AP Euro Chapter 23-24 Review

Urban reform

-1840s, reformers like Edwin Chadwick of UK + Rudolf Virchow + Solomon Neumann of Germany blamed the bad living conditions to causing the epidemic disease + wanted sanitary reforms -legislative acts created boards of health that brought gov. action to work on public health issues. Urban medical officers + building inspectors were supposed to inspect dwellings for any health hazards -new building regulations made it harder for private contractors to build poor housing -Public Health Act of 1875 of UK: ban construction of new buildings that didn't have running water + internal drainage system. For the first time in W history, role of municipal gov. expanded to detailed regulations for the improvement of the living conditions of urban dwellers -the ability to bring clean water into a city + to dispose sewage from the city was essential to public health of the modern European city. This was a major goal in 2nd half of 19th -fresh water problem solved by system of dams + reservoirs that had water + aqueducts + tunnels that carried it from countryside to city into individual dwellings -regular private baths were available to more people b/c gas heaters from 1860s + electric heaters which came later made baths possible. Showers appeared in 1880s -treatment of wastewater improved by building big underground pipes that carried sewage far from city to dispose. In late 1860s, some German cities started making sewer systems. Frankfurt started its program after long campaign with slogan "From the toilet to the river in half an hour" -London had system of five big sewers that discharged their loads 12 miles from the city where the waste was chemically treated. -problem was that many sewers discharged their load into what later became highly polluted lakes and rivers. But the development of pure water + sewerage system still improved European public health Housing Needs -houses were overcrowded + disease-filled. This seen as dangerous to physical health + to the political + moral health of the entire nation -V.A. Huber: German housing reformer said in 1861 that the house is the symbol. So the purity of the house is almost as important for the family as the purity of each family member. Huber believed good housing was an essential to a stable family life + a stable society -the housing problem emphasized the middle -class liberal belief in the efficiency of private enterprise. People like Huber believed that building model dwellings for a reasonable price would make private landlords to higher their housing standards -Octavia Hill: granddaughter of a social reformer rehabilitated some old dwellings + made new ones with the financial help from a friend to make new housing for 3500 people -1887 Lord Leverhulme: started building model village called Port Sunlight outside Liverpool for workers from his soap factory. This village offered pleasant living conditions w/ belief that good housing would promote a healthy + happy workforce -Ebenezer Howard: end of 19th founded UK garden city movement. He supported the construction of new towns separated by open country would provide recreational areas, air + sense of community which would encourage healthy family life. -Letchward Garden City: started in 1903 was the first concrete result of Howard's theory -as number of cities increased, gov. concluded that private enterprise can't solve the housing problem. -1890: a British law let town councils collect taxes + build cheap housing for working class. London + Liverpool were first to take advantage of this law. Similar activity like this seen in Germany by 1900 -1894: French gov. provided easy credit for private contractors to build working-class housing. These measures overall failed to do much to meet real housing needs of the working class -in Britain: only 5% of dwellings planned 1890-1914 were made by city authorities under Housing Act of 1890 -by start of WWI the need for planning was seen after the war, municipal gov. took housing problems for real -in housing, the liberal principle that gov. that govern the least are the best is seen as untrue. Gov. were starting to enter into areas of activity that they wouldn't have touched earlier Redesigning the Cities -as populations expanded in 19th, the older city layout (confining city into limited area with defensive walls) was now useless. In second half of 19th, walls destroyed + areas turned into parks + boulevards -Vienna: boulevards of Ringstrasse replaced older walls. Broad streets provided military purpose (quick movement of troops to crush any disturbances) + also gave great views of city hall, university, + parliament building = all symbols of middle-class social values -other cities redesigned in second half of 19th. Redesigning of Paris after 1850 by Napoleon III: model for other urban centers. Old districts were destroyed + replaced with town halls, gov. office buildings, retail stores (department stores, museum, cafes, + theaters) = recreational pleasures for middle class -city populations went into neighboring villages and countrysides (which were soon turned into cities) -making of streetcar + commuter train let working class + middle class live in places that could be far from work. Cheap, modern transportation separated home + work for many Europeans

19th Century Middle Class

-below upper middle class was a level that had traditional groups of professionals in law, medicine, + civil service as well as well industrialists + merchants. -industrial expansion of 19th also added to this part of middle class. It had business managers + professionals like engineers, architects, accountants + chemists who made professional associations as symbol of their new importance. Lower middle class: shopkeepers, traders, manufacturers, + wealthy peasants. These people would provide goods + services for the classes above them -b/w the lower middle class + lower class were the white-collar workers who came from 2nd Industrial Rev. -white collar workers: traveling sale reps., bookkeepers, bank tellers, telephone operators, depart. Store saleclerks, + secretaries. Most had no property, but paid more than skilled laborers. -they were usually committed to middle-class ideals + were positive in improving their status -members of middle class overall: active in preaching their worldview to kids + to the other classes. They were the ones to accept importance of progress+ science. They believed in hard work which was seen as a primary human good, it was open to everyone, + guaranteed to have good results -also were good churchgoers, who believed in good conduct + Christian morality. Middle class concerned with the right way of doing things à many book aimed for middle class market like "The Habits of Good Society" and "Don't: A Manual of Mistakes and Improprieties More or Less Prevalent in Conduct + Speech""' Men made money while women stayed at home. Middle class families can use servants b/c of the supply of cheap labor so they wouldn't have to spend as much on household work -also, reduction of the number of children in the family let mothers have more time to spend on child care + domestic leisure. Idea that leisure should be used for constructive purposes encouraged the middle-class domesticity -middle-class family had idea of togetherness. Victorians created family Christmas with the Yule log, Christmas tree, songs + exchange of gifts. -in US, 4th of July changed from drunken revels to family picnics by 1850s. education of middle class females in domestic crafts, singing + playing piano prepared them for their function of making a proper environment for home recreation -this ideal had an impact on child raising + children's play. Late 18th starting with Rousseau: encouraged the viewing of kids as beings not small adults. This carried over to 19th. So they were allowed to have a long childhood with other kids. This early environment would determine how they would turn out -mothers seen as most important in protecting kids from harmful influence of adult world. New children games + toys (like mass-produced dolls for girls) appeared in middle-class homes -emphasis on value of knowledge seen in the games. Ex. Kids should learn checkers b/c it calls the resources of their mind in the most gentle + successful manner -sons of middle class were expected to follow career like fathers so they were sent to school where they were kept from society until 16 or 17. Sports were used to "toughen them up" + leisure activities were centered around national military concerns + character building -establishment of Boy Scouts in UK 1908: gave recreation for boys from 12-18. Adventure combined with discipline of earning badges + ranks to instill ideals of patriotism + self-sacrifice -this viewed as a way to correct the possibility that the female dominance of the house would hinder the development of the boy -wasn't much recreational activity for girls. Robert Baden-Powell: founder of Boy Scouts encouraged his sister to make a girls' division. This seen from Agnes Baden-Powell who said it would be a guide for girls to be better mothers + teach the next generation -most organizations like this were for middle class kids but some reformers tried to make boys' clubs for working class youths. This would hopefully reform the kids of the lower class as well -ideal that middle class women were nurturing mothers + wives isn't reality. France, Germany + mid-Victorian UK had rare families who could actually afford host of servants: usually had one-servant: a working/country girl). Women forced to work hard to keep their expected appearance of the household. Many wives found in a no-win situation -she was usually expected to maintain the image of a "idle" wife, free from physical labor. But in truth, middle class woman had to live a life of unpaid work (managing family budget + helping with the housework)

19th Century Education

Educated" in the 19th = attending secondary school or maybe a university. -secondary schools: emphasize classical education based on Greek + Latin + mostly for sons of wealthy/middle class families. After 1850, it expanded as more middle class wanted jobs in public service or wanting to enter into scientific or technical schools -European states had little interest in primary education. Only German states had a system for it. In 1833: French gov. had a system of secular schools by telling local gov. to make an elementary school for boys + girls -these primary schools didn't require attendance but that was irregular. In rural society, the kids were expected to work in fields. like in countries like Britain + France -after 1870, functions of the gov. now included the development of mass education in state-run systems. Most W gov. offered primary education to girls + boys from 6-12. -Austria: had free mandatory elementary education in 1869 -France: 1882 law made primary education mandatory for all kids 6-13. But not mandatory in UK in 1880 until an act passed by Parliament in 1902 that put all elementary schools under county + town control -states responsible for the teachers as well. 1900, countries in N + W Europe were providing state-financed primary schools, trained + paid teachers, + free mandatory education for the masses -liberals believe education was important to personal + social improvement + also (in France) to combine Catholic education with moral + civic training based on secular values -conservatives liked education l b/c it would improve the quality of military recruits + training people in social discipline. -industrialization also encourage mass education b/c unskilled labors couldn't reach factory needs but 2nd Industrial Rev. needed skilled labor -kids with an elementary education had possibility of jobs beyond their towns like white-collar jobs. Industrialists saw education as making the workers they needed -main reason for mass education was political. Expansion of voting rights needed a more educated electorate. Mass mandatory education also instilled patriotism + nationalized everyone which gave an opportunity for greater national integration. Nationalism gave people who lost their ties to religion or other regions a new faith. Use of a single national language created even more national unity -a nation's motive for mass education determined what was taught in the schools. Teaching national values became important. Academic curriculum: reading, writing, national history, geography, literature, + some singing + drawing. Education varied b/w the genders however -girls did less math + no science. Concentration on domestic skills like sewing, washing, ironing, + cooking = preparing to giving a good home for husband + children -boys taught practical skills like carpentry, + some military drills. Most elementary schools had middle class ideals of hard-work, thrift, sobriety, cleanliness + respect for family. Normally, education -> apprentice/job -this education led to demand for teachers + most were female. In US, women were two-thirds of the teachers. This was an extension to the natural role of women being a nurture. -females paid lower which made gov. more willing to make teacher-training institutes for women. First colleges for women were really training schools.

Second Industrial Revolution - women's jobs

-19th belief that women should stay at home to take care of the kids + shouldn't work. By keeping them out of industrial work, that would ensure the health of the families. -this only made it easier to use women when extra money is needed to support the family when the men are unemployed or not making enough money. -the need to work made women do marginal work at home or be pieceworkers at sweatshops. "sweating" = done at home since it required little skill or equipment. Pieceworkers had low wages + long hours -"Slop work" = poorest paid jobs for the cheapest goods. Many women had to work for low wages in sweated industries b/c they were excluded from factories but still needed income White-Collar Jobs -after 1870, more jobs for women. Growth in industries of mining, metallurgy, engineering, chemicals + electrical sectors = less jobs for women in manufacturing -but development of larger industrial plants + expansion of gov. created many white-collar jobs -demand for white-collar workers for low wages + shortage of male workers hire women more -businesses + retail shops needed clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks + salesclerks. Expanding gov. services created opportunities for women to be secretaries + telephone operators + have jobs in health + social services. The required education needed teachers + development of hospital services increased # of nurses. -white collar jobs: unexciting, routine work + required few skills after basic literacy (besides teachers + nurses). These jobs helped the girls of middle class or higher working class. -new jobs offered freedom from the domestic patterns that were expected from women. Since middle class didn't get an education, they couldn't pursue many jobs -so it was easier to get jobs at lower-middle-class places like teaching + civil service jobs + esp postal service -white collar jobs also let working class women escape the dirty work of the lower class. -In France + UK, increase in white collar jobs rise in size of female labor force + shift from industrial jobs to white collar sector of the economy

Boer War 1899-1902

-British policies disgusted Boers or Afrikaners (descendants of Dutch colonists) + led them to migrate 1835 N on Great Trek to region b/w Orange + Vaal Rivers (later known as Orange Free State) + N of Vaal River (the Transvaal) Hostilities b/w British as Boers still continued however -1877 British governor of Cape Colony seized Transvaal but Boer revolt led British gov. to recognize Transvaal as independent S African Republic. But struggles b/w British + Boers didn't prevent the whites from massacring + subjugating the Zulu and Xhosa peoples of S Africa -1880s, British policy in S Africa was made by Cecil Rhodes: found diamond + gold companies that monopolized production of these jewels + let him get control of a territory N of Transvaal that he named Rhodesia. He was a champion of British expansion -one of his goals was to create series of British colonies from Cape to Cairo all linked by railroad. This led to his downfall in 1896 when British gov. forced to resign as prime minister after he conspired to overthrow Boer gov. of S African Republic without British approval -British gov. tried to avoid war with Boers but didn't stop both sides from causing a war. -Boer War: 1899-1902 where Boers overwhelmed by big British army. British policy toward defeated Boers was intended to make them angry. Transvaal + Orange Free State had rep. gov. by 1907 and in 1910, the Union of S Africa was created. Like Canada, Australia, + New Zealand, it became self-governing dominion inside the British Empire

Second Industrial Revolution - energy source

-Electricity: new valuable form of energy b/c it can be changed to other forms of energy like heat, light + motion + flowed easily over wires -1870s: first commercially practical generators of electric currents made. 1881: UK had first public power station. 1910: hydroelectric power stations + coal-fired steam-generating plants let districts be connected to only one power distribution system = common source for homes, shops + industrial enterprises -American Thomas Edison: invent lightbulb. British Joseph Swan: illuminate cities/homes with lights -Alexander Graham Bell: invented telephone in 1876 which started revolution in communication -Gugleilmo Marconi: sent first radio waves across Atlantic 1901. Electricity mostly used for lighting, it later started being applied to transportation -first electric railway in Berlin 1879. 1880s: streetcars, subways start to appear in European cities + replace horse-drawn buses. Electricity also helped factories -conveyer belts, cranes, machines, + machine tools powered by electricity + located anywhere. In 1st Industrial Rev: coal was source of energy. Countries w/o good coal lagged behind in industrialization. Electricity now let those countries also enter the industrial age

British Empire territories

-Europeans controlled little of Africa before 1880. During Napoleonic Wars, British established themselves in S Africa by controlling Cape Town (originally founded by Dutch). After wars, British encouraged settlers to come to their "Cape Colony" -before 1880, only other European settlements in Africa made by French + Portuguese. Portuguese had settlements in Angola on W coast + Mozambique on E coast. -British took interest in Egypt after Suez Canal was opened to French 1869. They believed it was their lifeline to India so British wanted to control the canal area. -Egypt: well-established state with autonomous Muslim gov. but didn't stop British from landing an expeditionary force there in 1882. Although they said their occupation was only temporary, British later made protectorate over Egypt. Then moved into Sudan + seized it after avoiding a war with France -C Africa also became European colony. Interested in the dense tropical jungles started in 1860s + 1870s by explorers like Scottish missionary David Livingstone + British-American journalist Henry M. Stanley -1884-1900 most of Africa divided b/w European powers. Germany also entered ranks of imperialist powers. First, Bismarck downplayed significance of colonies but as domestic political pressures for a German empire intensified, he became a political convert to colonialism -1914 UK, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain + Portugal carved up African continent. Only Liberia (founded by emancipated American slaves) + Ethiopia remained as free states -even with humanitarian rationalizations about "white man's burden" Africa was conquered by Europeans who wanted to make colonial empires. Anyone who dared to resist were devastated by superior military force of Europeans (except Ethiopians by Italians) -1898 Sudanese tribesmen tried to defend their independence + stop British expedition armed with the developed machine gun. In Battle of Omdurman, Sudanese were massacred -the battle casualties tell story of one-sided conflicts b/w Europeans + Africans. 28 British deaths to 11K Sudanese. Military superiority normally came with brutal treatment of blacks -Europeans also didn't hesitate to mislead the Africans in order to get their way.

First Moroccan Crisis 1905

-German response to the Entente was this Crisis. Germans oppose French designs in Morocco to humiliate them + drive a wedge b/w UK + France. -but all this did was unite Russia, France, UK + even US against Germanyb/c at Conference at Algeciras (Spain) January 1906, Morocco given to France -the First Moroccan Crisis 1904-1905 only drew France + UK together b/c they saw Germany as threat to European peace -Russia became suspicious of Germans and signed agreement 1907 wit UK. Now Europe divided into 2 -Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary + Italy -Triple Entente: Russia, France, UK,

Second Industrial Revolution - products

-UK fell behind in chemical industry. New methods of making soda let France + Germany take lead in making alkalies (which is used in textile, soap, + paper industries) German laboratories surpass UK in making new chemical compounds like artificial dyes -1900: Germany took 90% of market for dyestuffs + lead in development of photographic films + plates -Gottlieb Daimler: invented light engine 1886 = helped development of automobile -1900: 9K cars, 1906: Americans took lead over French. -Henry Ford: revolutionize car industry with mass production of Model T. 1916: factories making 735k cars -Zeppelin airship started air transportation in 1900. Then 1903: Wright brothers made first flight with a fixed-wing engine powered by gas in Kitty Hawk, N Carolina -WWI stimulated aircraft industry but first passenger air service not established until 1919

Sigmund Freud

-Viennese doctor that had theories that undermined optimism about rational nature of human mind. His thoughts added to the uncertainties of the time. Major ideas published 1900 in "The Interpretation of Dreams": had basic foundation of what now is psychoanalysis (understand person through their unconscious) -human behavior strongly determined by their unconscious, earlier experiences, + inner forces which people didn't pay attention to. To explore this, he relied on hypnosis + dream (which had to be in a certain code that would be deciphered. This way, the information can be properly understood) -reason why unconscious experiences influence the person is repression: where unsettling experiences were blocked from conscious awareness but still influenced behavior b/c they were now part of unconscious. -a human's inner life was battleground b/w id, ego, + superego. Humans were creatures of desire so humans directed their energy toward pleasure + away from pain -id: had all kinds of lustful drives + desires + appetites + impulses. -ego: seat of reason + coordinator of the inner life. Governed by reality principle: people rejected pleasure in order to live together in society -superego: center of conscience + represented inhibitions + moral values of society. Was to force the ego to curb the unsatisfactory drives of the id -ego and superego put restraining influences on the unconscious id and repressed + took out anything they wanted from the consciousness. -most important repression was sexual: there was a theory of infantile sexual drives embodied in Oedipus complex (Electra complex for girls): baby's craving for exclusive possession of the parent of the opposite sex. Baby boy would unconsciously want his mom only for himself -repression start in childhood + psychoanalysis accomplished through dialogue b/w psychotherapist + patient where the therapist went deep into memory in order to retrace the chains of repression all the way back to its childhood origins. By making the conscious aware of unconscious + repressed content, the patient's psychic conflict would be solved -some of Freud's ideas were wrong in many details, but he's still seen as important b/c of the influence of his many theories

Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary pre-WWI

-after dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867, Austria made a constitution: parliamentary system w/ principle of ministerial responsibility. But Emperor Francis Joseph ignored this + continued to personally appoint/dismiss his ministers + ruled w/o the parliament -problem of minorities in empire still a problem. Germans only made up 1%. They were under Austria but felt pressured by Czechs, Poles + minorities -Count Edward von Taaffe was prime minister: 1879-1893. He tried to just rely on an alliance b/w German conservatives. But his exceptions to other minorities (like letting Slavic languages be used in education + administration) angered German-speaking Austrian aristocracy -opposition to Taaffe's policies brought his downfall in 1893 but the non-German groups wanted their own exceptions while the Austrian German resisted change. granting of universal male suffrage 1907 only made problems worse since nationalities now fought in parliament for autonomy (right for self-gov). this made prime ministers after 1900 to ignore parliament + rely on imperial emergency decrees to rule -Hungary had a working parliamentary system, but controlled by great Magyar landowners who dominated Hungarian peasants + other ethnic groups of Hungary. Hungarians tried to solve nationalities problem by systematic Magyarization: the Magyar language was put on all schools + was the only language used by gov. + military officials

Realism

-naturalism was continuation of realism but it didn't have the liberal optimism about people/society. -new writers called Symbolists reacted against realism. Interested in writing poetry; and they believed that an objective knowledge of the world was impossible. -external was not real, it was a collection of symbols that reflected true reality of the individual human mind. -art should function for own sake instead of serving, criticizing, or seeking to understand society. -Impressionist paintings kept a sense of realism but Post-Impressionists shift from objective to subjective reality and started to withdraw from artist's traditional task of depicting external world. Was the real beginning of modern art

Pope Leo XIII

-another response to the coming industrialization + urbanization was compromise: evident in the Catholic Church during the time of Pope Leo XIII -he allowed teaching of evolution as a hypothesis in Catholic schools + also responded to the challenges of modernization in economic + social spheres -in "De Rerum Novarum" 1891 he upheld individual's right to private property + degradation in which it had left the working class. In socialism, he said was Christian in principle but condemned Marxist socialism b/c of its materialistic + antireligious foundations -pope recommended that Catholics make own socialist parties + labor unions to help the workers -other religious groups tried to win support for church among working-class poor + to restore religious practice in urban working classes -sects of evangelical missionaries were successful. Ex. The Salvation Army founded in London 1865 by William Booth (first general). It established food centers, shelters where homeless can sleep, + rescue homes for women but overall their purposes was to save the soul that was still searching for salvation of the body

Social Darwinism

-application of Darwin's principle of organic evolution to the social order = social Darwinism. - darwin's ideas also applied to society in radical ways by nationalists + racists -extreme nationalists said that nations were also in a "Struggle for existence" where the fit would survive. This supported by German general Friedrich von Bernhardi 1907 who also had said that war is needed. Many nationalist organization wanted the same thing as Bernhardi. -National Organization of Italy 1910: we must teach Italy international struggle. And if it means war, then let there be war! And nationalism is what will bring a victory. This is the only way to national redemption -racism revived + strengthened by Darwinism. Most dangerous combination b/w nationalism + racism seen in Germany. The "Volk" (people, nation or race) was an idea in German history since start of 19th

Pre-WWI intellectual confusion/uncertainty

-before 1914, Europeans thought their values + ideals came from Scientific Revolution + Enlightenment. -"reason" "science" + "progress" were important words to Europeans. The ability that humans can improve themselves + get a better society was demonstrated through a rising standard of living, urban improvements, + mass education -products of modern technology like lights, photographs, + automobiles showed the prestige of science + belief in the ability of the human mind to understand the universe through using reason -end of 19th, transformation in ideals + culture changed these assumptions. A new view of physical universe, appeal to irrational, other views of human nature + innovative forms of literary + artistic expression destroyed old beliefs while making a new path for modern consciousness -new ideas called confusion + anxiety that would be more announced after WWI

19th Century Treatment of European Jews

-end of 19th, revival of racism mixed with extreme nationalism to create new right-wing politics aimed at Jews. Anti-Semitism isn't new to Europe, Since Middle Ages, Jews were seen as murderers of Jesus + underwent mob violence. Their rights were restricted + they were physically separated from Christians in quarters called ghettos -in 19th from a result from Enlightenment + French Revolution, Jews were granted legal equality in many countries. French revolutionary decrees of 1790 + 1791 released Jews + gave them full citizenship -after revolutions of 1848, emancipation became a fact of life for Jews through W + C Europe. It let them leave ghetto + became accepted. Hundreds of Jews entered the closed off worlds of parliaments + univer. -1880, Jews were 10% of population of Vienna then 39% of its medical students + 23% of law students -Benjamin Disraeli: said Jews can leave their Jewishness. He was a prime minister of UK -other Jews were successful as bankers, lawyers, scientists, scholars, journalists, + stage performers -these accomplishments only show one side of the picture which is shown in the Dreyfus affair in France -Dreyfus Affair: Alfred Dreyfus (a Jew) was captain of French general staff. In 1895, secret military court found him guilty of selling army secrets + condemned him to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. In his trial, mobs yelled "death to the Jews". After trial, evidence was found that showed his innocence so gov. released Dreyfus 1899 and 1906, he was fully exonerated -in Austrian politics, Christian politics mixed with agitation for workers with anti-Semitism. Most powerful in Vienna where they were led by Karl Lueger: mayor of Vienna 1897-1910. Vienna was the center of European culture but also home to German nationalism that blamed Jews for corruption of German culture -1907-1913 was when Hitler claimed to have found his worldview: one that was based on violent German nationalism + hostile anti-Semitism -Germany had its right-wing anti-Semitic parties like Adolf's Stocker's Christian Social Workers. They used anti-Semitism to get cotes of traditional lower-middle classes groups who were threatened by new economic forces of the time -German anti-Semitic parties based on race. In medieval times, Jews can convert to Christianity + escape religion. Now, they were racially stained + can't be changed by conversion. Can't be a German + Jew. -Hermann Ahlwardt: anti-Semitic member of German Reichstag made this clear in a speech. After 1898, political strength of German anti-Semitic parties started to decline -worst treatment of Jews in end of 19th + start of 20th was in E Europe where 72% of Jewish population lived. Russian Jews were put in secondary schools universities only under a quota system + were forced to live in certain regions of the country. Persecutions + pogroms (organized massacres) were common. -1903-1906, pogroms were in 700 Russian towns + villages, mostly in the Ukraine. Many Jews tried to emigrate to escape death. 1881-1899 23K Jews left Russia each year. Many went to US + Canada even though some moved to Palestine (25K) which later became focus for Jewish nationalist movement called Zionism -emancipation 19th gave opportunities for some Jews but some problems for others. Emancipation can either mean full assimilation or disruption of traditional Jewish life. Many Jews paid the price but other wanted a different answer: return to Palestine -Palestine was land of ancient Israel. 19th nationalist ideas spread + Italians, Poles, Irish, Greeks + other wanted national emancipation so national independence caught attention of Jews.

Justifications for imperialism

-existence of competitive nation-states after 1870 was a factor in the growth of new imperialism. As European affairs grew tense, more competition Europeans started to get colonies abroad that provided ports + coaling stations for their navies -colonies were source of international prestige. As scramble for colonies began, failure to enter the race was seen as sign of weakness = unacceptable of any great power. Late 19th imperialism close to nationalism -imperialism tied to social Darwinism racism. Darwinists believed in struggle b/w nations, the fit are victorious + survive. Superior races must dominate inferior races by military force to show how strong they are -British professor of math Karl Pearson: path of progress included wrecks of nations but shows the more stronger nations. An Englishman said that the Black + Yellow Men should be inferior to White men -others took religious or humanitarian approach to imperialism by saying Europeans had responsibility to civilize ignorant peoples. Notion of "white man's burden" helped idealistic people rationalize imperialism in their own minds. Belief that superiority of civilization let them impose modern industries + medicines on "primitive" nonwhites was another form of racism -historians emphasized an economic motivation for imperialism. great demand for natural resources products not found in W countries (like rubber, oil + tin) instead of trading for these, European investors supported direct control of the areas that held these raw materials. -surpluses of capital that bankers + industrialists had were encouraging them to look for higher rates of profit in underdeveloped areas. All of these factors together created an economic imperialism + European finance dominated economic activity of a large part of the world. -economic imperialism was not exactly the same thing as colonial expansion. Businesses invested in the most profitable, not where their own countries had colonial empires -followers of Karl Marx were eager to argue that imperialism was economically motivated b/c they put imperialism w/ ultimate result of a capitalist system -Marx hinted at this but one of his followers, Russia V.I. Lenin: wrote in "Imperialism, The Highest Stage of World Capitalism" where he said the idea of capitalism leads to imperialism -the capitalist system concentrates more wealth in fewer hands, possibility for investment at home is worn out, + capitalists forced to invest abroad, establish colonies + use small, weak nations -Lenin believed that the only cure for imperialism was the destruction of capitalism

Thomas Cook

-explorations of Australia by Captain James Cook 1768-1771 made Britain take interest in E. Had availability of land for grazing sheep + discovery of gold in Australia that led to surplus of free settlers who killed many of the native inhabitants -British pioneer of mass tourism. He was secretary to a temperance group + was responsible for organizing a railroad trip to temperance gatherings 1841 -this led him to offer trips on a regular basis after he found he can make profits by renting special trains, lowering prices, + increasing number of passengers

Home Rule Act of 1914

-gradual reform didn't help Ireland. Irish had been under British rule and the Act of Union of 1801 had combined the English + Irish parliaments. Irish had developed a sense of nationalism + didn't like the UK -in 1870, Gladstone tried to satisfy Irish with limited land reforms, but Irish kept being evicted in 1870s so they responded with terrorist acts. -UK respond with force and that made Irish Catholics start to demand for independence. -Liberals then introduced home rule bills that would've given Irish a self-gov in 1886 and 1893, but the bills failed. When they passed the Home Rule Act of 1914, Irish Protestants in N Ireland (esp in Ulster) wanted to be separate from the Irish state which was mostly Catholics -WWI let the UK gov. avoid this issue and suspend the Irish home rule for the duration of the war

Prostitution

-many lower class women had to become prostitutes to survive even with new job opportunities. The rural working girls who came to the cities for jobs were naïve + vulnerable. -employment unstable + wages low. Girls had to go to prostitution since they weren't protected by their family/village community/or church anymore -in Paris + other cities with large populations had many prostitutions. 60K in London 1885. Normally, they were active from late teens to early twenties then rejoined workforce or got married -in most countries, it was regulated + licensed by gov. + city authorities. British gov. had minimal regulation but tried to enforce the Contagious Disease Acts of 1870s + 1880s: authorities had right to examine prostitutes for any sexual diseases -those who were infected went to institutions called "lock hospitals" where they got moral instruction -opposition to these acts came from Josephine Butler: middle class reformer who opposed the fact that it punished women, not men, who had those sexual diseases. Butler + her reformers called the "shrieking sisters succeeded in gaining repeal of the acts in 1886

Second Industrial Revolution - effects

-growth of industrial production depend on development of markets that sell manufactured goods. After 1870, foreign markets already competitive + dense so Europeans had to look at domestic markets which was good b/c Europeans were some of the richest consumers in the world - population increases after 1870 came with slow rise in national incomes. Leading industrialized nations were UK + Germany + had doubled or tripled their income -1850-1900: wages increased by two-thirds in UK and one-third in Germany. Since prices of food + manufactured goods declined b/c of lower transportation costs, Europeans can buy more consumer goods -businesses realized importance of using new techniques of mass marketing to sell the goods which was made possible by development of electricity + steel. By bringing all new products into one place department stores. New desires for sewing machines, clocks, bicycles, lights, + typewriters created a consumer trait that became crucial to the economy. -increased competition in foreign markets + increasing importance of domestic demand react against free trade b/c many thought protective tariffs would guaranteed domestic markets for a nation's own goods -so after 10 years of experimenting with free trade, the Europeans went back to tariff protection -cartel: enterprises would work together to control prices + fix production limits which stopped the competition that would lead to lower prices for the goods. These were being formed to decrease competition -Cartels strong in Germany where banks would protect their investments by eliminating competition. Had cartels in potash, coal, steel + chemicals -along with cartels was the move toward larger manufacturing plants esp. in iron + steel, machinery, heavy electrical equipment, + chemical industries. Trend mostly in Germany but also in UK, France, + Belgium -1882-1907: German workers rose from 205K to 879K. growth in industrial plants want for greater efficiency in factory production while competition led to demands for greater economy -result: reorganize production as much as possible. One solution was cutting labor costs by using mechanization in plants like using electric cranes to move materials. -development of precision tools: let manufacturers make interchangeable parts creation of assembly line for production. First in US: for small arms + clocks, then assembly line move to Europe 1850 -in second half of 19th: used for nonmilitary goods like sewing machines, typewriters, bicycles + automobile -principles of scientific management also introduced 1900 to maximize worker efficiency. -cartels + protective tariffs were response to growth of multinational industrial system. Economic competition intensified political parties at the time. Growth of national state was making new problems

Bismarckian System

-he knew that a unified Germany 1871 messed up balance of power at Vienna 1815. Scared that French would want revenge over their Alsace-Lorraine from Franco-Prussian War, he made an alliance 1873 w/ Russia + Austria-Hungary = Three Emperor's League (Austria-Hungary, Germany + Russia) -this not work very well b/c of Russian-Austrian rivalry in Balkans -Bismarckian system of alliances was to preserve peace + status quo. It worked until 1890 when Emperor William II dismissed Bismarck + made new foreign policies

Transformismo

-in Italy, stability was from 1903-1914 when liberal leader Giovanni Giolitti served as prime minister. -Giolitti: master at using "transformismo" (transformism): a system where old political groups were transformed into new gov. groups by political + economic bribery -his methods made Italian politics more corrupt + unmanageable. When urban workers went to violence to protest their living/working conditions, he tried to satisfy them with social welfare legislation + suffrage 1912 -to strengthen his support, he caused nationalistic passions by conquering Libya. But worker unrest continued and 1914, gov. troops had to be used to crush rioting workers

European population stats late 19th c.

-increased in Europe 1850-1910 from 270 mill to over 460 mill. From 1850-1880: the main reason for the increase was rising birthrate (in W Europe) but after 1880, decline in death rates increased the population -decline in death rates mainly had to do with medical discoveries + environmental conditions. -smallpox vaccinations were mandatory in many countries by mid-1850s. the improvements in urban environment in second half of 19th reduced diseases like diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, + cholera which had spread b/c of contamination of water supplies + ineffective ways of elimination of waste -improved nutrition also improved the health of the nation. Increase in agricultural productivity combined with improvements in transportation of the shipment of food supplies (from places of surplus to places of bad harvest) -better nutrition + food hygiene helped the decline in infant mortality in 1900. Pasteurization of milk reduced intestine disorders that were originally a major cause of infant deaths

19th Century Working Class

-lower class were 80% of population. Many were peasants, agricultural laborers, + sharecroppers esp. in E Europe but not true in W + C Europe. -10% British worked in agriculture. In Germany: 25%. Many wealthy peasants shared values of middle class. Military conscription brought peasants in contact with other groups of society. Also, elementary schools also forced peasant kids to speak national dialect + accept national loyalties -urban working class had different groups like artisans (of notemaking, printing, + jewelry making). Semi-skilled people (carpenters, bricklayers, + factory workers) got wages that were two-thirds of highly-skilled -bottom of working class were the unskilled laborers. They were day laborers: worked for low wages + large number of domestic servants. Most were women -after 1871, urban workers did had better conditions in their lives. Urban improvements = better living conditions. Rise in wages + decline in consumer costs 1880s + 1890s let workers buy more -French workers 1900 spent 60% of income on food rather than the 75% in 1870 -worker budgets now let them have more money for more clothes + leisure. Also at the same time, strikes + labor agitation were providing shorter workdays + Saturday afternoons were off -hard work seen for all women of working class. Daughter expected to work until married. And even after, they would do piecework to help support the family. The children had childhood that ended at 9 or 10 then became apprentices or employed -1890-1914: family patterns changed. High paying jobs in industry + change in standard of living made it possible to just depend on husbands' income + of grown children -early 20th: working class mothers can stay at home. Also consumer products (sewing machines, clocks, bicycles, + stoves) helped consumerism + increased the levels of consumption -working class also started limiting their family. Kids seen as dependents rather than potential wage earners after child labor laws + mandatory education moved children from workforce to schools -improvements in health + advanced in medicine + better diet = decline in infant mortality rates in lower classes esp. in cities after 1890 so families can have less kids -strikes + labor agitation -> laws that reduce work hours to 10 a day + Saturday afternoons off so lower class parents can have more attention on their kids + make emotional ties with them -working class fathers involved in kids' lives as well. In French town Belleville 1890s, workingmen had so much love for their kids that it was borderline obsession.

Steel production

-major changes in industrial development: 1) substitution of steel iron. Rolling + shaping steel lighter, smaller + faster machines, engines, railways, ships + armaments -1860: UK, France, Germany, + Belgium = 125K tons of steel. 1913: 32 million tons -early 1870s: UK made twice as much as Germany but 1910: Germany made double of UK. US beat them 1890. -1890s, Russia had massive movement of state-sponsored industrialism under Sergei Witte: minister for finance from 1892-1903. He saw industrial growth as key to Russia's national strength. Believed that railroads were powerful in economic development so he pushed gov. toward program of massive railroad construction -1900, 35K miles including 5K miles of trans-Siberian line b/w Moscow + Vladivostok on Pacific Ocean built -1860-1914: US shift from agrarian to industrialized nation. American powerful industry unchallenged 1900 -Carnegie Steel Company produced more steel than UK's entire steel industry. Industrialization urbanization. Established cities (like NY, Philadelphia, + Boston) grew larger, smaller cities like Pittsburgh grew by leaps b/c of industrialization

Meiji Restoration

-new emperor was young Mutsuhito who called his reign the Meiji (Enlightened Gov) -new leaders who controlled emperor now started a transformation of Japan known as Meiji Restoration -seeing the military + industrial superiority of W, new leaders decided to modernize Japan by adopting W methods. Many young Japanese were sent to get W education esp in social + natural sciences -German-style army + British-style navy were established. Japanese copies the industrial + financial methods of US + made modern commercial + industrial system -a highly centralized administrative system copied from French replaced old system. First, Japanese adopted French principles of social + legal equality, but by 1890, they made a political system that was democratic in form but authoritarian in practice -Japan also made powerful military state. Universal military conscription was introduced 1872 + modern peacetime army of 240K was made. Japanese pursued W imperialistic model -they defeated China in 1894-1895, annexed some Chinese territory, + established their own sphere of influence in China. After they defeated Russians in 1905, they made Korea a colony under harsh rule -Japanese proved that an Asian power can play "white man's " imperialistic game + gave an example to peoples in other regions of Asia + Africa

Urban immigration

-one of the biggest consequences of industrialization + population explosion in 19th was urbanization -urban people made up an ever-growing percentage of European population. In 1800, they were 40% of UK, 25% of France + Germany, and 10% of E Europe -1914: it increased to 80% in UK, 45% in France, 60% Germany, 30% E Europe -size of cities increased esp in industrialized countries. 1800 there were 21 cities with populations over 100K. in 1900, it grew from 960K to 6.5 million + Berlin from 172K to 2.7 million -urban populations grew b/c of migration from rural areas to cities. People driven to cities b/c of economic necessity: unemployment, land hunger, + physical want -however, urban centers offered mass employment in factories + service trades + other professions. Cities grew faster in second half of 19th b/c of improving health + living conditions -growing agricultural + industrial prosperity didn't help the population in places of little industrialization and mainly rural population. The excess labor would normally migrate to industrial regions of Europe -1913, more than 400K Poles were working in industrialized Ruhr region of W Germany. + thousands of Italian workers went to France. Industrialized places of Europe however couldn't take in the surplus population from the agricultural regions of S Italy, Spain, Hungary, Romania where land can't support everyone -booming economies of N America after 1898 + cheap shipping prices after 1900 mass emigration from S + E Europe at beginning of 20th century. In 1880: about 500K left Europe per year -1906-1910: annual departures increased to 1.3 million a year. But b/w 1846-1932: 60 million Europeans left Europe, half to USA and other half to Canada or Latin America -other reasons for leaving were b/c of being a minority. Ex. Migrants from Austria and Hungary weren't the dominant Germans or Magyars, but instead the minorities of Poles, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Romanians + Jews -1880-1914: 3.5 Poles from Russia, Austria, + Germany went to US. Jews were about 40% of Russian emigrants to US from 1900-1913 and 12% of all emigrants to US were Jews during first 5 years of 20th

Women's Social and Political Union

-started by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters. -1913 Emily Davison accept martyrdom when she threw herself in front of a king's horse at Epsom Derby horse race. Suffragists wanted: right of women to full citizenship in the nation-state -demands for women rights were heard throughout Europe and US before WWI. Only in Finland, Norway, + some American states did women get right to vote before 1914. Finally surrender after WWI -in other countries, women also support peace movements.

Second Industrial Revolution - leading and lagging nations

1900: Europe was divided into two economic zones. -Advanced industrialized core: UK, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Germany, W of Austro-Hungarian Empire + N Italy. Had high standard of living, decent systems of transportation + healthy educated people -little industrialized area: S Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Balkan kingdoms + Russia. They were still agricultural + were helping the more industrialized by providing food + raw materials (ex. The Romanian oil, Greek olive oil, + Serbian pigs + prunes in W Europe.) -growth of industrial economy new patterns for European agriculture. More grain + lower transportation costs decrease in prices of farm products. -some countries respond with tariffs against lower-priced foodstuffs. Here agricultural labor was scarce -in Britain + Germany, landowners made machines for threshing + harvesting. Decrease in food prices made countries specialize in other products. Denmark: eggs, butter, + cheese. Bohemia + N France: sugar beets. Mediterranean countries: fruit. Spain + Italy: wine -also had chemical fertilizers. Large estates can have these changes but harder for smaller areas b/c the poor farmers can't afford them formed farm cooperatives that gave money to make improvements + purchasing equipment + fertilizer

Max Planck

Berlin physicist. In 1900, rejected idea that a heated body radiates energy in a steady stream. Instead, it's radiated discontinuously in irregular packets called "quanta" -quantum theory raised questions about the subatomic area of the atom. 1900, old view of atoms (they are basic building blocks of material world) was seriously questioned = Newtonian physics was in danger

Triple Entente

Britain had always been in isolation from Continent. Were surprised when UK was condemned for their activity in Boer War in S Africa. Scared of an anti-British Continental alliance, they tried to get an alliance with Continental power -first, France nor Russia didn't seem like a good idea. UK's hostility toward France only got worse b/c of their imperialistic rivalries in Africa + Asia. And UK + Russia imperialistic interests have usually collided - so Germany was left. Some people in both countries thought that their common German heritage (Anglo-Saxons from Germany settled in UK in Early Middle Ages) = natural allies -but UK not popular in Germany + they didn't like Germans. UK suspicious of William's grabbing of colonies + their industrial/commercial rivalry had created an ill feeling. -UK esp worried abt Germany's large navy (had many battleships under Admiral con Tirpitz: secretary to German navy) so went back to France + 1904 concluded the Entente Cordial where they both settles disputes. -Russia became suspicious of Germans and signed agreement 1907 wit UK. Now Europe divided into 2. -Triple Entente: Russia, France, UK,

Herbert Spencer

British philosopher who said societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment (application of Darwin's ideas). Progress came from "struggle for survival". The fit advanced while weak declined. Expressed this in his book "Social Statics" 1896. State not in natural process

Emmeline Pankhurst

Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters (Cristabel and Sylvia): founded Women's Social + Political Union in 1903 which had mostly middle + upper class women -it saw value of media and used odd publicity stunts to call attention to what they wanted. They were labeled "suffragettes" by male politicians. They would hit gov. officials with eggs, chained themselves to lampposts, smashed windows, burned railroad cars, + went on hunger strikes in jail

Houston Stewart Chamberlain

English who became German citizen. Wrote "The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century" 1899: modern day German were only pure successors to "Aryans" who were seen as true and original creators of Western culture -Aryan race under German leadership must be prepared to fight for W civilization + save it from assaults from other races like Jews, Negroes, + Orientals. Jews were increasingly singled out by German volkish nationalists as the enemy that wanted to destroy the Aryan race

Ernst Renan

French Catholic scholar. In "Life of Jesus": he questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible + gave a radically different image of Jesus. He saw Jesus not as son of God, but as human whose value was shown in the influence he created from his life + teaching -one response from the churches was rejection of modern ideas + forces. Protestants sects were good in maintaining a literal interpretation of the Bible.

Emile Zola

French naturalist writer who showed how alcoholism + different environments affected people's lives with setting of urban slums + coalfields of N France. He read Darwin's "Origins of Species" + impressed with emphasis on struggle for survival + importance of environment + heredity -themes central in his "Rougon-Macquart": 20-volume series of novels on "natural + social history of a family" he kept the idea that artists much analyze + dissect like a biologist to a living organism

Georges Sorel

French political theorist. Combined Bergson + Nietzsche on limits of traditional thinking + added in own passionate interest in revolutionary socialism. -he understood the political potential of the nonrational + supported violent action as only way to get socialism. To destroy capitalist society, he said to use the general strike b/c it can be a mythic image that has the power to inspire workers to take violet action against capitalist order -the new socialist society would be governed by small elite ruling body b/c masses can't rule themselves.

Albert Enstein

German working in Switzerland pushed new theories of thermodynamics. 1905 published "The Electro-dynamics of Moving Bodies" that had his theory of relativity -theory of relativity: space + time are relative to observer (not absolute). Both are interwoven into a 4-D space and time continuum. Space + time didn't exist independent from human experience. They disappear with everything else. Matter + energy reflect the relativity of time + space. -E = mc^2: each particle of matter is equal to its mass times the square of the velocity of light. This theory explained the energies contained within the atom. -but didn't believe Einstein until an eclipse of the sun in May 1919 where it showed that light was deflected in the gravitational field of the sun = just as Einstein predicted. This meant the theory of relativity was real + it opened the scientific + intellectual world to his ideas. 1920s = "heroic age" of physics

Impressionism

Wanted to put paintings of their impressions of the changing effects of light on objects of nature. Ex. Not paint sunset exactly, but your impression of it; can add stuff. -impressionists didn't just pain scenes from nature. Also did streets, cabarets, rivers + busy boulevards: where people went for work and leisure. This was mainly their subject matter. -1880s, movement known as Post-Impressionism came in France but spread to other European countries. -Post-Impressionism: kept Impressionist emphasis on light + color but revolutionized it by focusing more on structure + form. Wanted to use color + line to express inner feelings + make a personal statement of reality not an imitation of objects -Impressionist paintings kept a sense of realism but Post-Impressionists shift from objective to subjective reality and started to withdraw from artist's traditional task of depicting external world. Was the real beginning of modern art

Pissarro

a Impressionism founder. Wanted to put paintings of their impressions of the changing effects of light on objects of nature. Claude Monet: follow Pissarro's suggestions. Enchanted with water + had many pictures where he tried to capture interplay of light, water, and atmosphere. Seen in "Impression, Sunrise".

Naturalism

accept material world as real + felt that literature should be realistic. When addressing social problems, writers can give to an objective understanding of the world

David Lloyd George

advanced the policy of reform. He was an orator from Wales who was inspired by the misery of Welsh coal miners. Liberals abandoned classic principles of laissez-faire + voted for series of social reforms.

Friedrich Nietzsche

believe W bourgeoisie society was corrupt + incapable of any cultural creativity. This was b/c its emphasis on the rational while throwing away emotion/passion/instincts. -reason didn't actually play in human life b/c humans were always under irrational life forces. -believed that Christianity was to blame for the W's weakness. "slave morality" of Christianity was destroyed by human impulse for life + it crushed human will. -To renew W society: 1) recognize that "God is dead" Europeans killed God and now impossible to believe in any cosmic orders. 2) Eliminating God + Christian morality liberated humans + made it possible to make a higher kind of being = superman 3) superior intellectuals must free themselves from the ordinary thinking of masses, make own values, + lead the masses. -Nietzsche rejected + condemned political democracy, social reform, + universal suffrage

Theodor Herzl

figure in helping growth of Zionism. In 1896 wrote "The Jewish State" where he said that the Jews who want it will have their own state. Financial support for development of "yishuvs" (Settlements in Palestine) was from wealth Jewish banking families who wanted refuge in Palestine for persecuted Jews -settlements were still difficult b/c Palestine was part of Ottoman Empire + Ottoman authorities were opposed to Jewish immigration. -first Zionist Congress which met in Switzerland 1897 said its aim was for the creation of a home in Palestine secured by public law for the Jews. 1000 Jews went to Palestine 1901 then 3K annually 1904-1914. But it stayed just a dream b/c of the start of WWI

Internal combustion engine

first one was powered by gas + air 1878 + made in 2nd Industrial Revolution. Was unsuitable for transportation until development of liquid fuels like petroleum + other sources -oil-fired engine made 1897 + In 1902: Hamburg-Amerika Line switch from coal to oil in its ocean liners. By end of 19th, naval fleets had mostly switched to oil as well

Marie and Pierre Curie

found that the element Radium gave off rays of radiation that came from the atom itself. Atoms were worlds that had subatomic particles like protons + electrons that behaved in random ways. Questioning the process within atoms was central theme of physics

National Insurance Act of 1911

gave benefits for workers in case of sickness + unemployment to be paid for by mandatory contributions from workers, employers + state Additional legislation gave a small pension for retirees over 70 + compensation for workers injured on job. To pay for this program, George increased tax burden on wealthy classes -both benefits + tax increases were modest, they were first hesitant steps toward future British welfare state. Liberalism (before based on principle that gov. that governs least is best) was transformed

Octavia Hill

granddaughter of a social reformer rehabilitated some old dwellings + made new ones with the financial help from a friend to make new housing for 3500 people

Fabian Socialists

group of intellectuals who stressed the need for workers to use their right to vote to get the House of Commons + pass legislation that would benefit the working class. Fabian Socialists + British trade unions were not Marxist however. -didn't want class struggle and revolution. But wanted evolution toward a socialist state by democratic means -1900 the rep. of trade unions and Fabian Socialists came together and made the Labour Party -1906 they got 29 members to the House of Commons -the Liberals who controlled the HOC and held gov. from 1906-1914 realized that they had to make a program of social welfare or lose support of the workers.

Igor Stravinsky

known for his compositions + impact on other composers. Got international fame as a ballet composer + with Ballet Russe and under direction of Sergei Diaghilev, revolutionized world of music with series of ballets. Three most significant: 1) "Firebird" 1910 2) "Petrushka" 1911 3) "The Rite of Spring" 1913 -all based on Russian folk tales. "Rite of Spring" was a revolutionary piece to development of music. The pulsating rhythms, sharp dissonances, + unusual dancing overwhelmed Paris audience + caused riot -Stravinsky looked for new understanding of irrational forces in his music which became the important force in inaugurating a modern musical movement

Elizabeth Poole Sanford

middle class women who gives her advice to other middle-class women on their proper role + behavior in life in her "Woman in Her Social and Domestic Character": A woman is a dependent creature, one who needs the husband, and has no place in a business environment. A middle-class woman's place is in the home, where she is expected to be her husband's everything.

Pan-German League

nationalistic group. Stressed strong German nationalism + supported imperialism as a tool to overcome social divisions + unite all classes. Were also anti-Semitic + called Jews as destroyers of national community

anarchism

originally not violent. Early anarchists believed that people were originally good but were corrupted by state + society. True freedom achieved by abolishing state + all social institutions -2nd half of 19th: anarchists in Spain, Portugal, Italy + Russia started supporting radical means to get this goal. -Russian Michal Bakunin: believed that small groups of well-trained revolutionaries can create a lot of violence which would make the state + its institutions all disappear. -revolutionary anarchists believed that this would introduce the anarchist golden age -after Bakunin's death 1876, anarchist revolutionaries used assassination as their primary tool of terror. -list of victims of the assassinations: Russian tsar 1881, president of French Republic 1894, king of Italy 1900, + president of United States 1901. But unfortunately, these states didn't collapse

Eduard Bernstein

revisionist who was a member of the German Social Democratic Party who was exiled and living in Britain where he influenced English socialism + the British parliamentary system -1899 he challenged Marxist orthodoxy in "Evolutionary Social" where he said some of Marx's ideas were wrong. The capitalist system had not broken down + middle class was expanding not declining -and the proletariat wasn't sinking down, it was actually improving since they had higher standard of living. Bernstein threw away Marx's emphasis on class struggle + revolution. Instead, he said workers should continue to organize into political parties + work with other elements in a nation in order to make a change -with the right to vote, workers had a better position to get their goals through democratic methods. Evolution by democratic means, not revolution, would reach the goal of socialism

Pope Pius IX

took stand against modern ideas. 1864, issued "Syllabus of Errors" where said it was "an error to believe that Roman Pontiff would accept progress, liberalism + modern civilization". Pius condemned nationalism/socialism/religious toleration/ freedom speech + press -Modernism: attempt by churches to reinterpret Christianity in light of new developments. Modernists saw Bible as book of useful moral ideas, encouraged Christians to be involved in social reforms + said churches must provide a greater sense of community -Catholic church condemned Modernism 1907 + drove it underground at start of WWI

Trade unions

wanted more radical change of economic system. Wanted "collective ownership and control over production, distribution + exchange". -workers formed trade unions to improve working conditions. Idea of organizing workers didn't come until after unions won right to strike in 1870s. Strikes were needed to get workers' goals -1888: walkout by female workers in match industry + dockworkers in London in 1889 establishment of trade union organization for both groups -1900: two million workers in British trade unions + by WWI, it rose to 3-4 million even though this was still less than a fifth of the entire workforce -trade unions didn't form as quickly on Continent as in Britain. In France: unions started out close to socialist ideology. Socialist trade unions were badly split until 1895 -1895: unions created a national organization called General Confederation of Labor. But it was weak + ineffective b/c it was decentralized + didn't include the more important unions -German trade unions were close to political parties + first in 1860s. Liberal trade unions had artisans + Catholic/Christian trade unions but the largest was still the socialist German trade union -1899: collective bargaining (deals for better wages/conditions/etc with employers) + strikes were common + effective so many were starting to drop the need for a revolution + advocate gradual improvements -1914: 3 million members made German trade union movement the second largest in Europe after UK. 85% of these three million were socialist unions. Other trade unions in Europe had some degrees of success but by start of WWI, there had been progress in improving living + working conditions for laboring classes

Otto von Bismarck

was chancellor until 1890. Polices were to prevent any more democratic institutions. First he worked with liberals to get more centralization of Germany by using common codes of criminal + commercial law. -liberals joined Bismarck with his attack on the Catholic church = "Kulturkampf" = "Struggle for civilization" -middle class liberals distrusted Catholic loyalty to Germany. But Bismarck's strategies against clergy + Catholic institutions were counterproductive. He welcomed an opportunity in 1878 to abandon the attack on Catholicism by making a shift in his policy -he abandoned liberals + started going after the socialists in 1878 after the Social Democratic Party got 12 deputies in the Reichstag in 1877. -Bismarck believed socialists were anti-nationalistic, anti-capitalistic + anti-monarchical + that was dangerous to the empire. So in 1878, he got Parliament to pass an anti-socialist law: that outlawed the Social Democratic Party + limited socialist meetings + publications. But socialist candidates can still run for Reichstag -he also tried to get working away from socialism by passing a social welfare legislation -from 1883-1889: Reichstag made laws that gave sickness/accident/disability benefits + old-age pensions financed by the mandatory contributions from the workers, employers + state -Bismarck's social system was most progressive in the world even though it didn't fulfill all desires. For example, a full pension was payable only at 75 after 48 years of contributions. If a male worker died, no benefits would be given to his widow or children -the repressive + social welfare measures weren't able to stop socialism. Social Democratic Party kept growing. Bismarck planned more repressive measures in 1890, but couldn't carry them out b/c the new emperor William II dismiss Bismarck b/c he wanted to pursue his own policies

The Communist Manifesto

written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to serve as the platform of the Communist League.he Manifesto embodied the authors' materialistic conception of history and it surveyed that history from the age of feudalism down to 19th-century capitalism, which was destined, they declared, to be overthrown and replaced by a workers' society. The communists, the vanguard of the working class, constituted the section of society that would accomplish the "abolition of private property" and "raise the proletariat to the position of ruling class."