AP Euro Ch. 12-31

Christine de Pisan

The daughter of a professor of astrology at Bologna. She was one of the most versatile and prolific French writers of the later middle ages. She also produced major historical works, which made her famous.

Act of Restraint of Appeals

This act declared the king to be the supreme sovereign in England, and forbade judicial appeals to the papacy. King Henry VIII used Parliament to legalize the Reformation in England.

Martin V

A Roman cardinal. Real name was Colonna Hook but changed his name to Martin V. he wanted to dissolve the council.

French politiques

A small group of moderates of Protestants and Catholics who believed in the restoration of a strong monarchy that could reverse the trend of the collapse. They ultimately saved France from political disintegration.

oligarchy

An oligarchy was a form of government that possessed constitutions. It was restricted to a class of wealthy merchants who exercised the judicial, executive, and legislative functions of the government.

John Tetzel

Archbishop Albert hired John Tetzel to sell indulgences to the people. Tetzel even made up an advertising scheme for the sale of indulgences. He drew up a chart with the prices for the forgiveness of sins.

Archbishop Cranmer

Archbishop Cranmer simplified the liturgy for England. He prepared the first Book of Common Prayer with other protestant theologians in England.

transubstantiation/consubstantiation

Catholics hold the dogma of transubstantiation by consecrating the words of the priest during the Mass, the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. In opposition, Luther defined consubstantiation, the belied that after the consecration the bread and wine undergo a spiritual change where Christ is really present but the bread and wine aren't transformed.

Cesare Borgia

Cesare Borgia was the son of Pope Alexander VI. This key "new monarch" reasserted the church authority in the papal lands of Italy. Cesare began uniting the peninsula by conquering and invading the principalities making up the papal states.

Peace of Augsburg

Charles V accepted this status quo after the long dynastic struggle called the Habsburg-Valois War. This document officially recognized Lutheranism. Each prince of Germany was permitted to determine his territory's religion.

Savonarola

Dominican Friar Girolamo Savonarola attacked the paganism and moral vice of Florence. He became the religious leader of Florence after he drove the Medici family out.

John Wyclif

English scholar and theologian. He wrote the papal claims of temporal power had no foundation in the Scriptures and that the Scriptures should alone be the foundation of Christian belief and practice. He led the Lollards.

Lollards

Followers of Wyclif, they were proof that some people believed what Wyclif was saying.

Presbyterian Church of Scotland

Founded by John Knox, the Church of Scotland was strictly Calvinist in doctrine. They adopted a simple dignified service of worship, and laid great emphasis on teaching. The Presbyterian Church of Scotland was a national, state, and church where many of its members maintained close relations with English Puritans.

Charles VII of France

He began France's long recovery after the Hundred Years' War. He made important contributions to France by reorganizing the royal council, strengthening royal finances through issuing taxes; he also remodeled the army, and took France out of an economic depression.

Pope Paul III

He promised to summon a council for reform if he was elected pope after the death of Pope Clement VII. Roman aristocrat, humanist, and astrologer, Pope Paul III formed the Council of Trent during the Catholic reformations.

Desiderius Erasmus

He was a Dutch humanist that believed Christianity is Christ: his life, what he preached and did, not what ologians have written about him. He was an important scholar who has had many publications, The Adages, and The Education of a Christian Prince. There are two fundamental themes that run through his works. One is that education is the means to reform, the key to moral and intellectual improvement. The second is that Christianity is an inner attitude of the heart or spirit, not formalism, special ceremonies, and law.

Thomas More

He was a English humanist that contributed to the world today by revealing the complexities of man. He wrote Utopia, a book that represented a revolutionary view of society.

Jerome Bosch

He was a Flemish painter whose works display the confusion and anguish of the end of the Middle Ages. Jerome Bosch frequently used religious themes, colorful imagery, and grotesque fantasies in his works of art.

Francois Rabelais

He was a French humanist known for discussing the disorders of contemporary religion and secular life.

Lefevre d' Etaples

He was a French scholar and philosopher who published two significant essays on Mary Magdalene. His opinions, which were new at the time, gave rise to a violent controversy. His commentary on the Gospels was condemned, and the imposition of the king temporarily shielded him. He was exiled, and later excommunicated from the Church.

John Knox

He was a man who dominated the reform movement in Scotland. He was a passionate preacher who set to work reforming the Church of Scotland. He persuaded parliament to banish church authority; he then established the Presbyterian Church of Scotland.

Jan Hus

He was a priest who denounced superstitions, the sale of indulgences, and other abuses led by the Church. His remarks were highly orthodox. He was executed under the authority of the Church in 1415.

Donatello

He was a sculptor whose works expressed an appreciation of the incredible variety of human nature. Donatello revived the classical figure with its balance and self-awareness.

Louis XI of France

He was a tough, cynical, and calculating ruler. Louis XI of France ruthlessly pushed for more power. He preferred to be feared rather than loved in order to be secure. Scholars have credited him with laying the foundation for later French royal absolutism.

Pope Alexander VI

He was also known as the infamous Rodrigo Borgia. This pope reached new heights of impropriety; having concubines, sexual affairs, extravagant papal parties, supposed poisonings, and having the prevalence of intrigue. The name "Borgia" became a synonym for moral corruption.

Jan van Eyck

He was an artist who was very much admired in Italy. He was one of the earliest artists to use oil based paints. His paintings have great realism and remarkable attention to human personality.

Johan Gutenberg

He was an implementer of the movable types of printing. Johan Gutenberg used it to publish the Bible. Printing made propaganda possible for voicing differences between the Church and the State.

Saint John Chrysostom

He was considered the most prominent doctor of the Greek Church and the greatest preacher ever heard in Church. Saint John Chrysostom was a great writer, orator, and theologian of his time.

Pico della Mirandola

He was the Florentine writer of On the Dignity of Man. In this book he expressed that man possessed great dignity because he was made as Adam in the image of God before Christ's resurrection According to his views, man lays between beats and angels.

Charles V

He was the last medieval emperor part of the Hapsburg dynasty. Charles V inherited much of Europe and was committed to the idea of religious and political unity within his empire. He was a vigorous defender of Catholicism.

hermandades

Hermandades or "brotherhoods" were popular groups in the town. They were given authority to act as both local police forces and as a judicial panel.

humanism

Humanism was the studying and revival of the classics as a way to define human nature. Renaissance humanists were skeptical of the authority of pagan and classical authors. They emphasized the importance of the individual and their achievements, interests, and talents.

Lorenzo Valla

Humanist and author of On Pleasure. He defends the pleasures of the senses as the highest good. He was the father of modern historical criticism.

individualism

Individualism stressed personality, uniqueness, genius, and other qualities that involved one's capabilities and talents. Individualists believed that a person's abilities should be stretched until fully realized. The quest for glory was a central element in Renaissance individualism.

secularism

It involves a huge concern with the material world instead of with the eternal world of spirit.

Ninety-five Theses

It was Luther's response about the sale of indulgences. In his Ninety-five theses he argued that salvation could only be achieved through good faith alone. Luther was troubled by the ignorant people who believed that once they purchased an indulgence their sin would be forgiven. His argument was that indulgences undermined the seriousness of penance.

signori

It was a form of government where there was only a one-man ruler. Despots of the signori pretended to observe the law while actually manipulating it to conceal their basic illegality.

Machiavellian

It was a synonym used for the politically devious, corrupt, and crafty.

The German Peasants' Revolt of 1525

It was the reaction by the peasant class after the introduction of Martin Luther and his radical ideas to European society.

Holy Office

It was the sacred congregation of the papal court that deals with protection of faith and morals. The Holy Office was a powerful instrument of the Counter Reformation.

conquest of Granada

It was the victorious entry of Ferdinand and Isabella into Granada; it was the culmination of three centuries of Spanish struggle against the Arabs.

Calvinism

John Calvin, the founder of Calvinism, worked to establish a society ruled by God through magistrates and reformed ministers. The reformed church of Calvin, with an organized machinery of government and social and economic theology, made Calvinism the most dynamic force in 16th and 17th century Protestantism.

Individual Christian faith

John Wyclif introduced this idea that we didn't need to follow the church to be Christians. We should rather follow the Scriptures, which were the true foundations of Christianity.

Henry VII of England

Just like Louis XI of France, Henry VII of England subordinated mortality; he ruthlessly suppressed opposition and rebellion, especially from the nobility. He left England at peace domestically and internationally with the dignity and the role of the royal majesty enhanced.

Henry VIII

King Henry VIII wanted to "reduce the realm to the knowledge of God and obedience to us." He was the king of England who broke away from the papacy and created the Church of England to gain a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon after he fell in love with Anne Boleyn. He used parliament to legalize the Reformation in England.

benefices

Many clerics held offices called benefices to perform the spiritual responsibilities they were entitled to do. Instead, they collected revenues and hired a poor priest to do the spiritual duties of the local church)

Martin Luther

Martin Luther was a German friar who launched the Protestant reforms during the sixteenth century. Luther was famous for his Ninety-five theses and for opposing church authority regarding the sale of indulgences.

materialism

Materialism is another synonym for secularism. It is a concern for material things instead of the spiritual side of life.

pluralism

Pluralism was when churchmen held several offices (benefices) at the same time, just collecting revenues but not visiting their parishes.

The Great Famine of 1315-1322

Poor harvests led to scarcity and starvation. There was a reduced caloric intake because of the suspicion to disease. Working people had les energy, which meant lower productivity, which meant lower output, which meant higher overall prices.

popolo

Popolo was a new force that disenfranchised and heavily taxed the people bitterly for being excluded from holding power. They used armed force and violence to take over the government.

preacherships

Preacherships were a group of men who delivered hundreds of sermons. They also encouraged the Protestant form of worship in which the sermon, not the Eucharist, was the central point of the service.

Queen Isabella of England

Queen Isabella and her lover Mortimer deposed and murdered her husband King Edward II, and proclaimed her son Edward III as king. Then Edward took over the throne and fought the Hundred Years' war.

reconquista

Reconquista referred to the wars of the northern Christian kings fought in order to control the entire peninsula, some of the religious objectives were to convert and expel the Muslims and Jews.

Mary Tudor

She was the devout Catholic daughter of Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Henry VIII. She served as queen after the brief reign of Edward VI. She turned England back to Catholicism, by persecuting and executing hundreds of English Protestants.

Council of Trent

The Council of Trent was called not only to reform the church but also to reconcile with protestants. Lutherans and Calvinists alike were invited to attend, but their insistence that the scriptures were the sole basis of Christianity made reconciliation impossible.

Elizabethan Settlement

The Elizabethan Settlement was the parliamentary legislation of laws during the time when Queen Elizabeth, daughter of King Henry, reigned. These laws required outward conformity to the Church of England and uniformity of all ceremonies.

English Royal Council and Court of Start Chamber

The English Royal Council handled any business the king handed them, whether judicial, executive, or legislative. This council also prepared laws for the parliament. They dealt with the real and aristocratic threats to the judicial system. Their methods were very terrifying: accusing people of crime when were not entitled to see evidence against them, council sessions were secret, torture could be applied to extract confessions, and juries were not called to criminal trials.

Ulrich Zwingli

The Swiss humanist and admirer of Erasmus; Ulrich Zwingli introduced reformation in Switzerland. Zwingli was also convinced that Christian life rested on the scriptures; which were the pure words of God and the sole basis of religious truth.

Baldassare Castigiolone

The author of The Courtier. He wrote his treatise to train, discipline, and fashion a young man into a proper gentlemen. This book became the model of a European gentleman.

Niccolo Machiavelli

The author of The Prince, it was about political power and how a ruler should maintain and increase their power. He was a humanist that explored the problems of human nature and man's selfishness to advance their own interests.

Conciliar movement

The conciliarists believed that church authority rested in the council's representing the people, not the authority of the pope. They believed that reform of the church could best be achieved through council's or assemblies representing the Christian people.

Lutheranism

The doctrine that is based off of the ideals and beliefs set forth by Martin Luther; Lutheranism went against the papal authority of the Church. Lutherans believed justification by faith alone.

Vernacular literature

The emergence of national consciousness is seen in the rise of literature written in national languages-the vernacular.

Feudal chivalry

The knights were supposed to show courtesy, graciousness, and generosity to his social equals and certainly to his inferiors. Before the knights did not show such respects to many people. Now because of the aristocratic code of medieval chivalry they have to.

Roman Catholicism

The official state of religion in Europe before Protestant reformations came into place. Roman Catholics believed that Jesus rose from the dead after being crucified; they believed that Jesus Christ founded the church to carry the salvation that he brought for his people. Catholics also believed that the church had faithfully preserved the teachings of Christ.

Church of England

The state of church established by King Henry VIII after he broke away from the Catholic church when he was not allowed a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon.

Renaissance

The term Renaissance meaning "rebirth" referred to the period from the 14th century to the 16th century that experienced incredible cultural, economic, and political achievements.

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain

They invested kingship with a strong sense of royal authority and national purpose. Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain believed that the monarchy was an institution that linked all. Ferdinand and Isabella were determined to strengthen the royal authority of Spain, and they did so by forming a royal council that handled the business affairs of the government.

Anabaptist

They were a group of people who believed that only adults could made a free choice about religious faith, baptism, and entry into the Christian community. Anabaptists never forced their values on others; they believed that the Church was a gathering of people united by faith, repentance, obedience, and discipline. Anabaptists condemned government involvement in religion, which led to the idea of the separation of church and state.

Brethren of Common Life

They were pious laypeople who carried out the Gospel way of life. These people fed the hungry, clothed the poor, and visited the sick. The Brethren also taught at local schools to prepare children for priesthood and the monastic way of life.

communes

They were sworn associations of free men seeking complete political and economic independence from local nobles. The merchant guilds that made up the communes maintained city walls, regulated trade, raised taxes, and kept civil order.

Spanish converses

They were the people who converted from Jews into Christians. Conversos were also known as Marranos, or New Christians. Forty percent of Spanish conversos were either killed or forced to convert into Christianity.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

This book was the cornerstone of Calvin's theology. Embodying the ideas of John Calvin, it talked about his belief in the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the total weakness of humanity.

The Imitation of Christ

This book was the inspiration of the Brethren of Common Life. The author, Thomas a Kempis, urged Christians to take Christ as their model and seek perfection in a simple way of life.

Brunelleschi's Foundling Hospital in Florence

This hospital was one of the first to display a motif that was widely imitated in the Renaissance: a series of arches supported on a column.

Counter-Reformation

This was a movement that began as a reaction to the rise and spread of Protestantism. It involved Catholic efforts to convince and coerce heretics to return to the Church before they influenced the entire community of Catholic believers.

Appeal to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation

Unless the princes destroyed papal power in Germany, Luther argued in this book that reform was impossible. He urged princes to confiscate ecclesiastical wealth and to abolish indulgences, dispensations, pardons, and clerical celibacy. He told them it was their public duty to bring about a moral reform to the church.

Habsburg-Valois war

When the French returned to Italy in 1522, a series of conflicts called the Habsburg Valois war emerged. They were often fought in Italy.

Joan of Arc

a French peasant girl whose vision of work revived the French fortunes and led to victory. She saved the French monarchy, which was the embodiment of France. She was wounded in her breast. The English allies caught her and they burned her for political reasons and suspicion of sorcery.

Legal pluralism

a period when newcomers were given separate but equal rights which was legal pluralism. There was an exception to this in Ireland. In the later Middle Ages, legal pluralism disappeared and emphasis on legal homogeneity, language, and blood descent led to ethnic tension.

Hundred Years' War

a war between England and France over the French crown. Increased patriotism and led to peasant revolts.

Jan Hus

a young priest aware of ethnic differences between Czechs and Germany. She preached only in Czech

Robin Hood

attacked and punished those who violated the social system and law. Robin and his merry men performed acts to reattribute justice. He symbolized the deep resentment of aristocratic corruption and abuse. He represented struggle against tyranny and oppression.

Fur-collar crime

called for the miniver fur that the nobility alone were allowed to wear on their collars. Nobles used their superior status to rob and extort from the weak and then corrupt the judicial system

Pasteurella pestis

one French and one Japanese bacteriologist identified a bacillus that causes the plague. The name of the bacillus is Pasteurella pestis.

Margaret Paston

she and her husband wrote letters to each other which were now used as sources of how couples interacted with one another. She raised eight children and she was a shrewd businessperson. She managed estates.

Edward III

son of Isabella of England. He could only exercise rightful sovereignty over Aquitaine by becoming king of France. He led the country into the Hundred Years' war.

Battle of Crécy (1346)

the English longbow men scored a great victory over the French knights and crossbowmen. It was a winning battle for the English and gave them a new weapon to use.

The Jacquerie

the frustrations of the French peasantry exploded in a massive uprising called the Jacquerie. Based on a mythical agricultural laborer, Jacques Bonhomme. The crowds blamed the nobility for oppressive taxes and criminal brigandage

Nationalism

the feeling of unity and identity that binds together a people who speak the same language, have a common ancestry, and customs and live in the same area. After many victories, each country experienced a surge of pride in its military strength. English patriotism ran strong after Crécy and Poitiers so did french national confidence after Orleans.

House of Commons

the knights and burgesses were the commons. As they came to be they were recognized with their mutual interests and began to meet apart from the great lords. They realized that they held the country's purse strings.

The Statute of Kilkenny

the most extensive attempt to prevent intermarriage and protect racial purity is embodied in Ireland's Statute of Kilkenny. It states that "there were to be no marriages between those of immigrant and native stock; that the English inhabitants of Ireland must employ the English language and bear English names; that they must ride in the English way and have English apparel; that no Irishmen were to be granted ecclesiastical benefices or admitted to monasteries in the English parts of Ireland; and that the Irish game of hurling and the maintenance of Irish minstrels were forbidden to English settlers."

Leisure time

the people enjoyed cruel sports of bull baiting and bearbaiting. The hangs and mutilations of criminals were exciting and well attended events. Pastime activities were turning into cruel laughter.

Babylonian Captivity

the period, in which the clement was critically ill with cancer, lacked the will to resist Philip. Left the papal poverty stricken.

Marsiglio of Padua

the publisher of Defensor Pacis. He argued that the state was the great unifying power in society and that the church was subordinate to the state. He put for the idea that the church had no jurisdiction and should have no property. He was excommunicated because of these ideas.

English Statute of Laborers

they attempted to freeze salaries and wages at pre1347 levels. The statute was unable to be enforced therefore it was unsuccessful.

Craft guild

they provided a small minority of men and women living in towns and cities with psychological satisfaction of involvement. They set high standards for their merchandise.

Marriage

usually came at the age of sixteen to eighteen for women and later for men. Because most people were illiterate at that time we have little sources. The marriages were subject to decrease because of the lack of people.