AP Euro Chapter 26 and 27

Allied Reparations Commission

- After League of Nations failed, France sought security between 1919 and 1924 by relying on enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles -this policy toward germany began with issues of reparations (payments to compensate for the damage done to property) -Allied Reparations Commission settled on a sum of 132 million marks for German reparations

Pearl Harbor

-1941 Japanese aircraft attacked the US at pearl harbor in Hawaii. -(the same day units launched additional assaults on the Philippines and began advancing toward the british colony of Malaya) -a day later the US declared war on Japan -three days later hitler declared war on the US even though he was not required to do so. This enabled FDR to bring the US into the European conflict. -Japan hoped their lightning strike at American bases would destroy the U.S. pacific fleet and persuade the Roosevelt Administration to accept Japanese domination of the Pacific -Attack on Pearl Harbor galvanized American opinion and won broad support for Roosevelt's war policy. US joined with European nations and Nationalist China in an effort to defeat Japan and brings it hegemony in the pacific to an end.

Einsatzgruppen

-After the defeat of poland, Heydrich ordered the special strike forces- Einsatzgruppen- that he had created to round up all polish jews and concentrate them in a number of polish cities. -In 1941, the Einsatzgruppen were given new responsibilities as mobile killing units. These SS death squads followed the regular army's advance into the Soviet Union whose job was to round up Jews in their villages and execute and bury them in mass graves, often giant pits dug by the victims themselves before they were shot.

Yalta Conference

-At yalta, roosevelt sought soviet military help against Japan -atomic bomb was not yet assured and american military planners feared the possible losses of many men in amphibious assaults on the Japanese home islands so FDR agreed to Spain's price for military assistance against Japan: possession of Sakhalin and Kurile Islands as well as two warm-water ports and railroad rights in Manchuria. -the creation of the united nations was a major american concern at yalta. Roosevelt hoped to ensure the participation of the Big Three powers in a postwar international organization before difficult issues divided them into hostile camps. -after a number of compromises, both churchill and stalin accepted Roosevelt's plans for a united nations organization and set the first meeting for san francisco in 1945. -Big three reaffirmed that Germany must surrender and create 4 occupation zones -Churchill insisted that the french be given one occupation zone, carved out of the british and american zones. -German reparations were set at $20 billion -a compromise was worked out with regard to poland and it was agreed that a provisional government would be established with members of both the Lublin poles, polish communists living in exile in the soviet union, and the london poles, non-communists exiled in Britain. -Stalin agreed to free elections in the future to determine a new government. -issue of free elections in eastern europe causes a serious rift between the soviets and the americans -the principle was that eastern european governments would be freely elected, but they were also supposed to be pro soviet -attempt to reconcile two irreconcilable goals was doomed to failure, as a soon became evident at the next conference of the three big powers.

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

-Britain and France made plans to divide the ottoman territories in the Middle East, while General Mustafa Kemal led turkish forces in creating a new republic of Turkey in 1923 -wanted to westernize turkey -trappings of democratic system were put into place, new president did not tolerate opposition -introduced a state wide industrial system and westernized turkish culture -latin alphabet was used in writing the Turkish language -popular education was introduced and old aristocratic titled were abolished -turkish citizens were forced to adopt family names in the European style -made turkey a secular republic and broke the power of the Islamic Religion -new laws gave women equal rights with men -women received the right to vote in 1934 -education was open to both sexes

Hitler Youth

-Catholic and Protestant churches were brought under the control of the Nazi state -Nazi professional organizations and leagues were formed for civil servants, teachers, women, farmers, doctors, and lawyers -Since early indoctrination of the nation's youth would lay the foundation for a strong state, special attention was given to youth organizations: the Hitler Jugend (Hitler Youth) and its female counterpart, The Bund Deutscher Madel (german girls association) -the oath required of Hitler Youth members demonstrates the dedication expected of youth in the Nazi State

Uncertainty principle

-Classic physics believed that all phenomena could be predicted if they could be understood; ex: weather could be predicted if we knew everything about wind, sun and water -German Physicist Werner Heisenberg upset this belief with his uncertainty principle where he argued that no one could determine the path of an electron because the act of observing the electron with light affected the electron's location. -It was more than an explanation for the path of an electron, however, it was a new world view and Heisenberg shattered confidence in predictability and dared to propose that uncertainty was at the root of all physical laws.

Dresden

-Devastation in Dresden Germany was the result of British and American bombing raids on February 13-14, 1945. An area of 2.5 square miles in the city was destroyed and 35,000 people died. -The ferocious bombing of Dresden created a firestorm that may have killed 35,000 inhabitants and refugees.

War communism

-During the Civil War in Russia, Lenin pursued a policy of "war communism" -Under this policy of expedience, the government nationalized transportation and communication facilities as well as banks, mines, factories, and businesses that employed more than 10 workers -government assumed the right to requisition food from the peasants who often resisted fiercely, slaughtering their own animals and destroying their crops, though without much success -many factors led to deaths: hunger, drought which led to famine, industrial collapse paralleled the agricultural disaster.

Works Progress Administration

-FDR inaugurated new efforts that became known as the second New Deal which included new public works, such as the Works Progress Administration of 1935 which employed 2-3 million people who worked at building bridges, roads, post offices and airports

SS

-For those who needed Coercion, the Nazi state had its instruments of terror and repression. The SS, the Schuffelen, or protections squads was very important

Fascism

-Great depression increased the attractiveness of simplistic dictatorial solutions, especially from a new movement known as fascism -Democracy seemed on the defensive everywhere in europe in the 1930's

Anti-Semitism

-Hitler established this -at the core of Hitler's ideas was racism, especially anti-semitism -his hatred of the jews lasted to the end of his life

Führerprinzip

-Hitler set about organizing the Nazi Party for the lawful takeover of power -his position on leadership in the part was quite clear -there was no discussion of ideas in the part, and the party was to follow the Fuhrerprinzip, the leadership principle which entailed nothing less than a single-minded party under one leader

Mein Kampf

-Hitler wrote this book in prison after the Beer Hall Putsch, an autobiographical account of his movement and its underlying ideology. Mein Kampf is remarkable because of its elaboration of a series of idea that directed Hitler's actions once he took power. That others refused to take hitler and his ideas seriously was one of his greatest advantages. -Hitler characterized his years in Vienna from 1908-1913 as an important period of his life

David Lloyd George

-In great britain, the post war decline of such staple industries as coal, steel, and textiles led to a rise in unemployment which reached the 2 million mark in 1921 -the continuing wartime coalition government led by Liberal David Lloyd George proved unable to change this situation

Communism (again)

-Increased government activity in the economy was one reactions, even in countries like the United States that had a strong laissez-faire tradition -There was also a renewed interest in Marxist doctrines since Marx had predicted that capitalism would destroy itself through overproduction -Communism took on new popularity, especially among workers and intellectuals

Great East Asia Co-Prosperity

-Japan invaded northern china, beginning its effort to create a "great east asia co-prosperity sphere" -To provide a structure for the arrangement, Japanese leaders set up the Great East asia co-prosperity sphere as a self-sufficient community designed to provide mutual benefits to the occupied areas and the home country -After America entered the war, the Japanese invaded the Dutch east indies and occupies islands in the Pacific ocean and by spring 1942, almost all of southeast asia and much of the western pacific had fallen into Japanese hands. Tokyo created the great east asia co prosperity sphere, encompassing the entire region under japanese tutelage and announced its intention to liberate the colonial areas of Southeast Asia from Western colonial rule.

Battle of Midway

-June 4 -At the battle of midway island, American planes destroyed all 4 of the attacking Japanese aircraft carriers and established American naval superiority in the pacific -High costs for victory: ⅖ of the American planes were shot down in the encounter and by fall 1942, Allied forces were beginning to gather for offensive operated in Burma and India, Solomon Islands, and on New Guinea with forces under the direction of American General Douglas MacArthur moving toward the philippines and across the pacific where US Army, Marine and Navy forces would mount attacks against Japanese held island -After a series of bittler engagement sin the waters off the Solomon Islands, from August to November, Japanses fortunes began to fade.

Marcus Garvey

-Leaders who went to the United States were influenced by pan-african ideas of W.E.B. Dubois and Marcus Garvey -a Jamaican who lived in Harlem NY and stressed the need for unity of all africans

New Economic Policy

-Lenin pulled Russia back from the abyss by establishing his New Economic Policy - modified version of the old capitalist system -peasants could sell produce -retail stores that employed less than 20 people could operate under private leadership, heavy industry, banking, and mines remained in the hands of the government -Lenin created the USSR, or Soviet Union -received market brought famine to an end but industry still stagnated (only coal industry reached prewar levels by 1926) -NEP saved the Soviet Union from complete economic disaster even though Lenin and other communist intended it to be only a temporary retreat from the goals of communism -Lenin and the communists were also strengthening their one-party state- number of bureaucrats increased dramatically and constituted a new elite with the best jobs, food, and dwellings/ -Lenin issued warnings about the widening power of the bureaucracy that he had helped create Ideological divisions were underscored by a personal rivalry between Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin

Giovanni Giolitti

-Mussolini entered into a political alliance with the Liberals under Giovanni Giolitti, then prime minister -Giolitti and liberals believed that fascists could be used to crush socialism temporarily and then be dropped

OVRA

-Mussolini established his fascist dictatorship in 1926 -set up press laws that have the government the right to suspend any publications that fostered disrespect for the catholic church, the monarchy, or the state -made head of government with the power to legislate by decree -a police law empowered the police to arrest and confine any body for nonpolitical or political crimes without due process of law -government was given the power to dissolve political and cultural associations -in 1926, all anti-Fascist parties were outlawed -A secret police, known as the OVRA, was also established

Squadristi

-Mussolini formed bands of armed Fascists called squadristi and turned them loose in attacked on socialist offices and newspapers -strikes by trade unions, socialist workers, and peasant leagues were broken up by force -use of violence was crucial to Mussolini's plans -by 1921, black shirted fascist squads numbered 200,000 and had become a regular feature of italian life -War veterans and students were especially attracted to the squadristi and relished the opportunity to use unrestrained violence

King Victor Emmanuel III

-On October 29th, 1922, King Victor Emmanuel III made Mussolini prime minister of Italy and 24 hours later, the Fascist Blackshirts were allowed to march into Rome in order to create the myth that they had gained power by an armed insurrection after a civil war

Antonio Salazar

-Portuguese had overthrown their monarchy and established a republic. Severe inflation after WWI, undermined support for the republic and helped intensify political instability. In 1926 a group of army officers seized power and by the early 1930's the military junta's finance minister, Antonio Salazar become the strongman of the regime. Salazar controlled the portuguese government for the next 40 years.

King Alfonso XIII

-Romania witnessed development of a strong fascist movement led by Corneliu Codreanu which possessed its own paramilitary squad called the iron guard. As Codreanu fascist movement grew and became Romania's third largest political party, King Carol II responded in 1938 by ending parliamentary rule, crushing the leadership of the legions and imposing authoritarian rule.

King Carol II

-Romania witnessed development of a strong fascist movement led by Corneliu Codreanu which possessed its own paramilitary squad called the iron guard. As Codreanu fascist movement grew and became Romania's third largest political party, King Carol II responded in 1938 by ending parliamentary rule, crushing the leadership of the legions and imposing authoritarian rule.

Social Security Act

-Roosevelt administration was also responsible for social legislation that launched the American welfare state -1935 social security created a system of old-age pensions and unemployment insurance

New Deal

-Roosevelt pursued a policy of active government intervention known as the new deal -created a variety of agencies designed to bring relief, recovery, and reform -to support the nation's banks, the federal deposit insurance corporation was established which insured bank safety up to $5000 -federal emergency relief administration provided funds to help states and local communities meet the needs of the destitute and the homeless; the Civilian Conservation Corps employed more than 2 million people on reforestation projects and federal road and conservation projects -New Deal provided some social reform measures that perhaps averted the possibility of social revolution in the United States but it did not solve the unemployment problems of the Great Depression

Leon Trotsky

-Russia was exhausted and Leon Trotsky observed "the collapse of the productive forces surpassed anything of the kind that history had ever seen. The country and the government with it, were at the very edge of the abyss" -The left of the Politburo, led by Leon Trotsky, wanted to end the NEP and launch the Soviet union on the path of rapid industrialization, primarily at the expense of the peasantry -He also wanted to continue the Russian revolution because their believed that the survival of the Russian Revolution depended on the spread of communism abroad. -key figure in the success of Bolshevik Revolution and the Red Army. Held the post of commissar of war and was the leading spokesman for the left in the Politburo.

Heinrich Himmler

-SS was originally created as Hitler's personal bodyguard -Under Heinrich Himmler, the SS came to control all of the regular and secret police forces -Himmler and the SS functioned on the basis on two principles: terror and ideology -Terror: instruments of repression and murder; secret police, criminal police, concentration camps, and later the execution squads and death camps for the extermination of the Jews -For Himmler, the SS was a crusading order whose primary goal was to further the Aryan master race -SS members were indoctrinated in racial ideology

Léon Blum

-Socialist leader, Leon Blum was prime minister in the time of the popular front

Five year plan

-Stalin made a significant shift in economic policy in 1928 when he launched his first five year plan. -rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union as well as the collectivization of agriculture -goal was to transform the soviet union from an agricultural country into an industrial state overnight -emphasized production of capital goods and armaments instead of consumer goods -quadrupled the production of heavy industry and doubled oil protection -during the first two five year plans- 1928-1937, steel production increased from 4 to 18 million tons per year and hard coal output went from 26 to 128 million tons

Tehran Conference

-Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill, the leaders of the Big Three of the grand Alliance, met at Tehran in November 1943 to decide the further course of the war. -decision concerned the final assault on germany and they decided on an American-British invasion of the Continent through France which they scheduled for the spring of 1944 -accepted of the plan had important consequences: meant that Soviet and British-American forces would meet in defeated Germany along a north-south dividing line and that eastern Europe would be liberated by Soviet forces. -Allied agreed to a partition of postwar Germany, but differences over questions like the frontiers of poland were carefully set aside -Roosevelt was please with the accord with Stalin

Great Depression

-US economic boom in 1920's caused by "buying on Margin" and stock market Bust -Cause #1: downturn in domestic economies -Cause #2: Stock Market Crash in 1929

Louis H. Sullivan

-US was a leader in these pioneering architectural designs -unprecedented urban growth and the absence of restrictive architectural traditions allowed for new building methods, especially in the relatively "new city" of chicago -The chicago school of arts, led by Louis H. Sullivan used reinforced concrete, steel frames, and electric elevators to build skyscrapers free of external ornamentation

FDR

-US was most affected by the depression -industrial production was suffering and millions were unemployed -Under the terrible conditions, Franklin Delano Roosevelt won the 1932 election by a landslide -initial efforts of FDR administration produced only a slow recovery at best

Civil Disobedience

-When British tried to suppress Indian calls for Independence, Gandhi urged his followers to follow a peaceful policy of civil disobedience by refusing to obey British regulations

Neville Chamberlain

-When Chamberlain returned to England from Munich, he boasted that the Munich agreement meant "peace for our time" Hitler promised Chamberlain that he had made his last demand and other European problems could be settled by negotiation and Chamberlain believed Hitler's assurances -Prime minister of Britain who was a strong advocate of appeasement and believed that the survival of the British Empire depended on an accommodation with Germany. Made it known to hitler in 1937 that he would not oppose changed in central europe, provided that they were executing peacefully -After German victories and denmark and norway led to change in government in britain, growing dissatisfaction with the apostle of appeasement, Neville Chamberlain, led a member of his own party to say to the prime minister "you have sat too long for any good you have been doing. Depart, I say, and let us have done with you. In the name of God go!" Chamberlain resigned and on May 10th, 1940, Winston churchill became prime minister.

Beer Hall Putsch

-When it appeared that the Weimar republic was about to collapse, the Nazi's and other right wing leaders in the south German state of Bavaria decided to March on Berlin to overthrow the Weimar government. When the other conspirators did not compromise, Hitler's Nazis acted on their own and and staged an uprising in Munich on november 8, which was called the Beer Hall Putsch and was quickly crushed. It caused Hitler to be arrested, put on trial for treason, and sentenced to prison for 5 years, a lenient sentence from right wing judges. Major turning point in Hitler's career and it reinforced his faith in himself and his missions and caused a change in tactics. He realized he would have to use constitutional means to gain power, which implied the formation of a mass political movement that would compete for votes with the other political parties.

Adolf Hitler

-a small rightist party, known as the Nazis, led by an obscure Austrian rabble-rouser named Adolf Hitler tried to seize power in southern germany in conscious imitation of Mussolini's march on Rome -Although the attempt failed, Hitler and the Nazi's achived sudden national prominence -within 10yrs. Hitler and the Nazi's took control power -failure in secondary school and in art -he then established the basic ideas of an ideology from which he never deviated for the rest of his life -became an extreme German nationalist who learned from the mass politics of Vienna how political parties could effectively use propaganda and terror -Finally, in his Viennese years, Hitler came to a firm belief in the need for struggle which he saw as the granite foundation of the world -Moved to Munich without purpose and with no real future in sight -world war 1 saved him and he distinguished himself by his brave acts -by the end of the war, he thought his life had no meaning, and returned to Munich and decided to enter politics and found his true profession -created the NAZI party

Ruhr

-after confront with allies threats to occupy the Ruhr valley (Germany's chief industrial and mining center) the new German republic accepted the reparations settlement and made its first payment in 1921 -however, the following year the government could no longer pay reparations so the french government sent troops to occupy the Ruhr valley because they would collect reparations with Ruhr factories. -German and French suffered with the french occupation of the Ruhr valley -german mark became worthless after printing too much paper money, which intensified the inflationary pressures. -Economic disaster fueled political upheavals as Communists staged uprisings in October 1923, and Adolf Hitler's Nazis attempted to seize power in Munich in November -French were also hardly victorious: gains did not offset the costs and pressures from US and GB forced the french to agree to a new conference of experts to reassess to reparations problem- but by the time the conference did its work, France and Germany were willing to pursue a more conciliatory approach toward each other

Gandhi

-began a movement based on nonviolent resistance whose aim was to force the British to improve the lot of the poor and grant independence to India -began to manufacture his own clothes and dressed in a simple dhoti or loin cloth made of coarse homespun cotton -adopted the spinning wheel as a symbol of India's resistance to imports of British textiles -Complete Indian Independence would have to wait until after WWII

Il Duce

-by the end of 1926, Mussolini ruled Italy and Il Duce, the leader -Mussolini conceived of the Fascist state as totalitarian

Ernst Röhm

-by the end of 1933, there were only 2 sources of potential danger to Hitler's authority: armed forces and the SA within his own party -Ernst Rohm lead the SA and openly criticized Hitler and spoke of the need for a second revolution and the replacement of the regular army by the SA -army and hitler did not favor this possibility so to solve this problem Hitler had Rohm and a number of other SA leaders killed in return for the army's support in allowing Hitler to succeed Hindenburg when the president died.

Holocaust

-deliberate attempt to exterminate the jewish people of Europe

Little Entente

-fear of german aggression led them to reject possibility of disarmament -before WWI, france's alliance with Russia threatened germany with the possibility of a two front war -Communist Russia was a hostile power so france built a network of alliances in eastern europe with poland and the members of the little entente (Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. -these alliances seemed like they would contain germany and maintain the status quo, however it overlooked the fundamental military weaknesses of those nations -Poland and the Little Entente were not substitutes for Russia

Benito Mussolini

-first used the term fascism to describe his fascist italy -socialist and well known in italian socialist circles -laid foundations for fascism whose name came from his group, Fascio di Combattimento -received little attention in the elections of 1919, but political stalemate in Italy's parliamentary system and strong nationalist sentiment saved mussolini and the fascists

Treaty of Locarno

-foreign ministers of Germany and France (Gustav Stresemann and Aristide Briand) fostered a spirit of international cooperation by concluding the Treaty of Locarno which guaranteed Germany's new western borders with France and Belgium, but germany did not accept these borders as permanent -people viewed Locarno as the beginning of a new era of European peace -however treaty lacked real substance: Germany did not have military power to alter borders and issue of disarmament proved that the "spirit of Locarno" could not induce nations to cut back on their weapons -numerous disarmament conferences failed to achieve anything substantial as states proved unwilling to trust their security to anyone but their own military forces

Gustave Stresemann

-formation of new French and GB governments opened the door to conciliatory approaches to Germany and the Reparations problem -at the same time, a new German government led by Gustav Stresemann ended the policy of passive resistance and committed Germany to carry out most of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles while seeking a new settlement of the reparations question -german government stabilized the currency and ended the extreme inflation by issuing a new temporary currency.

National Bloc Government

-france was the strongest power on the European continent and needed to rebuild the north and east -no government could solve french's financial problems but they did experience prosperity between 1926 and 1929 -suffered politically and economically in 1932 -six different cabinets were formed as France faced political chaos -french right wing groups espousing policies similar to those of the Fascists in Italy and the Nazis in Germany, marched through the streets in numerous demonstrations

Weimar Germany

-german democratic state -Formed by a coalition of Social Democrats, the Catholic Center Party, and German Democrats -fragmented republic had no political leaders and proved to be unstable -was unable to change Germany's basic governmental structure- never controlled the army, which operated as a state within a state -other institutions maintained their independence as well -Hostile judges, teachers, and bureaucrats remained in office and used their positions to undermine democracy from within -Important groups of landed aristocrats and leaders of powerful business cartels refused to accept the overthrow of the imperial regime and remained hostile to the republic -faces economic problems: inflation had social repercussions, pushes the middle class to rightist parties that were hostile to the republic, Germany faced a great depression (unemployment, social discontent, fear, and extremist parties) -these terrible conditions provided an environment where Hitler could rise to power

German Workers' Party

-hitler joined this part -one of a number of right-wing extreme nationalist parties in Munich

John Maynard Keynes

-ignored the new ideas of a Cambridge Economist, John Maynard Keynes -published his General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money in 1936 -condemned the traditional view that in a free economy, depressions should be left to work themselves out -Keynes argued that unemployment stemmed not from overproduction, but from a decline in demand and that demand could be increased by public work, financed by deficit spending to stimulate production

Ramsay MacDonald

-in 1923, British politics experienced a major transformation when the Labour party surged ahead of the liberal as the second most powerful party in europe after the conservatives -after elections in november 1923, enabled Ramsay Macdonald to become the first labour prime minister of Britain -he depended on liberal support and rejected any extreme social or economic experimentation -government only lasted 10 months, as the Conservative Party's charge that his administration was friendly toward communism proved to be a high successful campaign tactic

Paul von Hindenburg

-in 1925, this military war hero was elected president -he was a traditional military man, monarchists in sentiment, who was not in favor of the republic -young republic suffered politically from attempted uprisings and attacked from both the left and the right -Hitler's quest for power from 1930-1933 depended on political maneuvering around President Hindenburg. -Hitler and Nazis saw that power would come from more than a ballot box. Hitler saw that after 1930, the Reichstag was not all that important since the government ruled by decree with the support of president Hindenburg -with pressure from elites, Hindenburg agreed to allow hitler to become chancellor and form a new government -the day after fire broke out in the Reichstag building, supposedly by the communists, hitler was able to convince president hindenburg to issue a decree that gave the government emergency powers which suspended all basic rights of citizens for the full duration of the emergency, and enabled the Nazis to arrest and imprison anyone without redress.

Dawes Plan

-in August 1924, an international commission produced a new plan for reparations named the Dawes plan after the American banker who chaired the commission, it reduced reparations and stabilized Germany's payments on the basis of its ability to pay -Dawes plan granted an initial $200 million loan for German recovery, which opened the door to heavy American investments in Europe that helped usher in a new era of European prosperity between 1924 and 1929.

Functionalism

-in modern architecture -widespread in the 1920's and 1930's -meant that buildings, like products of machines, should be functional or useful, fulfilling the purpose for which they were constructed. -Art and engineering were to be unified and all unnecessary ornamentation was to be stripped away -based on the architechs belief that art had a social function and could help create a new civilization

Joseph Stalin

-joined the Bolsheviks in 1903 and had come to lenin's attention after staging a daring bank robbery to obtain funds for the Bolshevik cause. -Stalin was a party general secretary while other Politburo members held stronger positions -He was a good organizers and the other members of the Politburo found that the position of party secretary was the most important in the party hierarchy. -Stalin first did not support the left or the right but came to favor the goal of socialism in one country rather than world revolution -Stalin used his post as party general secretary to gain complete control of the Communist Party -Trotsky was expelled from the party in 1927 and was murdered in mexico in 1940 on Stalin's orders -Stalin eliminated the old bolsheviks of the revolutionary era from the Politburo and established a powerful dictatorship

Authoritarian state

-limited the participation of the masses and was content with passive obedience rather than active involvement in the goals of the regime. A number of states in eastern europe adopted this kind of authoritarian government -Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and yugoslavia adopted parliamentary systems, romania and bulgaria gained new parliamentary constitutions, Greece become a republic, Hungary's government was parliamentary but was controlled by its landed aristocrats, at the beginning of the 1920's political democracy seemed well established, but almost everywhere in eastern Europe, parliamentary governments soon gave way to authoritarian regimes. -communist agrarian upheaval, ethnic conflict, powerful landowners, the churches and even some members of the small middle class looked to authoritarian governments to maintain the old system

W.E.B. Du Bois

-many african leaders were calling for independence, not reform -clearest calls came from a new generation of young African leaders who were educated in Europe and the United States -Leaders who went to the United States were influenced by pan-african ideas of W.E.B. Dubois and Marcus Garvey -Du Bois was an African American educated at Harvard to was the leader of a movement that tried to make all Africa aware of their own cultural heritage

Kristallnacht

-more violent phase of anti-Jewish activity which took place in 1938 -initiated on November 9-10, 1938, or Night of Shattered Glass -the assassination of a third secretary in the German embassy in Paris by a young polish jew became the excuse for a Nazi led destructive rampage against the Jews in which synagogues were burned, several thousand Jewish businesses were destroyed and at least 100 jews were killed -30,000 Jewish males were sent to concentration camps -Kristallnacht also caused Jews to be barred from all public buildings and prohibited from owning, managing, or working in any retail store -Under the direction of the SS, Jews were encouraged to emigrate from Germany and after the outbreak of WWI, the policy of emigration was replaced by a more gruesome one

Nuremberg Laws

-new racial laws announced at the annual part rally in Nuremberg -these Nuremberg laws excluded German Jews from German citizenship and forbade marriages and extramarital relations between Jews and German citizens. -Nuremberg laws essentially separated jews from the germans politically, socially, and legally and were the natural extension of Hitler's stress on the preservation of a pure Aryan race

Popular Front

-riots in february 1934, fomented by a number of right-wing leagues, frightened many into believing that the extremists intended to seize power and fear began to drive the French leftist parties together despise their differences and led in 1936 to the formation of the Popular Front -first popular front government was the coalition of the two french leftist parties, the socialists and the radicals -parties shared a belief in antimilitarism, anti clericalism, and the importance of education -radicals were a democratic part of small property owners and the socialists were nominally committed to Marxist socialism -popular front succeeded in initiating a program for workers that some have called the french new deal which established the right of collective bargaining, a 40 hour week, two-week paid vacations and minimum wages . -popular front's policies failed to solve the problems of the depression and by 1938, the french were experiencing a serious decline of confidence in their political system that left them unprepared to deal with their aggressive Nazi enemy to the east

Propaganda

-totalitarian state expected the active loyalty and commitment of its citizens to the regime's goals and used modern mass propaganda to conquer the minds and hearts of its subjects

Totalitarian State

-totalitarian was first used by Benito Mussolini in Italy to describe his new Fascist state -a number of historians applied the term to Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union -Totalitarian regimes extended the functions and power of the central state beyond what they had been in the past -totalitarian state expected the active loyalty and commitment of its citizens to the regime's goals and used modern mass propaganda techniques and high speed modern communications to conquer the minds and hearts of its subjects -total state aimed to control economic, political, social, intellectual and cultural aspects of life -purpose of this control was the active involvement of the masses in the achievement of the regime's goal, whether it be war, a socialist state, and a thousand year reich -totalitarian state was led by a single leader and a single party and ruthlessly rejected the liberal ideal of limited government power and constitutional guarantees of individual freedoms -modern technology gave these states unprecedented ability to use police controls to enforce their wishes on their subjects -revisionist historians questioned the usefulness of the term totalitarian and regarded it as crude and imprecise -Fascist italy, Nazi germany, and the soviet union sought total control and these states had differences and none of them was successful in establishing total control of its society

Chancellor Heinrich Brüning

-unable to form a working parliamentary majority in the REichstag and relied on the use of emergency decrees by president hindenburg to rule, so Parliamentary democracy was already dying in 1930, 3 years before hitler destroyed it.

General Strike of 1926

-under Stanley Baldwin, the Conservatives guided Britain during an era of recovery, which was superficial -british exports were never compensated for the overseas investments lost during the war and unemployment still occurred. -coal miners suffered -attempts by mine owners to lower coal miners wages led to a national strike (General Strike of 1926) by miners and trade unions -a compromise settled the strike, but many miners refused to accept the settlement and were forced back to work at lower wages for longer hours

League of Nations

-wilson put many of his hopes for the future in the League of nations -had some success in guaranteeing protection for the rights of ethnic and and religious minorities in some newly formed states -not effective at maintaining peace -Failure of US to join the league undermined its effectiveness -League's weapon for ending aggression was the imposition of economic sanctions such as trade embargoes that often failed to prevent League members from engaging in military action -efforts to promote disarmament were ineffective -Weakness of the League of Nations and the failure of the US to honor its promise to form a defensive military alliance with France left the french sad

Rudolf Höss

A harrowing experience awaited the Jews when they arrived at one of the 6 death camps, Rudolf Hoess, commandant at Auschwitz-Birkenau, described it

Dwight D. Eisenhower

A series of allied deceptions manages to trick the Germans into believing that the invasion would come on the flat plains of northern france. However, instead the allies, under the direction of this american general, landed 5 assault divisions on the Normandy beaches on June 6 in history's greatest amphibious invasion. Within three months, the allied landed 2 million men and 500,000 vehicles that pushes inland and broke through the German defensive lines.

Rommel

After the British defeat of Italian troops in North Africa, Hitler sent General Erwin Rommel with the German Afrika Korps to Libya in February 1941. Lead a force of Germans and Italians and attacked on march 30 and eventually reached the egyptian frontier where he was forced to halt. Reinforcements in North Africa enabled the Afrika Korps to break through the British defenses in Egypt, capture Tobruk in June and begin an advance toward Alexandria. In north africa, british forces stopped rommel's troops at El Alamein in the summer of 1942 and rocked them back across the desert.

Leningrad

After the Soviets defeated the Germans at the Battle of Kursk, they began an advance westward. The soviets reoccupied Ukraine by the end of 1943 and lifted the siege of Leningrad and moved into the Baltic states by the beginning of 1944. Soviet troops occupied Warsaw in January 1945 and entered Berlin in April. Soviet troops also went through Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.

Battle of the Bulge

After the breakout under Eisenhower, allied troops moved south and east and took paris by the end of august. Supply problems and last minute offensive by german troops in the battle of the bulge slowed the Allied advance. Nevertheless, by march 1945, Allies armies crossed the rhine river and advanced into Germany. At the end of April, allied forces in northern germany moved toward the elbe river, where they linked up with the soviets

Alfonso XIII

Alfonso XIII left spain in 1931, and a new spanish republic was instituted, governed by a coalition of democrats and reformist socialists.

Unconditional surrender

Also important to this alliance Tactile agreement of the three chief allies to stress military operations while ignoring political differences and larger strategic issues concerning any postwar settlement. At the beginning of 1943, the Allies agreed to fight until the Axis powers surrendered unconditionally -principle might have discouraged the Germans and Japanese from overthrowing their governments in order to arrange a negotiated peace and it cemented the grand alliance by making it impossible for hitler to divide his foes

Virginia Woolf

Also used stream of consciousness. Belonged to a group of intellectuals and artists, known as the Bloomsbury Circle, who sought to create new artistic and literary forms. In her novels, Mrs. Dalloway and Jacob's Room where she used inner monologues of her main characters to reveal their world of existence. Woolf came to believe that for a woman to be a writer, she would need to have her own income to free herself from the expected role of wife and mother.

Trieste, Fiume Dalmatia

At the end of WWI, italy gained some territory, named Trieste and new northern border that included the formerly Austrian south tyrol area -Italy's demands for Fiume and Dalmatia on the Adriatic coast were rejected which gave rise to the myth that Italy had been cheated of its rewards by the other victors

Potsdam Conference

Began under a cloud of mistrust. Truman was president after Roosevelt's death and during the conference, truman received word that the atomic bomb had been successfully tested. Some historians have argued that this knowledge resulted in Truman's resolve against the soviets so there was new coolness in the relationships between the soviets and americans. At potsdam, truman demanded free elections through eastern europe but stalin said this could not happen and stalin sought absolution military security because to him, it could gained only by the presence of communist states in eastern europe. He thought Free elections might result in governments hostile to the soviets. By the middle of 1945, only an invasion by western forces could undo developments in eastern europe and after the world's most destructive conflict, few people favored this policy.

Luftwaffe

Blitzkrieg meant the quick defeat of an enemy and determine hitler's rearmament program: the constructive of a large air force, or the Luftwaffe- an immense numbers of tanks and armored trucks to carry infantry. German air force.

Allied powers

Britain, the US, and the Soviet Union

Anglo-German Naval Pact:

British moved toward open acceptance of Germany's right to rearm and this treaty allowed Germany to build a navy that would be 35% of the size of the British navy,with equality in submarines. During the time of blitzkrieg warfare and the panzer division, the number of men in the german armed services rose from 550,000 to 4.5 million in 1939 and pact proceeded after the Anglo-German Naval Pact of 1935.

Carl Jung

Challenges Freud's ideas. Believed his theories were too narrow and reflected freud's personal biases. His study of dreams led him to diverse sharply from Freud because for Freud, the unconscious was the seat of repressed desires of appetites, but for Jung it was an opening to deep spiritual needs and ever-greater vistas for humans. Viewed the unconscious as twofold: personal conscious and a collective unconscious at a deeper level. Collective unconscious which was the repository of memories that all human beings share and consisted of archetypes, mental forms, or images that appear in dreams. To jung, archetypes proved that mind was only in part personal or individual because their origin was buried so far in the past that they seemed to have no human source. The function of the archetype was to bring the original mind of humans into a new, higher state of consciousness

Civilian impact all sides

Civilians were forced into labor. The civilians had to deal with food shortages, no housing, no schools, and a shortage of health facilities.

Enabling Act

Crowning step of Hitler's legal seizure of power came after the Nazid had gained 288 Reichstag seats in the elections of March 5, 1933, but since they did not possess an absolute majority, they sought the passage of an Enabling Act. This would empower the government to dispense with constitutional forms for 4 years, while it issued laws to deal with the country's problems. It was an amendment to the Weimar Constitution, and Nazi needed and obtained a ⅔ vote to pass it. Only social democrats had the courage to oppose Hitler. It provided the legal basis for Hitler's subsequent acts and he no longer needed the Reichstag or President Hindenburg, Hitler then became a dictator appointed by the parliamentary body itself.

Death camps

Einsatzgruppen was soon perceived as inadequate and Nazis opted for the systematic annihilation of the European Jewish population in specifically built death camps. Plan was to round up jews from countries occupied by Germany and pack them into freight trains and then ship them to poland where there were 6 extermination centers. Largest camp was Auschwitz- Birkenau. -Medical technicians chose Zyklon B as the most effective gas for quickly killing large numbers of people in gas chambers designed to look like shower rooms to facilitate the cooperation of the victims. After gassing, the corpses would be burned in specially built crematories. -death camps were in operation by summer of 1942 -Elimination of ghettos in poland was the first priority but jews were also being shipped from france, belgium, and the netherlands. There were shipments of Jews from the capital cities of Berlin, Vienna, and Prague and from France, southern france, italy, and denmark. -As allies were making important advances in 1944, Jews were being shipped from Greece and Hungary and these shipments depended on the cooperation of Germany's Transport Ministry, and despite desperate military needs, the Final solution had priority in using railroad cars for the transportation of Jews to the death camps. -Military argument that Jews could be used to produce armaments was overridden by the demands of extermination -about 30% of the arrivals at Auschwitz were sent to a labor camp and the remainder went to gas chambers where they were burned in the crematoria after they were gassed -The germans killed between 5 and 6 million Jews, more than 3 million of them in death camps -90% of the Jewish population, the Baltic countries, and germany were exterminated. -Overall, the holocaust was responsible for the death of nearly 2 out of every 3 European jews.

Madagascar Plan

Emigration was still a favored policy. Once the war began in September 1939, the so-called Jewish problem took on new dimensions and for a while there was discussion of the Madagascar Plan, which aspired to the mass shipment of Jews to the Island of Madagascar, off the eastern coast of Africa. When war contingencies made this plan impracticable, an even more drastic policy was conceived.

Liebensraum

Extreme German nationalism, virulent anti-semitism and vicious anti communism are linked together by a social Darwinian theory of struggle that stresses the right of superior nations to Lebensraum though expansion and the right of superior individuals to secure authoritarian leadership over the masses

Munich Conference

French said they would only act against the Czechoslovakians if they british supported them. Britain refused to do so and at the Munich Conference, British French Germans and italian reached an agreement to meet hitler's demands: German troops were allowed to occupy the Sudetenland as the Czechs stood by helplessly. Confirmed to Hitler that the western democracies were weak and would not fight.

Robert Ley

German Labor front under Robert Ley regulated the world of labor. Labor front was a state-run union and used the workbook to control all laborers. Every salaried worker had to have one in order to hold a job. However, to obtain a workbook, a worker would have to submit to the policies of the Nazi-controlled Labor Front. Labor Front sponsored activities to keep the workers happy

Marshal Henri Pétain

German armies occupied ⅗ of france while the french hero of WWI, Marshal Henri Petain established an authoritarian regime known as Vichy France- over the remainder. Allied regarded the Petain government as a Nazi puppet state, and a french government in exile took up residence in Britain. Germany was now in control of western and central europe, but britain was still not defeated.

Hermann Hesse

German writer who dealt with the unconscious. Novel reflected the influence of both Carl Jung's psychological theories and eastern religions and focused among other things on the spiritual loneliness of modern human beings in a mechanized society. Demian was a psychoanalytic study of incest and steppenwolf mirror the psychological confusion of modern existence. His novels made a large impact on German youth in the 1920's and won a nobel prize for literature in 1946

Axis powers

Germany, Italy, and Japan

Final Solution

Heinrich Himmler and the SS organization shared Hitler's racial ideology. The SS was given responsibility for what the Nazis called their Final Solution to the Jewish problem- the annihilation of the Jewish people. The final solution had priority in using railroad cars for the transportation of Jews to the death camps. Even the military argument that jews could be used to produce armaments was overridden by the demands of extermination.

Kurt von Schuschnigg

Hitler Decided to move first on Austria. He threatened Austria with Invasion and forced the Austrian Chancellor, Kurt Von Schuschnigg into putting an Austrian Nazi in charge of the government. When German troops marched unopposed into Austria on March 12, 1938, they did so on the legal basis of the new Austrian chancellor's request for German troops to establish law and order. On march 13, after his triumphal return to his native land, Hitler annexed austria to germany and Great britain's acknowledgement of Hitler's action and france's inability to response increased hitler's contempt for western weakness.

Poland

Hitler attacked Poland which began WWI

Blitzkrieg

Hitler continued Germany's rearmament at a quickening pace and expenditures on rearmament rose dramatically. Important to rearmament was the planning for blitzkrieg which was a new type of warfare, also known as "lightning war" Hitler wanted to avoid trench warfare of WWI and used lighting warfare that depended on mechanized columns and massive air power to cut quickly across battle lines and encircle entire armies. With the lighting war, Hitler stunned Europe with the speed and efficiency of the German attack.

Sturmabteilung

Hitler developed his party into a mass political movement with flags, badges, uniforms, its own newspaper and a police force known as the SA, or Sturmabteilung, or storm troops. SA was used to defend the party in meeting halls and to break up the meetings of other parties.

Aryan

Hitler felt he needed to develop a total state and he had larger ideological goals. The development of an Aryan racial state that would dominate Europe required a massive movement in which the German people would have to be actively involved, not cowed by force. Women played a crucial role in the Aryan racial state as bearers of children who would bring about the triumph of the Aryan race. Nazi ideas determined employment opportunities for women, such as social work and nursing, not heavy industry or university, medicine, and law jobs. Nazi total state was intended to be an Aryan racial state. From its beginning, the Nazi party reflected Hitler's strong anti-semitic beliefs. Once in power, the Nazis translated anti-semitic ideas into anti-semitic policies. On April 1, 1933, the new Nazi government initiated a two-day boycott of Jewish businesses and then a series of laws soon followed that excluded "non-Aryans" (anyone descended from non-Aryans, especially Jewish parents or grandparents) from the legal profession, civil service, medicine, teaching, etc.

How did the war end?

Hitler moved to Berlin to direct final stages of the war- hitler continued to arrange his armies on worn out battle maps and in his final political testament, hitler blamed the jews for the war. He committed suicide on April 30, two days after Mussolini had been shot by Italian forces. On may 7, German Commanders surrendered and the war in Europe was over.

Rhineland

Hitler sent German troops to the demilitarized Rhineland after his conviction that the western democracies had no intention of using force to maintain all aspects of the Treaty of Versailles. According to the Treaty of Versailles, the french had the right to use force against any violation of the demilitarized Rhineland. France did not act without German support and British viewed the occupation of German territory by German troops as another reasonable act by a dissatisfied power. Hitler became more convinced from his own superior abilities and that france and britain were weak nations, unwilling to use force to defend the old order

Sudetenland

Hitler stepped up demands on the Czechs- Germans initially asked for autonomy for the Sudetenland, the mountainous northwestern border area of Czechoslovakia's that was home to 3 million Germans. Sudetenland contained Czechs most important frontier defenses and industrial resources. In 1938, Hitler demanded the cession of the Sudetenland to Germany and expressed his willingness to risk world war to achieve his objective

Geneva Disarmament Conference

Hitler's ability to rearm Germany and fulfill his expansionist policies depended on whether he could convince other that his intentions were peaceful. He emphasized that Germany wished to revise unfair provisions of Versailles by peaceful means and achieve Germany's rightful place among the European states. During the first two years in office, hitler pursued a foreign policy without risks. His dramatic action in 1933 was withdrawing Germany from the German Disarmament conference and was done for domestic political purposes, to give germans the feeling that their country was no longer dominated by other European states.

Maginot line

Hitler's hopes of avoiding war in the west were shattered when france and britain declared war on september 3.. He was still hopeful that he could control the situation. Britain and France were expecting another war of attrition and economic blockage and refused to go on the offensive. 1930-1935, France built a series of concrete and steel fortification armed with heavy artillery which was known as the Maginot Line- along its border with Germany. France was happy to remain in its defensive shell

King Alexander I

In 1920 states moved away from political democracy and toward authoritarian structures. A military coup d'etat established an authoritarian regime in Bulgaria in 1923. Poland established an authoritarian regime in 1926 when Marshal Joseph Pilsudski created a military dictatorship. In yugoslavia, King Alexander I abolished the constitution and imposed a royal dictatorship in 1929. During the 1930's, all of the remaining parliamentary regimes except Czechoslovakia succumbed to authoritarianism. Eastern European states were attracted to the authoritarian examples of Fascist italy and Nazi germany.

BBC

In 1926, when the British Broadcasting Corporation was made into a public corporation, there were 2.2 million radios in Great Britain and by the end of the 1930's there were 9 million

Married Love

In England, Marie Stopes published Married love, which emphasized sexual pleasure in marriage and soon became a bestseller.

Tito

In some countries, resistance groups even grew strong enough to take on the Germans in pitched battles. In Yugoslavia, Josip Broz, known as Tito, led a band of guerillas against German occupation forces. By 1944, his partisan army number 250,000, including 100,00 women.

The Decline of the West

In the decline of the west, the German writer, Oswald Spengler reflected this disillusionment when he emphasized the decadence of Western civilization and posited its collapse.

Hannah Höch

In the hands of Hanna Hoch, Dada became an instrument to comment on women's roles in the new mass culture, She was the only female member of the Berlin Dada Club which featured the use of photomontage. Her work was part of the first Dada show in Berlin in 1920. In Dada Dance, she seemed to criticize the "new woman" by making fun of the war women were inclined to follow new fashion styles. In other works, she created a positive images of the modern woman and expressed a keen interest in new freedoms of women.

National Socialist German Workers Party (NAZIs)

In the summer of 1921, hitler assumed total control of the total workers party and renamed it the National socialist german worker's party or NAZI for short. He gained support from the working class and nationalist circles. Hitler's speaking skills were responsible for attracting an increasing number of followers and by 1923, the party grew from its early hundreds into a membership of 55,000, plus another 15,000 in the SA. Had 178,000 members by the end of 1929 after Hitler reorganized it. Men in the party were under 30 and committed to Hitler because he gave them active politics they sought.

Nazi Soviet nonaggression pact

Japan began to cooperate with Nazi Germany on the assumption that the two countries would launch an attack on the soviet union. Germany then surprised the world and signed a nonaggression pact with the soviets, so Japanese Strategists were compelled to reevaluate their long-term objectives. Japan realized they could not defeat the Soviets alone and the Japanese tried to seize resources of southeast asia, however this meant war with Britain and France. The non aggression pact paved way for Hitler's invasion of Poland on September 1. Hitler negotiated his own aggression pact with Stalin and shocked the world with its announcement. This was a secret protocol to the treaty created german and soviet spheres of influence in eastern europe. Gave hitler the freedom to attack poland. On September 1, German forces invaded Poland and two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Two weeks later, Germany's new found ally, the Soviet Union sent its troops into eastern Poland and Europe was at war again

Manchukuo

Japanese soldiers seizes Manchuria, an area of northeastern china that had natural resources japan needed. After worldwide protests against the seizure, the League of Nations condemned Japan's action which caused Japan to withdraw from the League. During the next several years, Japan consolidated its hold on Manchuria which it renamed Manchukuo and began to expand its control in North China. By the mid-30's militant elements connected with the government and the armed forced were in control of Japanese politics.

The Triumph of the Will

Joseph Goebbels, the propaganda minister of Nazi Germany believed film constituted one of the most modern and scientific means of influencing masses so Goebbels created a special film section in his propaganda ministry and encouraged the production of both documentaries and popular features films that carried out the Nazi Message. For example, Triumph of the Will was a documentary of the 1934 Nuremberg party rally that forcefully conveyed the power of National Socialism to viewers

Politburo

Lenin suffered a series of strokes that led to his death on January 21, 1924. Although Communist control rested on collective leadership, Lenin had provided one man rule. His death inaugurated a struggle for power among the members of the Politburo, the institution that had become the leading organ of the party. Politburo, in 1924, of seven members was divided over the future of the nation LEFT POLITBURO: end NEP, launch urbanization at expense of peasantry, and continue the revolution RIGHT POLITBURO: rejected the cause of world revolution and wanted to construct a socialist state, thought rapid urbanization would worsen living standards so they wanted to continue the Lenin's NEP

Battle of Stalingrad

Major turning point on the Eastern Front. After capturing Crimea, Hitler's generals wanted him to concentrate on the Caucasus and its oilfields. Hitler decided Stalingrad, a major industrial center on the Volga should be taken first. German advance on Stalingrad encountered resistance but Hitler wanted to capture the city named after the Soviet dictator. Stalin issued a war order called not a step back and Germans destroyed much of the city, but Soviet troops used the bombed-out buildings and factories as well-fortified defensive positions. A deadly conflict evolved during september, october, and november and both sides suffered severe losses. Hitler announced that the German Sixth Army had taken Stalingrad but later the Soviets attacked German positions north and south of Stalingrad and by November 23, they surrounded the German forces. Hitler commanded General Friedrich Paulus to stand firm with his Sixth Army and forbade attempts to break out of the encirclement. Soviet attacked forms the Germans to surrender and the entire German Sixth Army of 300,000 men were lost. By February 1943, German forces in the Soviet Union were back to their positions of june 1942 and by the spring of 1943, hitler knew that the Germans would not defeat the soviet union.

Home Guard

Many people spent their hours after work in such wartime activities as the home guard. The home guard had been founded in 1940 to fight off German invaders. Even elderly people were expected to held manufacture airplane parts in their homes.

Appeasement

Munich conference was the highpoint of western appeasement of Hitler. British started this policy based on the belief that if European states satisfied the reasonable demands of dissatisfied powers, the latter would be content and stability and peace would be achieved in European. British appeasement was grounded in large part on Britain desire to start another war.

Avanti

Mussolini obtained the important position if editor of Avanti (Forward), the official socialist daily newspaper -after editorially switching his position from ardent neutrality, the socialist position to invention in WWI and was expelled from the socialist party

Reichstag

Nazi party made a shift in strategy by pursuing an urban strategy geared toward winning workers from the socialists and communists, however when they failed in the 1928 elections, the Nazis gained only 2.6% of the vote and 12 seats in the Reichstag, Hitler was convinced they needed to change. Hitler then pursued middle-class and lower class votes in small towns and rural areas. Germany's economic difficulties paved the war for the Nazi's to rise to power and the economic and psychological impact made radical solutions by extremist parties more attractive. In the election of 1930, Nazi's polled 18% of the Reichstag vote and got 107 seats, making it the largest part in all of Germany. In the election of 1932, Nazis won 230 seats and were the largest party in the Reichstag. However, 4 months later they declined to 196 seats.

Petra Groza

On the American side, the soviet union's failure to fulfill its Yalta pledge on the Declaration on Liberated Europe, as applied to eastern Europe set a dangerous precedent. This was evident in Romania as early as February 1945, when the soviet's engineered a coup and installed a new government under the communist Petra Groza, called the "Little Stalin." One month later, the Soviets sabotaged the polish settlement by arresting the london poles and their sympathizers and installing the soviet-backed Lublin poles in power. To the Americans, the Soviets seemed to be asserting control of eastern european countries under puppet communist regimes.

Frank Lloyd Wright

One of Sullivan's most successful pupils who became known for innovative designs in domestic architecture. Wright's private houses, built for the wealthy, featured geometric structures with long lines, overhanging roofs, and severe planes of brick and stone, Interiors were open spaces that included cathedral ceilings and build in furniture and lighting fixtures. Pioneered the modern american house.

James Joyce

One of the most visible manifestations of surrealism in literature was the stream of consciousness technique in which the writer presented an interior monologue, or a report of the innermost thoughts of each character. One example of this genre was written by the Irish Exile James Joyce. His Ulysses, published in 1922, told the story of one day in the life of ordinary people in Dublin by following the flow of their inner dialogue, His work consisted of discounted ramblings and veiled allusions.

Werner Heisenberg

One of the physicists responsible for demonstrating that the atom could be split and dubbed the heroic age of physics. By the early 1940's, physicists had distinguished seven subatomic particles and achieved an understanding of the atom to lay the foundations for the development of a sophisticated new explosive device, the atomic bomb.

Count Claus von Stauffenberg

Only one plot against Nazis came close to success. It was the work of a group of military officers and conservative politicians who were appalled at hitler. One of the members of this group was Count Claus von Stauffenberg, believed that only the elimination of Hitler would bring the overthrow of the Nazi regime. On July 20, 1944, a bomb planted by Stauffenberg in Hitler's east prussian headquarters exploded but it failed to kill the dictator, The plot was uncovered and crushed and 5,000 people were executed and Hitler remained in control of Germany.

Popular Front

Political turnoil ensured as control of the government passed from leftists to rightists until the popular front took over in 1936 Popular front: an anti-fascist coalition composed of democrats, socialists, communists, and other leftist groups The Spanish Civil War was split between left and right and the popular front supported the left which were concentrated in urban areas such as Madrid and Barcelona and favored modernization, workers' rights, the expansion of manufacturing, a civilian army, and secularization. Franco's forces eventually wore down the popular front after they captured Madrid on March 28th, 1939 and the Spanish war came to an end after a brutal battle.

Francisco Franco

Popular front was unacceptable to senior army officers. Led by general Francisco Franco, Spanish military forces revolted against the government and inaugurated a brutal and bloody civil war that lasted 3 years.

Dada Movement

Prewar fascination with the absurd and unconscious contents of the mind seemed even more appropriate after the nightmare landscapes of WWI battle fronts which came rise to both the Dada movement and Surrealism, but it was German expressionist artists who best directly captured the destructive effects of WWI.

Chiang Kai-shek

Prime victim of Tokyo's militant strategy was China. When clashes between Chinese and Japanese troops occurred, the Chinese nationalist leader, Chiang Kai-Shek sought to appease Tokyo by granting Japan the authority to administer areas in North China. As Japan moved south, protests in Chinese cities against Japanese aggression intensified and when chinese and Japanese forces clashed at the Marco Polo Bridge, South of Beijing, China refused to apologize and hostilities spread.

1936 Olympics

Professional sporting events for mass audiences became an important aspect of mass leisure. Attendance at association football (soccer) games increased dramatically and the inauguration of the World Cup contest in 1930 added to the nationalistic rivalries that began to surround such mass sporting events. Increased attendance made the 1920's and 1930's a great era of stadium building. For the 1936 Olympics, the Germans built a stadium in Berlin that seated 140,000 people.

Nazi New Order

Racial considerations played an important role in how conquered people were treated in the Nazi New Order. Germans established civil administrations in Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands because Nazis considered their peoples Aryan, akin to the German and worthy of more lenient treatment. Inferior latin peoples, (like the french) were given military administrations, By 1943, as Nazi losses continued to multiply, all the occupied territories of northern and western europe were exploited for material goods and workers for Germany's war needs.

Reinhard Heydrich

Reinhard Heydrich, head of the SS's Security Service was assigned administrative responsibility for the final solution.

Birth of a Nation

Shortly before WWI, full length features, such as the italian film Quo Vadis and the American film Birth of a Nation were released and it became apparent that the cinema was a new form of entertainment.

Charles de Gaulle

Some anti-Nazi groups from occupied countries, such as the Free french movement under Charles created governments-in-exile in London. After the invasion of the soviet union in 1941, communists assumes leadership roles in underground resistance movements which led to conflict with other local resistance groups who feared the postwar consequences of communist power. Charles de Gaulle's Free French movement thwarted the attempt of French communists to dominate the major french resistance groups.

Surrealism

Sought reality beyond the material, sensible world and found it in the world of the unconscious through the portrayal of fantasies, dreams, or nightmares. Surrealists employed logic to portray the illogical and created disturbing and evocative images.

Night witches

Soviet women served as snipers and also as aircrews in bomber squadrons. The female pilots who helped defeat the germans at stalingrad were known as the "night witches"

Battle of Kursk

Soviets came along way since battle of stalingrad. Hitler gambled on using newly developed tanks to take the offensive, but the Soviets defeated the German forces at the Battle of Kursk, the greatest tank battle of WWII. Germans lost 18 of their best panzer divisions and Soviet's moved westward.

Molotov

Soviets viewed western, especially American, policy as nothing less than global capitalist expansionism or in Leninist terms economic imperialism. Molotov, the Russian foreign minister, referred to the Americans as insatiable imperialists and warmongering groups of adventurers.

Salvador Dali

Spaniard Salvador Dali became the high priest of Surrealism and in his mature phase became a master of representational Surrealism. In the persistence of memory, Dali portrayed recognizable objects divorced from their normal context. By placing these objects in unrecognizable relationships, he created a disturbing world in which the irrational had become tangible, forcing viewers to question the rational.

Purges

Stalin's desire for sole control of decision making led to purges of the old bolsheviks -Between 1936 and 1938, the most prominent old bolsheviks were put on trial and condemned to death -Stalin also undertook a purge of army officers, diplomats, union officials, party members, intellectuals, and numerous ordinary citizens -8 million Russians were arrested; millions died in Siberian forced labor camps which made Stalin the greatest mass murderer in human history

Panzer division

Tanks, mechanized infantry, and mobile artillery formed the new strike force called panzer divisions that would lead the blitzkrieg attack. Each panzer division consisted of 300 tanks with accompanying forces and supplies. When hitler attacked poland, German forces used panzer divisions, or armored columns supported by airplanes to break quickly through the polish lines and encircle the outnumbered and poorly equipped Polish armies.

T-4 program

Technical assistance for the construction of camps was provided by experts from the T-4 Program, which had been responsible for the extermination of 80,000 alleged racially unfit mental and physical defectives in Germany between 1938 and 1941.

Gestapo

The Gestapo, secret police, crushed most communist resistance groups

Kraft durch freude

The Nazi regime instituted a program called Kraft Durch Freude (Strength through Joy) whose purpose was to coordinate the free time of the working class by offering a variety leisure time activities, including concerts, operas, films, guided tours, and sporting events. Inexpensive vacations, much like modern package tours, such as cruises to Scandinavia or the Mediterranean or more likely for workers, short trips to various sites in Germany.

James Byrnes

The soviets did not view their actions as dangerous expansionism but as legitimate security maneuvers. There was little sympathy t in the West for Soviet fears and even less trust in Stalin. When the American Secretary of state, james byrnes proposed a 25 year disarmament of germany, the soviet union rejected it and many saw this as proof of Stalin's plans to expand in central Europe and create a communist east german state. When Byrnes responded by announcing that American troops would be needed in europe for an indefinite time and made moves that foreshadowed the creation of an independence west germany, the soviets saw this as a direct threat to soviet security in europe

Soft underbelly

The tide of battle had had turned Germany, italy, and japan and it would take a long time achieve the goal to unconditional surrender of the three axis powers. After the axis powers surrendered in Tunisia on May 13, 1943, The allies crossed the Mediterranean and carried the war to italy, an area that Winston churchill called the soft underbelly of europe.

Wannsee Conference

To inform party and state officials of the general procedures for the Final Solution, a conference was held at Wannsee, outside Berlin, on January 20, 1942. Reinhard Heydrich outlined the steps that would now be taken to solve the jewish question. He explained how "in the course of practical implementation of the final solution europe is to be combed through from west to east" for Jews who would then be brought group by group into so-called transit ghettos, to be transported from there farther to the east". The conference worked out all of the bureaucratic details so that part and state officials would cooperate fully in the final elimination of the jews.

Maragaret Sanger

Van de Velde described female and male anatomy, discussed birth control techniques and glorified sexual pleasure in marriage. Family planning clinics, such as those of Margaret Sanger in the US and Marie Stopes in Britain began to spread new ideas on sexuality and birth control to the working classes

Arnold Schönberg

Viennese Composer who experimented with a radically new style by creating musical pieces in which tonality is completely abandoned, a system that he called atonal music. Since the use of traditional forms were impossible in atonal music, he created a new system of composition- the twelve tone composition- which used a scale of 12 notes independence of any atonal key/

Clydebank

WWII was a total war for civilians as political leaders came to see the bombing of civilians as a legitimate way to attempt to demoralize the population and end the war. The results of this policy are evident in scenes of life between 1941 and 1945. Refugees walked past a bombed tenement building, where 800 people died and 800 more were injured during a German bombing raid on Clydebank near Glasgow in Scotland in March 1941. Only 7 of the city's 12,000 houses were left undamaged; 35 of 47 thousand inhabitants became homeless overnight. The raid on Clydebank was Scotland's only severe bombing experience. The city was attacked because of its proximity to nearby shipyards that were refitting ships to serve in the war.

Harry Truman

War in asia continued after Hitler's death. American forces advanced their way across the pacific and took enemy resources at sea and in air. When President Harry Truman and his advisers became convinced that American troops might suffer heavy casualties in the invasion of the japanese homeland, they drop the newly developed atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Japanese surrenders on August 14 and WWII was officially over.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

When President Harry Truman and his advisers became convinced that American troops might suffer heavy casualties in the invasion of the japanese homeland, they drop the newly developed atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The destruction was incredible: 70,000 of 76,000 buildings were flattened, 140,000 of the city's 400,000 inhabitants died, and by the end of 1950, another 50,000 perished from the effects of radiation The most devastating destruction of civilians came near the end of the war when the US states dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Winston Churchill

When chamberlain resigned, Winston Churchill, a long time advocate of a hard line policy toward Nazi Germany became prime minister and he was confident that he could guide britain to ultimate victory. He was an inspiring leader who rallied the british people with speeches. Hitler hoped the british would make peace but churchill and the british refused and forced hitler to prepare for an invasion of Britain. In the bombing of Germany, Churchill and his advisers believed that destroying German communities would break civilian morale and bring victory. After compromises at the Yalta conference, churchill and stalin accepted roosevelt's plans for a united nations organization and set the first meeting for San Francisco in april.

Oppenheimer

While sabotaging German efforts, the US and Britain recruited scientists, including many who had fled from germany, to develop an atomic bomb. Working under the direction of J. Robert Oppenheimer at a secret Laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico, Allied Scientists build and tested the first atomic bomb by the summer of 1945 and a new era in warfare was about to begin.