • Middle Pleistocene (781,000 to 126,000 B.P.). • Upper Pleistocene (126,000 to 11,700 B.P.).
Homo Heidelbergensis
Post the australopith period, Africa, Asia and Europe were areas in which hominin evolution occurred. • However, Homo sapiens clearly originated in Africa. == Archaeology and fossil hunting has been going on longer in Europe. • Between Homo erectus and later forms of Homo, the human brain continued to increase, accompanied by a rounding out of the brain case. Homo heidelbergensis: Hominin group that lived in Europe, Africa, and Asia around 850,000 to 200,000 B.P. • Massive hominin jaw found in Heidelberg, Germany. In addition to the Heidelberg find, fossils have been discovered in various parts of Asia, Europe, and Africa. Some of the earliest likely members come from northern Spain's Atapuerca Mountains. • Original researchers called them Homo antecessor, but others include them in Homo heidelbergensis. • Additional European Homo heidelbergensis fossils have been found in Italy, England, Germany, and Greece. • Archaeological evidence found on Suffolk in England confirm that humans reached northern Europe 700,000 years ago. • Documented archaeological human activity in Terra Amata, France, indicates bands of 15 to 25 people made regular visits during the late spring and early summer 300,000 years ago.
Homo Hablis and Homo Erectus: Sister Species
Significant fossil finds from Kenya show that Homo habilis and Homo erectus overlapped in time. Revision to fossil record. • Homo erectus: 1.9 to possibly 0.5 m.y.a. • Homo rudolfensis: Possibly 2.4 to 1.78 m.y.a. • Homo habilis: 2.8 to 1.44 m.y.a. Overall body size and sexual dimorphism may have been greater in Homo erectus than among chimps or contemporary humans.
Out of Africa I: Homo Erectus
Spread of Homo erectus occurred between 2 and 1 m.y.a. Populations of A M Hs left Africa around 300,000 B.P. • A M H: Anatomically modern humans. Discovery of tools in northern Jordan and China suggests the spread of hominins before Homo erectus. • Fossil evidence does not exist. Spread of Homo erectus was driven by a commitment to a human lifestyle based on hunting and gathering.
Recent Discoveries
Three important discoveries were announced in 2015. Early stone tools (dated to 3.3 m.y.a.) in Kenya. Hominin jawbone fragment (dated to 2.8 m.y.a.) in Ethiopia. Fossil remains of several individuals in Rising Star cave system in South Africa. • Fossils were dubbed Homo naledi. • Dated to 335,000 to 236,000 before present (B.P.). • Fossils exhibit a mix of primitive and modern features. • Most noticeable primitive characteristic is their diminished cranial capacity.
Asian Island Anomalies
Until about 20 years ago, anthropologists had assumed that anatomically modern humans had displaced all other members of the genus Homo. • Exception: Neandertals. By 100,000 B.P, discoveries made during the past 20 years cast serious doubt on that belief. • Two groups of hominins lived at the same time as A M Hs. == Homo floresiensis. == Homo luzonensis.
Early Homo
Various species of early Homo are now known through the fossil record. Homo rudolfensis. Homo habilis. Homo erectus. Homo heidelbergensis. Neandertals. Denisovans.
The Genus Homo
What were the earliest forms of Homo, and where did they originate and eventually migrate? What were the major toolmaking traditions and adaptive strategies of Homo erectus and its successors? What were the Neandertals like, and how did they differ from earlier and later forms of Homo?