AP Euro Exam

venice

Most important of great Italian port cities Leading maritime power of the age Until 15th c., less interested in securing landed empire than in dominating a seaborne one European center for glass industry Lasted as a republic the longest (until Napoleon invaded) Really important on the sea Trade routes Roads are canals On the Adriatic Sea (Queen of the Adriatic) The Most Serene Republic of Venice Greatest overseas trading city in Europe Marco Polo-- first European to get to China Stays a republic until end of 1700s Napoleon ends period as independent republic Great center of arts Efficiency Shipyards Columbus born in Genoa Interesting combination of state and private enterprise State promoted and regulated things Merchant ships built partly by state's money, turned into military vessels in case of war Particularly important for long-distance trade Key connection w/ Byzantines Own section of Constantinople Important in defending Constantinople After 1453, Ottomans were much more aggressive, anti-mercantile Not really a commercial people-- nomadic warrior people Mainly about expansion and conquering, not trade Distinctive political system Oligarchy Small group of people ruling Several councils Republic-- no monarch, more than one person has power Remained republic until end of 1700s w/ Napoleon Avoided becoming despotism Central body= Great Council People who had true citizenship in terms of voting Had right to vote for Senators-- chose for themselves About 2500 people Hereditary Wealthy, well-educated men doge= elected for life Not very powerful Main leader Eventually became figurehead ruler Prestigious Was the head of state, instead of head of government Council chose people to be senators 250 people 1/10 size of Great Council Tried to limit despotism thru this Only served one term of one year in the Senate More power, made big decisions Picked doge Smaller councils dealt w/ various things Chosen by secret ballot Chosen by nominators selected by lot Almost random Still choosing from wealthy, well-educated men-- keeps someone from becoming like dictators Very decentralized, diffused Queen of the Adriatic Own tradition of Renaissance art (diff from Florence and Rome) The first to have ambassadors b/c of commercial ties Some of the most important info about 16th century England was from Venetian ambassadors reporting back to Venice

louis xiv

King of France mid 17th to early 18th century Becomes king at age of 5 Means there is a regency mom= Anne of Austria (Habsbuurg) Trying to make peace Wife of Louis XIII Tying whole thing together Also a cardinal, picked by Richelieu, to carry on his work→ Italian Cardinal Mazarin Brilliant man, same absolutist views as Richelieu Ppl thought he had a sort of precocious arrogance Fronde (1648-1653) Series of upheavals Peasant riots Urban rioting/insurrection core= aristocratic/baronial revolt A lot of French nobles didn't like what had been happening, esp w/ Richelieu and centralization This was their chance to undo some of the centralization They taxed specifically the nobles who had bought gov offices Supposed to be tax-exempt A lot of thigns all coming together in 1640s Food shortages, crop failures, 30 Years' War, war w/ Spain War w/ Spain didn't end until 1650s Parlement Courts, several of them (regional) There was a central one→ Parlement du Paris Ppl who sit on them are nobles, seats are hereditary Try to act like legislatures Nobles would try at times to use them to obstruct any kind of centralizing legislation At a point they were claiming that they had the right to register (ok) the law, so the monarchy could not tax them Trying to argue that they had the authority to review and strike down the changes At one point they got control of Louis Clear that their motivations were more personal than for all of France Rebels turned to Spain for help→ made it look like they were really just out for own personal interests Ultimately failed Probably leading rebel= Duke of Conde Said he was leading the nobles against foreign authority of Anne and Mazarin At the height of it he was being kept at the Louvre, humiliated and scared hiim French ppl decided that if the choice was b/t a strong king and anarchy, they wanted a strong king Declared of age at 13 Knew from the start that he needed to make sure the nobles could never do that again→ kept them on a very short leash Versailles Nobles required to stay there for ½ the year Outside Paris Used partly to intimidate ppl w/ its grandeur and size Particularly cut off nobles from real source of power (provinces) b/c nobles almost never out in province that they were supposed to be noble of Thus ppl of the provinces were not necessarily as loyal to nobles as they had been before King had them constantly running w/ social activities (very deliberate), constantly changing up fashion became a boy king when his dad dropped dead suddenly mother= Anne of Austria 1648--> Fronde series of upheavals, insurrections, baronial noble revolt Mazarin eventually put it down discredited nobles and strenghtened the monarchy when he turned 13, he was declared to be the real king (of his majority) never forgot the humiliation he suffered in the Fronde not the best or greatest French king, but most famous ruled longer than almost any European monarch in history 1714-1715 is another good turning point when Hanoverians come into English end of war of Spanish succession when Louis XIV died "L'etat c'est moi." I am the state represents the hollow nature of the European monarchy did have important advisers but didn't have a favorite in that way, didn't want to trust that spent too much on wars and buildings "I have loved wars and buildings too much"-- on his deathbed also revoked Edict of Nantes lost most Huguenots skilled, educated Versailles was a huge part of intimidating ppl, but also the extravagance was over the top and a financial drain 'the Sun King' masque stage performance in which the actors wear masks often had royal family members play parts in it one of them was a cosmological allegory and Louis played the sun liked it so much Versailles there was already a large hunting lodge there, but he enlarged became the largest palace in Europe outside of Paris he didn't like being in Paris b/c it reminded him of the Fronde Louvre was a palace trying to get away from that built estate also used it to intimidate ppl diplomatic function also lots of ordinary ppl came too almost like a tourist attraction nobles required to live there half the year also a lot were there year round happening place social center of Europe caught up in pecking order, endless cycle of parties and stuff like that a lot of competition for who got to be closest to the king also encouraged couturiers (fashion designers) to change the fashions frequently they were devoting time, energy, and money to frivolous stuff that wasn't very serious more about not being in the provinces their power was rooted out in provinces they were the head of justice, source of patronage also manipulating lower nobles local connections that were very important esp w/ lower nobles losing that connection which was the root of their power he has cut them off from their power golden age for art French remember his reign w/ a great deal of fondness b/c a lot was created partly thru his patronage opera develops in early 1600s in Italy and composers were lured north to France to compose there grand opera was pretty much invented during his reign ballet during particularly the middle of the 1600s, all these terminologies came around literature no one ultimate national writer number of great writers esp playwrights Moliere wrote comedy his plays are done here all the time timeless social satires did not make fun of the king partly patronized also director and actor Racine tragedy doesn't translate well usually based on myths elevated French social arts etiquette ppl began copying rules at Versailles all across Europe cuisine idea that the French are the great culinary geniuses social dance minuet fashion Paris as the ultimate fashion destination language becomes the common language of all upper class educated ppl in Europe advisors Jean-Baptiste Colbert (d. 1683) finance minister one of the most self-sufficient definitely a mercantilist not how we today think is the correct way to approach things said they needed to build up their own economy improved infrastructure roads, bridges, canals, tunnels, communication lines had a religious belief in canals tried to support growth industries targeted things as having a future like the silk industry would support them w/ subsidies and loans protectionism protecting domestic industry (agriculture) from foreign competition use tariffs and taxes on imports also quotas promoted shipbuilding w/ loans and stuff believed very much in colonies French started to colonize overseas @ same time English did--> 1600s Quebec= first permanent one in 1608 (Henry IV) a lot of emphasis on what becomes Canada strict about keeping accounts a quantifying kind of guy French economy grew government able to almost finance everything after his death it broke the bank Louis got involved in wars and building French had financial crisis that it shouldn't have had a bourgeois bureaucrat conscientious and genius Marquis de Louvois minister of war built up army and navy tried to make sure that officers w/ real authority actually knew what they were doing established storehouses for weapons and ammunition supply line less glamorous but essential permanent standing army starting to happen in Europe as opposed to having mercenary or feudal arrays uniform, professional, paid, year-round expensive wanted it b/c almost continually fighting wars over half the time he was ruling Louis was convinced that France had natural boundaries that the political boundaries had not quite reached said God had clearly meant for France to have these frontiers the Atlantic the Pyrenees The Mediterranean The Rhine River controversial one France had not reached it historically very German (german-speaking on both sides) thought they should expand to there his wars were about that more than anything else Alps English Channel he was pushing into the Low Countries a small but critical area very wealthy strategically just south of the Dutch Republic next to England felt he had legitimate claims to it trying to grab it generally won wars for territory that had been part of the Roman Empire eventually took a coalition of almost everyone in Europe against them to win Huguenots Protestant schools= shut down kids were taken from their families and put in Catholic homes taking away rights Edict of Nantes (1598) Richelieu got rid of fortified cities that Huguenot councils governed Louis wanted uniformity meant everyone being Roman Catholic also about his own personal sense of fear of death and God's judgement had not lived most Christian life looking for something to do to please God shut down Protestant schools, publishing houses expelled clergy took Huguenot children away and put them in Catholic homes and raised Catholics dragoon someone who rides on horseback to a battle but then fights on foot like mountain infantry mountain footsoldiers known as being really tough now it's a verb to force by intimidation or threat of violence Louis's government made ppl take a certain number of dragoons into their homes told to make life miserable for the family if you converted they pulled the soldiers out eventually after this didn't seem to work he revoked it Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) said that there were none left so they didn't need it anymore Louis also never said he thought this was wrong a popular decision most Frenchmen resented Huguenots b/c they were more successful, tended to be bourgeois lost their skills, went to a lot of countries that were enemies of France went to England, Netherlands, Brandenburg it was a mistake permanent blot on his record wars finally brought his reign into dispute has to deal w/ mercantilists, commerce commerce starting to have a global economy cotton fabric, tea, coffee two horrible things come with it slavery revives, becomes stronger sugar tobacco and rice in America wars fought increasingly not about religious or dynasty now really about commerce

oliver cromwell

War of the Three Kingdoms, mid-17th century emerged as a leader of the Parliamentarians not a very important political figure at the start of all this gentryman well to do, but still commoner lawyer eventually a member of the House of Commons not one of te most high-pfogile, outspoken prominent members of opposition to the king Puritan had natural military ability finally defeat Royalist armies Involved in execution of Charles I Commonwealth/Interregnum (1649-1660) Cromwell sent a colonel w/ troops into the House of Commons and purged the majority of ppl in the House of Commons who opposed Cromwell's policy (moderates) leaving what's known as the rump body Rump Parliament votes to abolish monarchy end having a state church have a commonwealth of England abolished house of lords Cromwell increasingly felt that the Rump was not doing what he wanted it to do Cromwell had very strong personality, had interest of Englad, Scotland and Ireland at his heart also thought he was the only person who could do this right 1653--> sends Rump Parliament home kept trying to come up w/ new Parliament system then eventually was ruling as a military dictator had limited toleration on religion but not at all tolerant towards Catholics crushed revolt in Ireland, killed civilians, considered a devil figure there it seemed clear that more and more ppl were not happy w/ how it was going as long as armies stayed loyal, he was in pwr his son= Richard when Cromwell died, ppl thought it was natural that Richard would inherit the role of Lord Protector didn't have deep-rooted system of republican gov much weaker-willed than dad becomes Lord Protector in 1658 closed down theaters--> thought they were places of immorality tried to close down taverns put an end to Christmas when Puritans get image of being killjoys Puritans banned bear-baiting b/c of the pleasure it brought to the humans--> too much fun gambling and drinking Puritans outlawed wife-beating Protectorate (1653-1660) when in 1653 Cromwell makes himself Lord Protector Cromwell never took title of king, but of Lord Protector rump sent home in 1653 too

portuguese empire

First country to explore Had its Golden Age in the time period we are now studying Creating the first overseas empire in history→ late 1400s Geographic location is ideal Seagoing society Hemmed in by Spain If they are going to do anything in the world they have to turn outwards Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) Never sailed on these voyages Started a school→ more like a research center Academic center Called prince b/c he never got to be king Younger son Older brother became king, then his children Younger sons weren't always quite sure what to do with their lives Uses his money to send expeditions Funds them Starting in early 1400s Perfect example of 3 G's combined Particularly wants to find source of gold in West Africa Hoping to expand power of royal dynasty/family Member of a warrior religious order Took vow of celibacy Crusading mentality Looking for Kingdom of Prester John Lived long life by their standards Starts process, by the time he died the royal family took it and ran with it, had made it to about Senegal and were working their way down the coast of Africa Found some sources of gold, but really started trading slaves Some brought back to Portugal, but particularly to Madeira Islands and Americas Bartolomeu Dias (1487-1488) Got as far south as the tip of Africa Rounded the tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) Wanted to keep sailing and try to get to the Indies but his crew mutinied and they had to go back Gets back to Portugal and says that he thinks they can round the tip of Africa That's what they try to do Seagoing empire Took certain strategic ports in coastal areas where they could get provisions and all that (West and East coast of Africa) Vasco da Gama (1497-1499) Got to India and back Many of his men died→ diet was horrible, ppl got diseases/scurvy Got to West coast of India Said he was looking for Christians and spices They had brought stuff to trade→ wool and pewter and fabric But they really just gave him stuff out of the goodness of his heart Came back with a lot of cinnamon and ginger Worth 60x the cost of the voyage Many Indians didn't want to trade w/ them→ Portuguese mutilated them and sent them back as a warning to others Goa (1510-1961) Portuguese possession in India Where they were based Macau (1514-1999) Portuguese possession in China Smaller than Hong Kong, but like that for them First European country to build an overseas empire, and last ones to let go Stayed overwhelmingly agrarian in the Industrial Revolution Impoverished second-rate nation except for colonies Most of Africa got its independence in late 50s and 60s But Mozambique and Angola not until 1975 Pedro Cabral (1500) Trying to sail to India, but hit Brazil instead and claimed it

ivan the terrible

IV Early to late 16th century First to be crowned as Tsar of all the russias Ivan III's grandson Greatest ambition was to gain a port on the Baltic Sea and establish a northern outlet for commerce Nicknamed the terrible-- awesome or awe-inspiring Boyars Traditional Russian nobility Thought there was a conspiracy against his mother and that she was poisoned by the nobles Had a lot of nobles executed Strengthened Russia, expanded it, kind of like consolidation in West but more barbaric Defeated last remnants of Tatar power Independent states on E and S border of Muscovy Khanates Had terrorized Russian people in the past Finally defeats them in a long series of war They become part of Russian state Trying to create a new nobility that owes its power completely to him Boyars executed in large numbers or moved to other areas (lands dispossessed) Not as prestigious as nobles Rules as an autocrat During his reign, you start having Europeans from the WEst visiting Muscovy Russia being alien to outsiders Impressed by how devout they were tsar= complete autocrat, no sense of law, everyone in Russia was his slave Arbitrary autocratic power By 1560 you can start talking about Russian Empire Expands Eastward Past Urals, into Siberia Basically had a harem Married a women named Anastasia She calmed him down, but died mysteriously-- he broke down and was incredibly brutal St. Basel's Cathedral built under him Blinded architect so he couldn't ever build anything more beautiful Got into fight w/ one of his sons, hit him w/ iron staff on head and killed him His only heir was now a son who was mentally challenged-- Theodore the Simple After Theodore died, Russia went into Time of Troubles-- no one knows who true ruler is 1601-1613 Peasant revolts, noble revolts, dynastic conflicts, different claims to throne, foreign invasion (Poland, Sweden) State in peril Ended in 1613 Nobles and churchmen decided they needed to settle on one person or Russia would not survive-- the Romanovs

florence

In North Italy, specifically were the Renaissance was born, many important Renaissance people were from here Center of Renaissance culture Pisa's subjugation in 1406 was a turning point in this city-state's history became known for silks and jewelry Famous for high-quality fabric Prosperity built on foundations of money and wool restored pope to head of temporal estates and began long period of papal dominance over Rome and satellite territories Made a lot of coins Financial capital as well as center for manufacture of fine luxury goods Florentine bankers= among the wealthiest and most powerful in the world Position initially estabished thru support of the papacy Activities of commerce and cloth manufacture depend on external conditions, so wealth was unstable Terrible plague hit mid-14th c Weakened city War w/ Milan for 30 years resulted in total bankruptcy for many of the city's leading commercial families and massive public debt Then republic turned for aid to Medici Greek language spread here when the Ottoman scholars fled after the Fall of Constantinople, it was very exciting to scholars in the 1400s Eventually became known as the city of the Medici Nominally a republic, but during 15th c., ruled in effect by principal banking family, the Medici Cosimo de Medici starts becoming the boss of the city in the early to mid 15th century Although never holding office Medicis= bankers, started using some of that wealth to play the game of politics Bailed out own city gov from bankruptcy Bribed people Patron of a lot of people Influence peddling Patrons of the arts Piero the Gouty, early to mid-15th century, ruled for a little while Lorenzo de Medici-- mid to late 15th century, grandson of Cosimo Diplomacy Facilitated production of much art, secured commissions for them, ensured spread of their influence Viewed as leading citizen of FLorence Power based on personality and reputation After he died, it became less important

mercantilism

Need to build up own economy, preserving gold, wanting best possible trade relations Jean-Baptiste Colbert of France, mid-17th century advisor to Louis XIV attitude not a clear cut set of beliefs a mindset that every Euro country's rulers had you want to be a self-sufficient country want exports to be greater than imports zero sum gain when you approach something thinking that it is a fixed pie you think there is a fixed amount of trade in the world there is only a limited amount of wealth therefore our prosperity can only come at the expense of the prosperity of someone else for the most part, they wanted means of production to be privately owned but with close ties to the government above all, an attitude about how the government should deal with the economy, specifically with trade what role should gov play in trade? tariffs ultimate objective is a strong state the subordination of economics to politics ultimately not trying to achieve an economic goal strong military leads to strong state strong navy, strong army bullionism leads to strong military money, leads to strong military bullion= gold and silver you have to pay the military favorable balance of trade leads to bullionism exporting more importing very little ideally nothing goal is self-sufficiency then the question of how do you achieve a favorable balance of trade? exploration? to have chartered companies private companies that have very close ties to gov they are given a monopoly in return for that privilege, you would pay a large sum of money each year safer investment you are more likely to invest as a private stockholder if you know the government is backing them up English East India Company starts in 1600 monopoly granted by Queen Elizabeth grows into one of the most important businesses in the world eventually running whole Asian subcontinent until 1857 Dutch East India Company (VOC)- 1602 had 6 times the amount of investment capital in it for at least a century but then they also completely control prices not good for consumers also not fair disservice to the idea of equal opportunity and free market economy tariffs mainly lessens the appeal of imports-- not primarily for revenue not only increases price of foreign products but also increases prices for local products b/c it means there is less competition so they can up the prices quotas slavery question of colonies if you are trying to decrease imports, you don't want to have to buy certain goods from foreigners that you can't produce in your own country so you then try to grab colonies in the West Indies/Caribbean, Brazil, Americas (for sugar especially) no white ppl would go work there unless they were indentured servants or political prisoners no one did it voluntarily so while it had disappeared inside Europe, grew exponentially in these new colonies colonies things that you control you can also demand that they buy everything from you, the motherland investing in your own businesses government puts money into smaller businesses and production often loaned, subsidized, or even gave money to private companies who they thought were producing something that had a future trying to improve the infrastructure make roads better canals wider and more extensive bridges in repair anything that is part of transportation and communication, you promote leads to economic warfare hwne you are passing laws clearly intended to not only help your own economy, but to hurt others Navigation Acts in both France and England trying to hurt the Dutch Dutch made money from all kinds of things, but above all from the carrying trade great middlemen of the world in the 17th century you could hire them to ship your products to some other country they are the third party flyboats= breakthrough in trade smaller, less maneuverable but could carry a lot more for cheaper not the fastest or the prettiest developed first for the grain trade in the Baltic could be made fairly cheaply, almost mass produced ship itself didn't cost that much fairly cheap to run didn't require a large crew labor-saving devices very efficient not very fast, but didn't need to be didn't have artillery on the ships (not at all armed) unlike most ships Baltic was pretty safe, but Atlantic and Pacific Dutch military ships would escort them in convoys not a huge innovation, but just smarter technique as opposed to technology b/c of that, everyone used them for decades carry things at cheaper shipping rate also very dependable had twice as many ships as France and England combined tiny country, but probably most economically powerful country in the world in the 17th century said that you can't have a third party trade person do it only the country importing or exporting ultimately kinda works in the 1700s, Dutch ceases to be such a huge power were increasingly replaced by France and Britain Dutch were certainly involved in colonization did not hesitate to engage in the slave trade first black ppl to be brought to the US were brought in 1619 to the Virginia colony by a Dutch ship

michelangelo

Late 15th to mid 16th century Long life From Florence, from family of standing in society, gained apprenticeship despite father's opposition Known as Divine Artistic achievements of Renaissance culminated in creative outpourings of him Independent, hard to get along w/ Clearly a genius Greatest works are almost all religious But very much a humanist-- glory of man Sistine Chapel Painted ceiling in early 16th century Nudes-- people resisted Commissioned by Pope Julius II Few years before Reformation Eventually fled, got disgusted w/ work, said he would do it if he could paint Genesis Most famous panel= Animation of Adam Not quite touching Shows gap b/t human and divine Getting a soul Barrel vault Had to compensate for curvature-- make it look like it's on a flat surface even though it's curved East End Shows last judgement Represents his despair Momento mori Reminder of death Like he is warning the Pope Pieta End of 15th century Breaks through First attempt at sculpting religious art Depiction of Mary holding dead body of Jesus in her lap When people saw it they started calling him the Divine Michelangelo Infinite sadness-- Mary's look of resignation Very skillfully carved 2 things realistically wrong: Mary's age But Michelangelo says virtue keeps you young Relative size Mary is too big Gives more of a sense of mother and child Shows symbolism of everything moving to Rome-- he moved there and this is where a lot of his greatest works were produced Medici are very important art patrons and got from him Considered himself first and foremost a sculptor Especially as a young man Architect Pretty major figure in Italian literature (wrote some fairly important poetry) w/ Da Vinci in being a Renaissance Man David 17 feet tall Huge block of marble, defeated many other artists Completes union between classical and Renaissance styles Nude Looks like Apollo David represents underdog Strength and intelligence Both head and hands are a little too large-- compensating for trick of the eye Moses Horns on head-- mistranslated Beard, jacked, holding 2 tablets, angry Just got back from face-to-face encounter w/ God on Mount Sinai Angry b/c people were worshipping idol Gods Turbulent, unhappy life Designed much of St. Peter's Took so long that it is partly Renaissance and partly Baroque Crowning achievement Designed dome Harmony of his design creates sense of building thrusting upward like Gothic cathedral of old Similar to Capital building in Washington St. Paul's Cathedral Modelled off of Florentine Dumo/cathedral by Brunelleschi Tu es petrus On the inside

glorious revolution

Late 17th century England almost no fighting James II and wife and kids fled to France replaced by his own daughter at the same time, Mary and William of Orange come over and take over very strange, unique thing dual monarchy crowned equally, sit on thrones that are the same side she= both queen regnant and queen consort normally, she should've been ruling by herself b/c she has the main blood claim instead they wanted the most stability as possible William tended to be the stronger character also solidified Protestantism in England and he was already a ruler not really crowned until 1689 have to agree to the Bill/Declaration of Rights (1689) says Parliament is sovereign/the ultimate boss the monarchy is also not quite purely ceremonial yet it was decided that Parliament takes precedence about Parliament's rights John Locke was a Whig, believed in exclusion, defended Glorious Revolution in really broad terms that make it applicable to almost anything regularity of Parliament--> meets every year king has to have just cause to confiscate property habeas corpus--> you have the right to know why you are being detained, due process (can't detain someone indefinitely w/o bringing a specific charge against them), right of bail (no excessive bail), no cruel and unusual punishment (drawing and quartering... but kept capital punishment definitely) no standing army in peacetime it's expensive--> tax money fear that the king could use the army against Parliament right of Protestants to bear arms want to have a militia b/c no standing army king cannot suspend the law no army can be raised w/o Parliament's consent taxation can only be done w/ the consent of Parliament leaves some very real limits on monarchy freedom of speech in Parliament later expanded to all ppl ppl can criticize gov w/o thinking you will be put on trial for treason becomes one of the great glories of Britain later on Mary only lives a few more years, William becomes William III and rules for 8 more years until he dies in 1702 1688 is a fundamental dividing line in English history constitutionalism triumphed

mary, queen of scots

Mid- 16th century Raised in France, a lot of ppl considered her more French than Scottish father= James V she = Stewart Mother- Mary of Guise, French Catholic noble Marries Valois prince at 15, Francis II He rules for note quite a year, she= widowed at 16 Raised in elegant French court Comes back to Scotland after husband dies in 1560 Not easy b/c she didn't know Scotland very well Her mother had tried to rule Scotland for her But Scotland had turned Calvinist Protestant→ unfortunate for Mary Majority of Scotland went Presbyterian b/c of John Knox Clear blood claim Smitten by Lord Darnley, Catholic, they marry in 1565, he wanted the crown matrimonial, she did not se it that way, trying to grab the throne, she gets pregnant by him→ James (VI of Scotland, I of England, first person to unite British Isles under one crown) Granddaughter of Henry VII David Rizzio= confidant, resented by her husband, Darnley Foreigner, catholic, murdered in 1566 in the palace in the presencce of Mary Darnley was killed Had relationship w/ Earl of Bothwell (one of Darnley's assassins) Many ppl think she killed own husband, revolt in 1567 Earl of Moray= Mary's half-brother, illegitimate child of James V, becomes regent for her son, James, Mary is kept in a castle on an island Crosses border to England, hopes Elizabeth will help her Relatives Unspoken bond from being both queen regnants Fellow monarch Elizabeth has the pwr to give her her throne back but doesn't Imprisons Mary and ultimately executes her Mary had blood claim to English crown, threat to Elizabeth, had made moves to get this power Catholic-Protestant issue If you were a Catholic in Europe, you thought Mary was legitimate queen of not only Scotland but England also Northern Earls' Rebellion in 1569= reaction against centralization and about restoring Catholic Church in England, demanded that Elizabeth at least free Mary (or put her on the throne) Get rid of new Protestant advisors Elizabeth's gov= able to crush this revolt Last baronial revolt in English history Last time you have a feudal revolt of nobles vs monarchs Shows that as much as there is this strong sense of Northern England being separate, the Tudor Revolution had succeeded Showed danger of having Mary alive As long as she existed there would be plots surrounding her 1570→ Pope Pius V officially excommunicates Elizabeth Says Elizabeth is in no way a legitimate monarch, if you are a decent person you should try to get rid of her b/c she= bastard and Protestant Plots of English Catholic minority that worked w/ Spanish ambassador that wanted to murder Elizabeth I and put Mary on the throne After Elizabeth was excommunicated, any Church officials were regarded as spies Elizabeth hesitated, but had her killed after almost 20 years Male counselors urged her to kill Mary for years, got frustrated w/ her Didn't want anyone to ever think it was ok to execute a monarch 1587→ put Mary on trial Evidence she was involved in plots Executed by beheading

council of trent

Mid-16th century Pope Paul III (1534-1549) called the general council In Northern part of Italy today, but in the HRE back then Pope wanted to have it in Rome, Charles V wanted it further North Compromise Francis I didn't want Council to met, wouldn't let French bishops go once the council started meeting Wants life to be difficult for Charles V Catholic France and most German bishops didn't go So mainly Spanish and Italians Reflects very rigid anti-Protestant stance b/c these ppl are coming from areas where Protestantism isn't much of a big thing Did not heal the split, even though Protestants were invited Actually drives a deeper wedge b/t Protestant and Catholic worlds Abuses Addressed these issues Said Protestant have a point, Church is corrupt Passed lots of legislation→ some things really did change Said you had to keep vow of chastity and celibacy If you were a bishop you had to be resident in your diocese pluralism-> you could have more than one church office, but you could not hold more than one position that involved the care of souls (couldn't be bishop of more than one place) Nepotism simony→ says ppl have to be of age Don't abolish indulgences, but said they had to tighten up the usage of them→ ppl need to understand that they were truly contrite, not buying way out of Purgatory Clerical education improved, said every diocese should have a seminary Comes down to ppl→ law can't enforce itself St Pius V (1566-1571) Pope for a short time, lived pious life, later canonized, cracked down on a lot of issues in the church, very intolerant Doctrine Defined things more clearly Laity don't know what they're supposed to believe, Protestants play upon that, can confuse them in ways they can't refute Widens differences b/t Catholics and Protestants→ no room for interpretation, no gray areas left After Trent, you definitely could not believe in predestination and be a Catholic→ had to say that free will was part of salvation Couldn't choose not to venerate saints Reaffirmed list of things Luther objected to Virgin Mary as mother of God Purgatory Latin in the Church Higher form of Christian life is celibacy Reaffirmed every point and stated more bluntly Conciliarism is condemned→ said ultimate authority is the Pope (papal primacy) Sets nature of the church to this day→ there have only been 2 councils since Index of prohibited books→ long list of any book that the Catholic Church decided should not be read or published, eventually some books are put on it like science books, now embarrassing to the Church, they do believe in censorship Roman Inquisition set up in 1542→ Italian version of the holy office, inquiring into ppl's faith Makes church stronger, revitalized, but more narrow and rigid

war of the three kingdoms

Mid-16th century Under Charles I of England so much a religious war in Europe we should look at whole British Isles--> not just call it the English Civil War conflict in Ireland and Scotland too Royalists ppl who supported the king nicknamed cavaliers originally meant Spanish or French Catholics who were persecuting Protestants a put-down Parliamentarians not everyone chose a side Roundheads--> particularly b/c of their haircuts eventually finds some excellent generals--> Lord Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell these were truly civil wars when it's not divided by sections, but every town, village and everything is divided hard to tell who the poorest ppl supported urban vs rural generally cities were more pro-Parliament cities tend to be more left wing everywhere cities are where ppl go to change rural areas are inherently conservative about everything southern England tended to be more densely populated mercantile ppl tend to be more open to change than purely agricultural societies middle class more pro-Parliament, also more politically active and educated about 1/3 of House of Lords were for Parliament, but majority for the king nobility only comes from royalty (king= font of nobility) urban middle class tend to be for Parliament rural poor tend to be for the king more most important factor= religion if you wanted to reform the church of England, puritanical inclination, you were almost certainly for Parliament if you liked the church the way it was, you were probably for the king if you were part of the persecuted Catholic minority, you generally opted for the king even though they faced discrimination, knew it would be worse under Parliament Oliver Cromwell emerged as a leader of the Parliamentarians not a very important political figure at the start of all this gentryman well to do, but still commoner lawyer eventually a member of the House of Commons not one of te most high-pfogile, outspoken prominent members of opposition to the king Puritan had natural military ability finally defeat Royalist armies Charles I is captured, tried to make a deal, at one point escapes and starts war up again, but by 1648 he was captured again split among parliamentary forces b/t more moderate and more radical two main issues Church do we want to change the church of England big question became do we even keep a state church more moderate wanted to keep state church said it just needed to be Presbyterian more radical wanted to not have a state church just have churches all do their own independent thing except Catholics to tolerate diversity at least among Protestants monarchy whether or not to abolish it moderates said they wanted to keep king but have a constitutional king more radical wanted to abolish majority of ppl in House of Commons were moderates but Cromwell and generals were more radical, and they had the guns Lord Fairfax= other great general in the wars put Charles on trial in January 1649 accused of treason he refused to cooperate said this was ridiculous b/c treason was defined as disloyalty to the king now ppl were saying there was something higher than the king knew he was gonna be found guilty executed at the end of January said he was exchanging an earthly crown for an eternal crown said Cromwell would be more of a dictator than he ever was ppl rushed up to dip bits of linen into the blood of the king wanted to preserve it some ppl thought it had miraculous healing pwr some ppl thought the king's touch was healing Commonwealth/Interregnum (1649-1660) Cromwell sent a colonel w/ troops into the House of Commons and purged the majority of ppl in the House of Commons who opposed Cromwell's policy (moderates) leaving what's known as the rump body Rump Parliament votes to abolish monarchy end having a state church have a commonwealth of England abolished house of lords Cromwell increasingly felt that the Rump was not doing what he wanted it to do Cromwell had very strong personality, had interest of Englad, Scotland and Ireland at his heart also thought he was the only person who could do this right 1653--> sends Rump Parliament home kept trying to come up w/ new Parliament system then eventually was ruling as a military dictator had limited toleration on religion but not at all tolerant towards Catholics crushed revolt in Ireland, killed civilians, considered a devil figure there it seemed clear that more and more ppl were not happy w/ how it was going as long as armies stayed loyal, he was in pwr his son= Richard when Cromwell died, ppl thought it was natural that Richard would inherit the role of Lord Protector didn't have deep-rooted system of republican gov much weaker-willed than dad becomes Lord Protector in 1658 closed down theaters--> thought they were places of immorality tried to close down taverns put an end to Christmas when Puritans get image of being killjoys Puritans banned bear-baiting b/c of the pleasure it brought to the humans--> too much fun gambling and drinking Puritans outlawed wife-beating

the fronde

Mid-17th century France (during regency of Louis XIV) Series of upheavals Peasant riots Urban rioting/insurrection core= aristocratic/baronial revolt A lot of French nobles didn't like what had been happening, esp w/ Richelieu and centralization This was their chance to undo some of the centralization They taxed specifically the nobles who had bought gov offices Supposed to be tax-exempt A lot of thigns all coming together in 1640s Food shortages, crop failures, 30 Years' War, war w/ Spain War w/ Spain didn't end until 1650s Parlement Courts, several of them (regional) There was a central one→ Parlement du Paris Ppl who sit on them are nobles, seats are hereditary Try to act like legislatures Nobles would try at times to use them to obstruct any kind of centralizing legislation At a point they were claiming that they had the right to register (ok) the law, so the monarchy could not tax them Trying to argue that they had the authority to review and strike down the changes At one point they got control of Louis Clear that their motivations were more personal than for all of France Rebels turned to Spain for help→ made it look like they were really just out for own personal interests Ultimately failed Probably leading rebel= Duke of Conde Said he was leading the nobles against foreign authority of Anne and Mazarin At the height of it he was being kept at the Louvre, humiliated and scared hiim French ppl decided that if the choice was b/t a strong king and anarchy, they wanted a strong king aristocratic rebellion that began in 1648 more directly a challenge to the underlying authority of the state began in response to fiscal crises brought on by war thruout 1640s the French state had tottered on the edge of bankruptcy was necessary to raise tradit taxes (reviving peasant revolts) and institute new ones (leading to the Fronde) rebellion against the regency government of Louis XIV (1643-1715), who was only 4 when he inherited the French throne mother, Anne of Austria (1601-1666) ruled as regent w/ help of her Italian adviser, Cardinal Mazarin (1602-1661) in circumstances of war, agricultural crisis, and financial stringency, no regency gov was popular, but Anne and Mazarin made the worst of a bad situation initiiated new taxes on officeholders, Parisian landowners, and nobility all three united against them, led by Parlement of Paris, the highest court in the land, in which new decrees of taxation had to be registered when Parlement refused to register a number of new taxes proposed by the gov and soon insisted on right to control crown's financial policy, Anne and Mazarin struck back by arresting a number of leading members of the Parlement 1648--> barricades went up in Paris, and the court, along w/ 9-year-old king, fled the capital quickly this became an aristocratic revolt aimed not at the king, but at his advisers demands for Mazarin's resignation, removal of new taxes, and greater participation in gov by nobles and Parlement were coupled w/ profuse statements of loyalty to king duc de Conde, leader of Parisian insurgents, courted Spanish aid against Mazarin's foces, and cardinal was forced to make concessions in order to prevent a Spanish invasion of France leaders agreed that crown must overhaul its finances and recognize rights of administrative nobility to participate in formulating royal policy, but had no concrete proposals to accomplish each aim couldn't control deteriorating polit situation in Paris and a number of provincial capitals where urban and rural riots followed the upper-class attack upon state catastrophic winter of 1652, combined w/ harvest failure, intense cold, and epidemic disease, brought crisis to head Louis XIV declared old enough to rule and forces recaptured Paris, where he was welcomed as a savior born of frusteration, fear, and greed accomplished little demonstrated only that French aristocracy remained an independent force in politics reveleaed fragility of absolute state and its underlying stability

henry vii

Ruled late 15th century to early 16th century Example of new monarch Wars of Roses decimated English nobility, titles went extinct/ran out in a particular family Let some of those titles disappear Also passed on some titles to create a new group of people who were loyal to him Letting old nobles die off and raising new men (did not please older nobility) Two sons and two surviving daughters Arthur and Henry VIII Wanted to make sure nobles didn't misbehave (unruly barons) Tried to keep expenses down Knew debt weakens you Known to be penny-pinching Paid attention to money and where it went Avoided foreign wars for the most part (they= expensive) Good example of a Machiavellian Would make alliances w/ people, they would pay him money, he wouldn't always come through on his own promises Married a Yorkist princess- Elizabeth of York Niece of Richard III Daughter of Edward IV (Richard's older brother) Combines house of York w/ house of Lancaster Symbolized by Tudor Rose Red-- Lancaster White-- York Combined Yorkist and Lancaster blood Used diplomacy Tried to make good commercial deals for English merchants Conscious of mercantile economic side of things First English overseas expeditions Married off both his daughters in smart ways Mary (younger) married to King of France (Louis XII) Forming alliance w/ traditional enemy Didn't work out very long (he died very soon after marriage) Marries French nobleman again Margaret (older), sent off to marry King of Scotland (James IV) Long history of fighting Would often ally w/ France From their descendance, you eventually have a Scottish king who is the successor to the throne of England Common law Son of Owen Tudor and Margaret Beaufort Flag-- roses, red dragon (sign of whales), Dieu et mon droit-- shows internationalism of monarchy Normal courts used common law Prerogative courts-- used them, King's own court, especially when nobles were in trouble (later outlawed) Feared but not particularly beloved Rapacious about money Brought certain amount of order, stability and peace Leaves surplus in treasury Best businessman to ever sit on the throne Goal was to reestablish peace after war and leave monarchy in a good position Henry VIII had more power than any king before or after him

hohenzollerns

Ruling family of Prussia at first, minor German aristocratic fam from Southwestern part of Germany never part of Prussia, even when it got bigger originally just had the Brandenburg province not much of a future lack any kind of coast landlocked fairly poor soil (not enriched) not heavily populated no big cities no natural frontiers no mountains, rivers open to invasion on every side no natural defenses hammered during 30 Years' War, more devastated than any other part of the empire they kept it going for Brandenburg all had same names--> Frederick, William, or Frederick William fairly effective leaders well-respected revered most had a real work ethic some= incredibly authoritarian didn't usually spend a whole lot of money on themselves knew state was pretty poor managed to create a powerful state on a shoestring Elector Frederick William IV (1640-1688) one of the 7 ppl prince of Brandenburg Calvinist German-reformed subjects were almost all Lutheran tolerant for almost same reason Dutch were allowed Anabaptists to live in state took in refugees particularly Huguenots b/c they bring skills and energy and more ppl mercantilist promoting economy trying to bribe skilled ppl to come to Brandenburg big on canal-building, like Colbert doesn't become incredibly wealthy state in his lifetime, but on its way developing own silk industry nicknamed the 'Great Elector; learned lesson from 30 Years' War had to flee at one point from his palace had to walk behind the coffin of Gustavus Adolphus puts almost everything the crown can get thru taxes into the military militarism this would continue authoritarian did not believe in constitutionalism there was a Brandenburg Diet and a Prussian Diet true Prussia= East of Brandenburg inherited Prussia eventually also weak b/c it's not continuous-- fragmented son= Elector Frederick III (1688-1701); King Frederick I (1701-1713) at first just an elector then Leopold I (Holy Roman Emperor) said if Frederick joined his side in the War of the Spanish Succession, then he would be able to call himself the king not super impressive doesn't call himself king of Brandenburg b/c HRE didn't want anyone to be able to call himself king of anything that was inside the HRE (Brandenburg was) so then could call himself King of Prussia b/c it was outside of the HRE not super important except for name change King Frederick William I (1713-1740) Frederick I's son obsessed w/ tall soldiers almost to a homoerotic point collected tall soldiers loved military and the drills and all that didn't use army that much in actual war but it was a deterrent had a regiment of Potstan that had to be at least 6 feet tall called them his blue boys loved to watch them march back and forth in their hats known as sergeant king would always wear a uniform brute as a father wants son to do nothing but military/manly things son= greatest of all Prussian kings King Frederick II (1740-1786) Frederick the Great expands Prussia even more enlightened despot had it tough as a child b/c father didn't like that he was fascinated by the finer things flautist pretty good composer loved everything French eventually god

luther

Truly changed the course of history Critique he made about the church was not very new Not until Luther that it created a split of the Christian Church Problems the church had that he was upset about Two basic problems: Doctrine Thought teachings were wrong in many ways Abuses Clerical ignorance Clerical immorality (sex, too much wealth) Nepotism pluralism → each church office had a certain amount of money that came w/ it= benefice, the most offices you had, the more benefices you got, so often, Church officials worked as gov officials→ chancellors in England, now hardly doing much for Church-- doing gov job, Henry VIII's chancellor b4 Thomas More was Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (held so many church positions in addition), led to absenteeism, pope at top, bishops in middle, parish priests at bottom, bishops supposed to be watching over diocese, making sure priests do their job, confirming young ppl Simony Buying and selling relics Mainly meant buying and selling church offices A lot of money exchanging hands Popes in this time period were not very good spiritual leaders Said the very teachings of the church had often gone wrong Father born a peasant, went into mining, made a lot of money, but very much a self-made man Wanted a university education for Martin, something he had never had Common stock Studied law b/c his dad wanted him to 1505→ lightning bolt hit near him as he was walking, threw him, yelled out "Hilf du, Sankt Anna! Ich will ein Monch werden!" Religious orders-- regular clergy, take 3 basic vows-- poverty, chastity, and obedience; some live away from world and focus on meditation, some are active orders out in the world, you aren't supposed to own anything yourself Monk-- back then meant any kind of order Friar-- mendicant orders (not supposed to have property) Luther joins a religious order (of monks) and father is not happy-- b/c if he became a friar, he wouldn't make any money or a family-- no children, act of rebellion Continued to go to university, but studied theology, and got doctorate in theology, became a very popular professor Teaching at University of Wittenberg His hometown and Wittenberg were both in the German state of Saxony, modern day Eastern Germany Incredible inner conflict Afraid he was not on good terms w/ God, felt incredibly guilty for sin, overly sensitive conscience Felt that whatever he did that the church recommended you do didn't work for him To him God is absolute and utter righteousness He is so aware of his own imperfections, even when he is trying to be good, unsure if he was doing it for the wrong reason-- selfishness Fasted, whipped himself, wore a hair shirt, went to mass once or twice a day, confessed constantly Realized that righteousness of God was not a burden that humans carried, but a gift that God bestowed Could not be earned by good works but was freely given Religion shaped by 3 interconnected tenets Justification by faith alone: sola fide Individual's everlasting salvation came from faith in God's goodness rather than performance of good works Sin was ever present and inescapable-- could not be washed away by penance, could not be forgiven by indulgence Faith in God's mercy came only through the knowledge and contemplation of the Word of God-- sola scriptura All that was needed to understand the justice and mercy of God was contained in the Bible, the sole authority in all things spiritual All who believed in God's righteousness and had achieved their faith through the study of the Bible were equal in God's eyes No longer necessary for men and women to renounce worldly existence and take up life consumed by spiritual works Teaching the book of Romans-- the most important book in the Bible besides the Gospels to him Thought that if you were trying to earn your salvation you would fail, only thru God's freely given mercy/grace are we saved Liberty of the Christian Man One of the more important books he writes Being liberated from the sense that you are damned-- you are saved Not a sense of earning salvation Bondage of Free Will-- one of the three books he said he wished would survive him Said the idea of saints is wrong-- we are all flawed, naturally damned Hated indulgences, especially Johann Tetzel who sells them, decides he needs to do something about it 95 Theses October 31, 1517 Response to John Tetzel and indulgences Story is that he posted them on the door of the church Not an unusual thing at the time-- asking for a debate Didn't say we should split the church or bring down the pope, but pretty confrontational Played a nationalist card a little bit Theological question-- making people think they can buy their way into God's favor Wrong-- giving people false sense of assurance based on paying money Thought it was an incredibly corrupt practice Start of the Reformation focused the concern that indulgences without contribution were worthless and finally communicated it beyond the walls of the Church and university Theses immediately translated into German and spread throughout Holy Roman Empire by humanists who had long criticized practices such as the sale of indulgences as superstitious Prospective buyers became wary; past purchasers became angry Very quickly started becoming an even bigger critique of the church Question of is there even a Purgatory What is the difference b/t saints and ordinary Christians What should the authority of the church be Should we even have a pope Also, printing press-- reaches large proportions What turned Luther's theology into a movement-- which after 1529 came to be known as Protestantism-- was the support he received among German princes and within German cities Luther's spiritual rebirth and theology that developed from it posed a fundamental challenge to the RCC Doctrine of justification by faith alone called into question the Church's emphasis upon the primacy of works-- receiving sacraments administered by priests and performing acts of charity and devotion Doctrine that faith was achieved thru Scripture weakened the mediating power of the Church by making salvation an individual rather than a collective event Doctrine of equality of all believers struck at the vast establishment of religious houses as well as spiritual hierarchy of the Church from the lowest priest to the pope Luther's ideas and the RCC could not coexist-- too polar opposite 1520→ Pope Leo X issued papal bull-- open letter, said Luther needs to shut up, stop making criticism, Leo X is the holy father, he will excommunicate Luther if he doesn't stay quiet, Luther responded by burning the bull Excommunication-- in 1521, already very assured that the pope is not the holy authority, does not have the power to determine whether or not he is saved-- political authority overhead= Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V Diet of Worms Key event for Luther's career, 1521 invited/commanded to come to the city of Worms on the Rhine river diet= legislative body, Parliament of the HRE Holy Roman Emperor (Charles V) was there Pope sent nuncios Brought before all these ppl Asked if these are his books Says church authorities have determined this is heresy, they will give him one night to think about it, then he will have the chance to recant or not Gave him a day-- life at stake Said they had not shown him using scripture that he is wrong, "my conscience is captive to the word of God" To go against his own conscience was neither safe nor right Standing up to Pope and HRE, whole world Took a lot of bravery, hero Wasn't executed-- b/c of printing press, had gained fame around Europe Church knew if they executed him it could cause such an uproar among his followers-- it was too politically divisive, might cause some sort of revolt Even more about the nobles-- Charles V having trouble controlling nobles, HRE was an elected monarchical position-- had to please 7 electors to make sure your son was elected Frederick III= Prince of Saxony, one of the 7 electors Frederick the Wise Sympathetic to Luther, partially b/c Luther= his subject Other princes either felt that way or did not want the HRE to have the power to kill one of their own subjects Power struggle-- relationship of princes to emperor Frederick and Luther went back to Saxony, where Frederick feels he can protect Luther, but even then he goes into hiding for a year or two Spends his time writing and above all translating the Bible from Hebrew and Greek to German (beautiful German Bible, still the one German Protestants use) Had an impact on shaping the German language Eventually comes out in public and goes back to being a professor of theology at University of Wittenberg Not a priest-- to Protestants, everyone is his or her own priest Charles V declared Luther an outlaw-- anyone could kill him and would not be punished-- no one killed him, he dies in his bed Luther rejected the idea of the sharp contrast b/t clergy and laity→ priesthood of all believers Married a former nun, had a few kids Gets rid of the Catolish Unt (Catholic and) The Church eventually cleaned up its act a lot w/ Counter-Reformation, in terms of abuses and corruption Luther said it wasn't about the abuses but the doctrine itself Even good Christians in the Middle Ages were teaching things that were simply wrong Church wasn't getting worse, people were just expecting more People wanted to become more fully Christian, rise of lay literacy Dies in 1546 By that time, the majority of the German states had turned Protestant-- N and E generally went Lutheran, while S and W stayed Catholic Germany split-- North and south Outward forms Everything outside of the Bible that you might use for worship, Luther gets rid of a lot but keeps music Peasants' Revolt Largest peasant revolt in German history Across different German states Very specific demands, not extremely radical-- land, stable rents, remnants of feudalism, remnants of serfdom, freedom of religion-- thought Luther would be on their side Luther denounced it when it turned violent-- intensely conservative in terms of society, encouraged princes to suppress the revolt, said peasants were twisting his message, turning it into a gospel of revolution; believed established authorities were there b/c God wanted them there and had the right to fight against rebels, but did not support rebels Crushed in 1525, thousands of peasants slaughtered Fair number of peasants started looking to more radical ppl who preached a more radical split from tradit Christianity When Luther sided w/ authority, the princes liked that, why some of the princes stayed w/ him during the Reformation Authoritarian mindset in Germany-- why there isn't another really huge humanitarian revolution like this Lutheranism largely spreads to Scandinavian countries, Prussia, Estonia, Latvia, Denmark... Even before Luther died, there were people who began to question what he thought Luther was upset and horrified that people would read the Bible and not come up with what he came up with Truly believed that ppl would interpret the Bible the way he did if they went into it w/ an open heart Not a true proponent of freedo mof conscious Believed everyone should have the right to read the Bible in their own vernacular, and that ppl would read it the same way he did Leads to differences-- first seen w/ Huldrych Zwingli Not aiming to start a new denomination-- called Evangelical Church in Germany Start using the word Protestant in late 1520's

ferdinand and isabella

eloped Marriage b/t two heirs, in line Crazy teenagers She was supposed to marry Alfonso, the king of Portugal Didn't want that Married in 1469 Queen regnant Means that you hereditarily inherited Queen consort= wife of king No hereditary rights to throne One of the first queen regnants in history France had a rule that a woman could never be queen regnant She is both-- queen regnant of Castile and queen consort of Aragon She was the ruler of Castile, not him Castile never accepted Ferdinand as their ruler (even though Isabella died 12 years before) Aragon and Castile not really unified Castilian Spanish is what we think of today Language difference in Aragon-- included Catalan Cortes Like Parliament Legislative Each region had own Cortes Still kind of divided Did some things to try to bind Aragon and Castile together To foster a sort of Spanishness Made Castilian Spanish the language in both Aragon and Castile Imposed it as the language of government Established single coinage Tried to get aristocracy thinking they were Spanish and intermarry It is quite possible that every Spanish person saw them face-to-face Traveled all around Spain Didn't have a central residence b/c it was a largely illiterate population Given nickname the "Catholic Monarchs" Closest to a capital city= Toledo (center) Also where primate of Spanish Catholic church is Archbishop in one city is in charge of all in the country Barcelona wasn't very important in medieval times War also brought people together Fight to finish Reconquista Common army against this last kingdom As Spain expands, wars in Europe and overseas brought ppl together Finally conquered Granada at start of 1492 Isabella strawberry blonde, violet eyes Not someone you would think of as Spanish Eventually Habsburgs took over Spain Very devout Ppl said she should be made a saint b/c she was so pious b/c she agreed to let Columbus explore (not Ferdinand) Helped RCC out a LOT He sailed for Castile, not Spain Aragonese merchants couldn't trade w/ New World for a while Only Castilians could trade w/ Lat Amer Opened up a whole new world to Catholic proselytization Will not be canonized b/c she and Ferdinand also set up Spanish Inquisition Starts operating in 1480 Finishing off of Reconquista mean you already have lots of Jews and Muslims 1492--> issue a proclamation saying that you have to be Christian to live in the realm of Ferdinand and Isabella Immediately said Jews had to convert or leave It took a little longer for them to make Muslims leave Many Jews did convert--> conversos But these ppl were 2nd class Some were not sincere converts Purity of blood Many were not secretly staying Muslims and Jews Spanish Inquisition was there to make sure that people were truly practicing Christianity Conversos could be easily accused of being crypto-Jew or crypto-Muslim Also Spanish--> unification, operated the same everywhere Followed timely legal procedure But Roman law--> able to torture to gain evidence and confessions, trials were held secretly, didn't get to face accusers, didn't get to know evidence used against you Creates climate of suspicion Killed ppl Catholic Church today is not proud of this, she will not be canonized Has higher reputation than Ferdinand Ppl respected Ferdinand (Machiavellian), but wouldn't canonize him Inquisition was a large reason that the Spanish didn't really get involved in Scientific Revolution But ppl were proud of it And mad @ Napoleon for getting rid of it Centralizing Classic new monarch thing-- didn't rely on nobles, rather bourgeois (educated commoners) to be their advisors/councillors Tried not to make cortes have too much power Internecine= internal conflict, killing among/within, said that Castile was torn by internecine conflict in years before Isabella Made smart marriages Joanna the Crazy(d. 1555) (older daughter) married Philip the Fair (d. 1506)-- handsome Philip's parents= Maximilian I (1486-1519) and Mary of Burgundy Maximilian= pope Mary of Burgundy= very lucrative marriage Meant Maximilian got low countries, Burgundy proper, and Milan He= Habsburg Now, Spanish monarchy is ultimately ruled by Habsburgs b/c F and I don't have a son Child= Charles V Gets low countries, Burgundy proper, and Milan from Maximilian I (grandfather) Gets Castile and New World Also got entire Southern half of Italy and Aragon from Ferdinand Charles V as holy roman emperor But Charles I as Spanish ruler Charles's son got Portugal as well Charles I (1516-1556) Born in 1500 Ferdinand died in 1516 Charles V (1519-1556) 1519--> Maximilian died, bribed people into making him HRE (Holy Roman Emperor) also established strong military

zwingli

1484-1531/late 15th to early 16th century From Zurich, Switzerland (spoke weird German) 1 year younger than Luther In the east, he brought reformed religion to the town of Zurich Educated @ University of Basel and deeply influenced by humanist thought early in his career Preacher among Swiss mercenary troops that fought for the empire 1516--> met Erasmus in Basel and udner his influence began a study of the Greek writings of the Church fathers and of the New Testament Also influenced by reports of Luther's defiance of the pope, for his own antipapal views were already developing 1519--> stricken by plague In life-and-death struggle came to a profoundly personal realization of the power of God's mercy Believed the Church had to recover its earlier purity and reject innovations in practices brought in by successive popes and general councils Stressed equality of believers, justification by faith along, and sufficiency of the gospel as authority for church practice Attacked indulgences, penance, clerical celibacy, prayers to the Virgin, statues and images in churches, and a long list of other abuses Stressed that the mass was to be viewed as a commemorative event rather than one that involved the real presence of Christ Preferred to call the service the Lord's supper Luther thought that the prince should be a Christian, but didn't believe that the state was there to enforce every rule that the Church wanted What Zwingli and Calvin wanted was that if sin was wrong, anything that was a sin should be illegal How much should you enforce sexual morality-- being unfaithful is wrong, but should someone be imprisoned for that? Blasphemy-- taking the Lord's name in vain, you could be fined in Zurich for doing this You could be fined for wearing too lavish clothing You had to remember the Sabbath and keep it holy Honor thy mother and thy father-- you could be beheaded for talking back harshly to your parents Zwingli wanted theocracy, commonwealth Rule by God Luther didn't believe in separation of church and state completely like we do today, but thought that intense law was almost returning back to a type of Old Testament legislation Stressed the divine origins of civil gov and the importance of the magistrate as an agent of Christian reform The theocratic idea that the leaders of the state and the leaders of the church were linked together became the basis for further social and political reform Went even farther than Luther on outward forms Luther got rid of all visual art Zwingli got rid of everything-- music too, thought it was all a distraction, more puritanical than Luther Said he read the Bible himself, learned Greek (trained by Erasmus)-- ended up coming up w/ a lot of the same thing as Luther Differ on role of gov w/ church, outward forms Zwingli did not agree w/ Luther about Eucharist Term for communion, bread and wine, breaking of bread The key sacrament for most Christians Swiss cities almost all went Protestant Countryside in some cases stayed Catholic Divided to this day, majority Protestant Civil war broke out b/t divisions in Switzerland Zwingli went out to a battle as a representative pastor and got killed

henry viii

1509-1547/early to mid 16th century father= Henry VII (respected, feared, strong, most intelligent, best businessman, bureaucrat, squeezing $ for taxes out of ppl) Older brother= Arthur Henry VII and wife Elizabeth of York had this son Never becomes king Dies at 15 or 16 By that time he was married to Catherine of Aragon Intelligent, pious, beautiful Spanish princess parents= Ferdinand and Isabella Way of tying Spain to England in this anti-French alliance Slightly older than Arthur Henry VII wanted to keep the alliance going, decided w/ Ferdinand and Isabella that Catherine and Henry VIII would get married Love match for some time, liked her, English loved her, very popular, married for a long time Obsessed w/ his own personal glory-- thought that meant going and fighting wars on the continent (which his father was wise enough to avoid) Shifted back and forth b/t alliances w/ Habsburg and Valois But expensive, English didn't get anything out of it, many died Thomas Wolsey Classic example of new noble (humble background, father= butcher) Rose through the church Perfect example of pluralism-- all different church offices (virtually everything but Archbishop of Canterbury) Eventually also Cardinal Brilliant administrator, great at manipulating ppl, somewhat underhanded, resented by nobles, not liked at all by general public In Henry's early reign, he was the chancellor, basically running the show Built Hampton Court Thomas More was the chancellor after this Initially tells Henry he can get the annulment-- can't Henry blames it on Wolsey, stripped of the chancellorship Died of sickness, not execution Problems start to arise-- Tudor fam has a very weak claim to the throne Henry is determined to have a male heir, can't seem to have it Catherine of Aragon had many miscarriages, still-borns, infant deaths, only 1 daughter survived= Mary Tudor End of 1520s→ Henry starts looking for other women, has mistresses, unfaithful to Catherine Trying to have male heir, England had never had queen regnant, thought if he died w/o a male heir the nation would fall back into dynastic war Not Protestant in terms of theology, but Catholic church to this day does not have divorce Papal dispensation A pope can put aside a rule if there are good reasons/biblical grounds to do it When Arthur dies, he was the brother of Henry Verse in the Bible-- you aren't supposed to marry your brother's widow Pope said it was ok b/c marriage of Catherine and Arthur wasn't legitimate b/c it wasn't consummated Catherine had to swear on relics that she was a maid still when she married Henry Pope gave dispensation for the marriage Then Henry came back and said the pope should never have given the dispensation, he had sinned by marrying his brother's wife, God was punishing him now by not giving him a male heir So the pope should dispense the dispensation Henry said he was doing it for the good of England Also proud and wanted a son, and looking at younger women Had already had Anne Boleyn's sister Mary as a mistress Anne Boleyn Henry starts going after her, pregnant when they got married Annulment Would end a marriage that was never legitimate Whereas divorce would end a legitimate marriage Nobles and everyone wanted the pope to grant this annulment Makes the pope look bad Going back on predecessor Making it look like papacy would do anything the monarch asked for Catherine' nephew= Charles V Could be problematic for pope to go against HRE When Rome fell, pope became practically a prisoner of Charles V Pope probably would've liked to have given this, but had to stall and couldn't Intelligent, not a classic beauty Wants her first as a mistress, but then decides to marry her Catherine insists the whole time she was a maid when she married Henry Standing up for daughter Saying she= Henry's wife, deal w/ it By 1530ish, decides to break away from church If pope can't give him the annulment, he will make himself the head of the church of England 1533→ starts getting Parliament to pass laws that will distance them from Rome 1533→ granted annulment by Archbishop of Canterbury, married Anne Boleyn Gave birth to Elizabeth, Henry= unhappy, sure it was going to be a boy, had another child that was male but stillborn Opponents: Thomas More, his own chancellor, resigned in 1532 Henry later demanded that More accept annulment, he won't and is beheaded Common people on Catherine of Aragon's side Wronged woman Anne Boleyn was hated, the 'other woman' Act of Supremacy (1534) Parliament said whoever was king/queen of England was head of both church and state So that the pope had no jurisdiction Start of the Anglican Church Finally accuses Anne Boleyn of having adultery w/ more than one person in court, including a musician and one of her own brothers Jury included her own father, found her guilty of treason First of his wives to be beheaded (by French executioner) Jane Seymour= wife #3 From upper-class english fam Finally produces a son= Edward VI (1547-1553) Died 9 days after she gave birth from infection, in 1537 Anne of Cleaves= wife #4 Married 2 years after Seymour died Common belief= she was ugly and barely wanted to sleep w/ her Cromwell tells him he has to have an alliance w/ some Protestants on the continent, looking like Habsburg and Valois were coming to peace, could form alliance against England German princes were a real Protestant power Made alliance w/ German Prince of Cleaves to marry his sister Wanted to get out of marriage, but had to go thru w/ wedding to go thru w/ alliance Then Cranmer offered an annulment Anne= unhappy, but didn't want to fight back that much Stayed in London, raised some of Henry's children, titled the "king's sister" Outlives Henry Cromwell takes the fall for this, gets head cut off Married 1539-1540 Catherine Howard= wife #5 Married in 1540 Gets beheaded Member of powerful conservative Catholic fam Accused of committing adultery w/ at least one person in court Beheaded in 1542 for treasonous adultery, died bravely Catherine Parr= wife #6 Scholarly, Protestant Shaped policy as much as a woman could Wrote first book written by a woman published in English, about Protestant theology Important in shaping the development of Edward VI, made sure next ruler would be very Protestant Importance would have been greater if Edward had lived on Church of England becomes more Protestant even though Henry didn't necessarily want it that way Thomas Cromwell (1540) Son of a blacksmith Chancellor for Henry after Thomas More resigned and was executed, from 1532-1540 When Henry taking over Church, taking over Church land Rose through ranks Helped get More convicted and executed There to facilitate divorce w/ C of A so he could get AB, then getting rid of AB Excellent bureaucrat Part of creating the Privy Council Core of administrators who each had a department of state that they were responsible for Organization and specialization-- each person doing a specific job Forerunner of Cabinet gov Advised king Policy making and implementing body Rationalizing the state Said that when we make changes we need to get Parliament to ratify those changes Good at manipulating and getting things past Nobles hated him, conspired against him, lied about him to the king Henry was easy to convince to go against someone, very trusting Had Cromwell executed Regretted that he had killed one of his best servants-- never has a chancellor nearly as brilliant as Cromwell Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) Henry had made him Archbishop of Canterbury Granted annulment so he could marry Anne Boleyn Tried to push for a little more reform English translation of the Bible Got rid of some of the ritual things Church doesn't become clearly Protestant until Henry dies Died in 1547 Dissolution of monasteries Late 1530s→ claims they are all corrupt, shuts them all down and takes all their lands Bring influx of wealth to monarchy and central gov (a lot of it blown by Henry) Some given to nobles to tie them to crown Important for strengthening the monarchy Also changed the lives of common ppl Monasteries had provided health care, social welfare, artistic center, education Changes the nature of society in England in a significant way

anabaptists

Decided that if you should only do things that are scriptural, they did a lot of other things baptism= one of the two sacraments the protestants accepted, initiation as a member of the Church Adult baptism→ better term is believer's baptism Shook a lot of ppl Most others believed that you should be baptized as a baby→ infant mortality was so high They went w/ this Usually baptized @ 11 or 12 Stressing stuff about being a true believer This is making a conscious choice, making a commitment to the church Also say infant baptism is not scriptural There is no scriptural evidence of infants being baptized, but adults Totally immersed underwater, symbol of you going into your grave Mainstream protestants thought it was funny to kill Anabaptists by drowning them Church type vs sect type 2 ways you can view how the Christian community should interact w/ general society Church type→ Catholics and mainstream Protestants Don't try to distinguish committed true believers from insincere ones You baptize all of society Treat general society as being coterminous w/ the church Assuming that everyone is part of the church Baptize infants Bat also no real separation of church and state-- prince is a Christian prince Sect type→ subgroup, you say the great majority of ppl/general society is not ever going to be Christian The true Christians in the world are always going to be a minority The sign of that is believer's baptism Only ppl who had consciously made a choice Narrow def of Christianity in a community You separate yourself from the world Trying to be apart from "the world" which they think of as simple polygamy→ saw that patriarchs had more than 1 wife, did so as well Very strict morality, unfashionable→ modesty, bonnets, etc Strict in lifestyle in terms of attire→ why they often live in rural areas Tended to be deeply pacifist Say when Christ said turn the other cheek, he meant that He who lives by the sword dies by the sword Majority of Christianity had not been Baptist Direct descendents today (still sect type): Mennonites Will use internal combustion engines, electricity Named after Menno Simons Pacifists Try to live simply and gently Not as strict as Amish and Hutterites Amish Say they will only use technology you had by the year 700 "Living plain" Simply, making your own clothes, not trying to be fashionable Separating yourself from the cool kids, who are sinful Famous for barn-raisings Largest Amish community in US in PA (SE corner) Hutterites Tended to live out West, w/ a lot of land Said early Christian community tended to share Communalism Believe in living in Christian communes Share the work, everyone had the same standard of living, like Utopia Share the wealth Rejected the idea of a Christian prince, rejected the idea that most of society were Christians Often marginalized, persecuted→ saw this as a sign that they were the true believers, always martyred Communities that were largely ethnically German, even if they were not living in Germany Austria, Germany, Eastern outskirts of Holy Roman Empire Netherlands Germanic Munster Rebellion 1534-1535 Group of Anabaptists who took over the city of Munster Drove out Catholics and mainstream Protestants Tried to set up a comune, heaven on earth Used violence to enforce things, polygamy Discredited Anabaptists largely, gave them a bad reputation Lutherans and Catholics united to take back the city Leaders were tortured to death Their doctrine posed both a psychological and doctrinal threat Sola sciptura-- by word alone Religious radicals derived many conclusions from this principle Some groups argued the case that since true Christians were only those who had faith, all others must be cast out of the church Some denied the power of civil authority over true believers Would have nothing to do w/ the state, refusing to pay taxes, perform military obligations, or give oaths Some argued for the community of goods among believers and rejected private property Some literally followed passages in the Old Testament that suggested polygamy and promiscuity Persecuted to the brutal extent of the laws of heresy Catholics burned them Protestants drowned them They were stoned and clubbed out of their communities Never a large group w/in the context of Protestant churches, they represented an alternative to mainstream views-- Lutheran or Calvinist-- that was both attractive and persistent Enough substance in their ideas and enough sincerity in their patient sufferings that they continued to recruit followers as they were driven from town to town Finally settled on the eastern edges of the Holy Roman Empire (Bohemia and Hungary

erasmus

Dutch, Mid 15th to early 16th century Wanted literacy to be spread as much as possible, believed in vernacular translation of the Bible King of the Northern Renaissance Portraits by Holbein Scholar Dies a bachelor From Rotterdam, Netherlands Really European in nationality-- moved around a lot, doesn't think of himself in nationalistic terms, lived in England, Italy, Switzerland, very cosmopolitan, very internationalist Educated partly in a monastery, but decided he didn't want to be a monk, didn't want to be involved w/ corruption, but stuck w/ Catholic Church when it came down to it Purifying parts of the Bible, getting it to the original form, in Greek, it had been diluted To him, the most important thing he did was a lot of work on the Greek New Testament-- edited it, extremely important b/c of the textual errors that had come through in the time, back to the sources and scholarship of the Northern Renaissance, made himself learn Greek at 30 b/c he thought it was so important, wanted to get as close as possible to the original texts of the Greek new Testament, got the ones he thought were closest to the original, compared and contrasted them Published what he said was as close as we were ever going to get to the original Greek New Testament Annotated it, talked about passages that were difficult, etc Wants Greek New Testament original to be turned into the vernacular of all nationalities in Europe great emphasis on the need for everyone to be able to read the Bible had this in common w/ a lot of Protestant Reformers, why they thought he would join them, but he wasn't said it's stupid that ordinary people can't read the Bible and understand it, did not do a vernacular translation himself but did an improved version of the Vulgate (Latin Translation) Criticized the church: greed, institutionalization of spiritual ideas can lead to corruption, clerical ignorance (even the clergy was illiterate, horrible esp when you are supposed to be saying a mass in Latin, giving a sermon, homily), doctrine (teaching, led to indulgences), nepotism (appointing people based on relation instead of qualification), pluralism (clergymen had too many positions, couldn't fulfill them, tasks weren't adequately done-- led to absenteeism), sexual immorality Saints' cults-- what he criticized more than anything else Showing devotion to a saint Having churches dedicated to him or her, prayers said in their name, images of them, pilgrimages to where they lived Veneration-- worship is only for God, but respect for saints A lot of common people were substituting saints for God-- became polytheism Said they had become way too important Huge part of this were saints' relics Item or possession of the Saint that has a sacred aura, special properties Something left behind-- bones, teeth, hair, clothing, splinters of the cross People made pilgrimages to see them Supposed to have healing power Prayed as close as you could to them-- sanctity around them, praying for healing People wanted something tangible Question of should you venerate anyone other than Christ-- Protestants end up saying no Said he believed in "philosophia Christi" Philosophy of Christ, living a Christ-like life of simplicity, moderation, compassion Said it was simple Trying to live the life Christ lived Emphasizing the moral side of Christianity-- not supernatural Did not reject miraculous aspect of Christianity, but downplayed it Downplayed authority, being tied in tradition, complex rituals and ceremonies If the key thing is morality and living a good life, then a pre-Christian person could be considered Christian Ora pro nobis, Socrates! Pray for us, Socrates! Plato's teacher Said you could consider Socrates a Christian saint even though he died in 399 BCE so was not Christian Lived a life of moderation, reason, compassion You pray for saints to intercede for you, also asking them for help No intellectual before him has ever had the prestige that he had in society Popes wanted him to work for them, kings wanted him to work for them, everyone knew of him Called 'Prince of Humanists'-- uncrowned king of the Northern Renaissance Praise of Folly, 1509-- original book Gets caught in the midst of the Reformation struggle A lot of things he said lined up w/ Protestants, but did not join w/ them Said the worst thing you could do would be to split the Christian Church Not the violent Christian that Luther was Wanted peace Very tolerant Lives into a very intolerant, immoderate time period Dies a sad, disillusioned figure Both sides condemned him-- Protestants mad he wouldn't join them, Catholics said he was to blame for the Reformation-- laid the foundation Laid the egg that Luther hatched

renaissance family life

Luxury helped improve life that for rich and poor alike was short and uncertain Renaissance children found lives governed by parentage and gender Parentage Great divide b/t those who lived w/ surplus and those who lived @ subsistence Surplus= wealthiest bankers and merchants, those who owned own farms, engaged in small urban crafts Vast majority @ subsistence Survival of poor children unlikely Many died at birth or shortly after Many abandoned-- especially female-- to orphanages in cities Wasted away from lack of nutrition Childhood diseases w/o treatment Eldest sons favored, younger daughters disadvantaged Girls frequently sent out as domestic servants far from fam home Childhood Children of wealthy Better chances of survival Childhood might begin w/ "milk parents," life in home of fam of wet nurse who would breastfeed baby thru infancy Only very wealthy could afford live-in wet nurse Daughters more likely to be sent far from home and least likely to have nursing supervised Wet nurses emancipated parents from daily care of infants and allowed them to resume sexual relations Nursing women refrained from sex Period b/t weaning and apprenticeship: children lived w/ fams Nuclear fams more common Fam= economic unit Decisions to abandon children, send them away when young, or take in domestic servants based on economic calculations Sons often apprenticed to trade, b/t ages of 10 and 13 Most learned crafts of their fathers By adolescence they were earning token wages that contributed to fam income Sons inherited fam business and most important possessions Marriage and Family Expectations for daughters centered on chances of marriage Dowry was everything If father could provide handsome one, her future was secure; if not, alternatives were convent, or a match lower down the scale Daughters of poor fams entered domestic service to have dowry provided by masters Women usually married around 20 Among wealthy, marriages= familial alliances and business transactions rather than love matches Dowry was investment on which fathers expected return Husbands on average 10 yrs older than wives and likely to leave them widows Married women lived in a state of nearly constant pregnancy But not all pregnancies produced children-- high rates of miscarriages and stillbirths, abortions and infanticides not unknown Only among fams who hovered b/t surplus and subsistence is any evidence of attempts to control pregnancies Men married later b/c of cost of setting up in trade or on land (25 on farms, 30 in cities) Meant long supervision under father or master, and extended period b/t adolescence and adulthood Homosexuality and sexuality in general in cities-- sexual frustration high, outlet in ritual violence and rape= high Male heads of households were the source of all power Responsible for overseeing every aspect of upbringing of their children Wives were essential partners who governed domestic life Economic contribution to well-being of fam= critical Dowry and labor contribution Death came suddenly in most cases Epidemics struck harder at young Influenza= second largest cause of death Starvation was rare-- more likely to succumb to disease than famine In urban areas, gov would intervene to provide grain from public storehouses in times of extreme shortages (large landholders did so in countryside often as well)

jesuits

Not monks or friars, formed in 1500s Most important ppl founded in the 16th century Not monks or friars St Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) Founded Jesuits Basque (Spanish) From lower Aristocratic fam soldier/warrior, got hurt in battle Decided he wanted to be a warrior for Christ, would fight for the Virgin Mary Very intense life of abstinence and self-denial Had apostles Grew w/ emphasis on education and reading Meets w/ some other guys, including Francis Xavier (1506-1552) Decided they needed to do something Thought about joining an order of friars Decided they wanted to found a whole new religious order Would have free basic vows, work in the world Wanted to be the right hand of teh Pope Big book he wrote: The Spiritual Exercises Symbol: IHS (abbreviation for Jesus in Greek) Quickly becomes devoted to education and missionary work Serve as right hand of pope Not monks, didn't take vow of stability Closer to friars But friars wore habits Jesuits could wear anything they wanted→ under cover, many would be killed if found Even though he became a soldier for God, never ceased to be a type of soldier Had military mindset Fighting for purity of the church Struggle w/o actual violence Go to very dangerous places Go secretly into Protestant areas (how they are really part of the counter-Reformation) Targeted rulers Ministered to ppl Tried to get ppl to convert and to minister to ppl who were secretly Catholic Go to New World, Asia Very dangerous Converted some Native Americans Organized into companies head= inspector general Motto: Ad majorem Dei gloriam To the greater glory of God Implies that man's own efforts can increase Gods glory Loyalty to religion comes above all other loyalty Like Calvinists→ Soli Deo Gloria To the Glory of God alone Very similar though, all about the glory of God, international Francis Xavier Goes to Portuguese Empire→ Africa, East Indies One of the first ppl to set foot in Japan, then wanted to go to China but died in Japan Known as the Apostle of the Indies Now patron saint of all missionaries in the Catholic Church Stressed blind obedience to the Church Famous for trying to learn other ppl's languages, etc In China, tried to argue to the pope to let the Chinese continue venerating their ancestors Doesn't argue w/ worship to God alone Whole new area of the world for ppl to explore, they follow right behind explorers Important in trying to roll back the Reformation→ in some ways successful Czech, Poles, Hungarians all generally brought back to the Catholic Church→ victories for the counter-Reformation All males Take a fourth vow that no one else takes→ direct loyalty to the pope Probably the single most important order Free will→ said it was partly up to you, Protestants renounced this

philip ii

Spain, mid to late 16th century Most important political figure in Europe in the last half of the 16th century father= Charles V Abdicates, said they needed to divide all possessions His younger brother gets HRE Rules Spain, Low Countries (wealthiest part of Europe), Philippines, Italy, New World Combined military prowess, dynastic expansion, and religious fervor all in one Fighting for God Fought the Ottoman Turks Demonized by Dutch and English Represents foreign, absolute tyranny, defaming them Terrible treatment of Native Americans We use this history to demonize the Spanish English settlers just wanted Nat Amers to move west Spanish tried to incorporate them, converting them, spanish subjects The Spanish look upon him as one of their greatest Kings Stood out as a particularly strong Catholic Said he would rather lose all his possessions than be a king over heretics Felt strongly that he had to defend the Catholic faith→ most wars were not just dynastic but religious, tried to help French Catholic League 80 Years' War→ tries to hold on to Habsburg possession of the Netherlands, eventually broke away Reigned when Spain was the most powerful country in Europe→ more than just political and military Soft power→ when you have a cultural impact Spanish style Escorial Big palace right outside of Madrid, means a slag heap Built it, seems to embody is personality Orderly, stern, not hugely decorated, imposing, aloof, tough, outside Madrid (away from ordinary realm of life) Right in the middle is a functioning church and monastery Combination palace, monastery, mausoleum Wanted all Habsburg ancestors dug up and brought to this one place Ruling worldwide empire in this austere place, surrounded by bones of ancestors and monks Simply, undecorated bedchamber, opened to the church Would go to mass every morning, meet w/ advisors Nicknamed King of Paper-- >would read and read gov documents Criticized as being intolerant Absolutist king Idea that he ends up ruining Spain's greatness (or laying foundation for ruin) by waging Religious Wars Pursuing an ideal Didn't worry that things might be financially stupid or if he thought it was the right thing to do Kicking out religious minorities, means a loss of money Dios o nada! (God or nothing) El Siglo de Oro Century of gold→ 1550-1650 Spanish expansion, gold coming in Tried to support the Guise in France (hard-line Catholics) Doing what he could to prevent Henry of Navarre from becoming king Spain had been under Muslim rule for centiries There were still many ppl known as the moriscos (moors) Ppl who said they converted to Catholicism but didn't Had technically/nominally converted Inquisition at first targeted Jewish conversos more, but enventually started happening to Muslim minority Muslim minority= threat b/c they could turn to the ottoman Ppl feared that Muslim minority might ally w/ Ottoman Empire, which was at its height in the 1500s Morisco Revolt (1569) Muslim minority revolted, called on Ottomans for help Holy League= CHristian coalition formed b/t kingdom of Spain, republic of Venice, papal states, and a few other Italian principalities Lepanto= huge battle in 1571 off of the coast of Greece Netherlands= Habsburg possession, ruled as a colony Wanted to keep them Catholic, as he had done in Spain Wasn't ever seen, stayed in Spain and never traveled Made his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, regent of the Low Countries More practical, just wanted to keep peace, live and let live Thought of very much asa Spaniard Iconoclasm (1566), destruction of icons, b/c it's a form of idolatry, blasphemy and rebellion in Philip's eyes response= called in a bunch of Jesuits to build schools, trying to convince ppl of Catholicism by persuasion Council of Blood started sentencing a lot of ppl to death 80 Years' War→ responds to Elizabeth helping rebels by really helping Mary, Queen of Scots Spanish Armada (1588)--> plan to attack England for what they had done to help rebels in the Netherlands

royal favorites

There at court, at the capital Common element→ you are the channel/conduit of patronage Royal favors given to ppl Tax exemption, charters, noble titles, gov jobs Someone that you went to him to get a royal favor The king was sometimes hard to get to But this guy had the ear of the kinga t least in terms of patronage King trusted this guy at least in terms of patronage Gov expanding scope and number of titles, needed someone to help out Sharing task, filtering ppl out If there were unpopular things that the monarchy had to do, you could use this guy as a scapegoat Everyone can freely hate these ppl Transition from gov being purely personal to an impersonal, institutional gov Bridge from medieval personal monarchy to impersonal bureaucracy Count-Duke Olivares (1587-1645) Favorite of Philip IV of Spain not very successful perpetuated the decline a lot of the glory of Spain was a façade like Versailles as a metaphor for absolutism divine-right monarchy--> monarch answers only to God weakness of Spanish empire Spain was very regionalized wants to have common army belonging to all Spanish possessions centralized military and with it a centralized tax system succeeded in neither of those endeavors aggressive foreign policy advised them to keep fighting Netherlands and in 30 Years' War Italians resisted fervently the tax system after 1580, Portugal was under the rule of king of Spain Portugal still had central identity broke away in 1640, becomes separate kingdom again, picks new royal family some of this was the right thing to do but it was not well executed eventually he had to take the blame, removed from office in 1643 1645--> died physically exhausted and mentally deranged vision of centralization and a union of arms union of arms= one common Spanish-Habsburg army that would draw from all over the empire 1640--> Spain is fighting in the 30 Years' War, and fighting the 80 Years' War, and there are revolts b/c tax is so heavy on ppl in certain parts of their realm revolts particularly in Portugal succeeded completely separate picked own royal fam was a monarchy until 1910 nobles also supported rebellion Catalonian Revolt Barcelona= capital Catalan= not a dialect of Spanish, its own language even more different from Spanish than Portuguese is want their own country Barcelona soccer club embodies Catalan separatism crushed in 1652 nobles also supported rebellion destroyed Olivares Spain declines rapidly in late 1600s fall from a great height Duke of Buckingham (1592-1628) Favorite of James I (1603-1625) and Charles I (1625-1648) was possibly the lover of the king really wasn't the main policy-making adviser assassinated by a disgruntled office-seeker, for a personal particular reason James I (1603-1625) Stewart comes in as a middle-aged man when Elizabeth I died (his relative) not considered one of the more successful or admirable kings of England but first to be ruling Scotland and England and Wales and Ireland Scotland kept its own Parliament until 1707 two different established churches Anglican vs Presbyterian so can't talk about Great Britain yet Charles I (1625-1648) went from being a son of a gentryman to a duke (hightest title) in 7 years meteoric rise mainly just b/c he was handsome Cardinal Richelieu (d. 1642) Favorite of Louis XIII (1610-1643) not close to the King personally very Machiavellian he wrote a work where he said that if you have to do something for the good of the state that if you were a private person it would be a sin/crime, then it's justified raison d'etat the end justifies the means you can do some fairly dubious things-- lying, torture, breaking promises, underhanded has the image of being manipulative tries to do religious duty, but it was clear that his secular duties came first he was the man who urged Louis XIII to enter into the 30 Years' War on the Protestant side of Sweden and Netherlands b/c it was the anti-Habsburg side huge example of raison d'etat, angered the pope emphasis was that France is surrounded by a Habsburg ring and they must do everything they can to weaken that fam's power ascent of France to greatness again said he wanted to make "The King supreme in France and France supreme in Europe" to him there were two main problems: nobles did not like Richelieu and he did not like/trust them knew they were selfish and jealous let nobles have a lot of gov positions that don't mean much but sound prestigious but main advisors/councillors were mainly bourgeois ppl excluded nobles from real policy-making pwr pwr also based a lot on the fact that they have all these castles Richelieu tore down a lot of nobles' castles could still be a real obstacle to kings asserting pwr 3 Musketeers by Dumas= set in the time of Louis XIII they were allowed to duel he banned nobles' right to duel said it disrupts public order also he cared about making the nobles realize that they were beneath the law too commoners couldn't kill e/o legally, and neither could nobles nobles hated this every noble household had a spy/informer placed in it who was reporting back to Richelieu intendants local administrators Richelieu divides France into 32 districts had had provincial governors before (nobles) this person was appointed by the central gov (the king technically) over one of the 32 districts answered only to the king always not from that region king's face, king's man in these local region sometimes nobles, but often bourgeois story of centralization Huguenots he= Catholic, doesn't like them didn't like one provision of the Edict of Nantes Huguenots controlled fortified towns w/ Protestant churches almost like a state within a state had to get rid of this to do this, he provoked a revolt French Huguenot nobles were stupid enough to fall into that said he was going to get rid of rights for Huguenots thought letting ppl have state w/in a state was particularism (letting nobles have pwr) revolt is crushed La Rochelle= port city, sort of the capital of Huguenot France doesn't get rid of whole Edict of Nantes, but just got rid of fortified towns not mainly about religious intolerance, about absolutism getting rid of any separate independent pwr inside the realm of France Louis XIV will later revoke the entire edict knew nobles were conspiring against him when he dies, France is on ascent, France in a pretty good position at that point can't control that when Louis XIII dies the crown goes to Louis XIV at the age of 5 drops dead somewhat unexpectantly

great european witch hunt

another way you see that society is going after women a witch= inversion women are supposed to bear life and have babies miscarriages= midwife killing the baby so she could use it for witchcraft cunningmen and cunningwomen--> knowledge of herbs, stuff like that ppl would go to them if they were giving birth, needed help w/ love or sickness occult-- secret, knowledge other ppl didn't have connected it more w/ women (cooking, preparing) idea that women were viewed as having a kind of knowledge that men didn't (intuitive) for a long time, these women were not viewed as being contrary to Christianity supplement, parallel Wicca= the craft, the knowledge (wicca women) in the 16th century when ppl are trying to make Christianity better, they were trying to cleanse what they considered superstitious, non-pagan rituals in their societies women were dealing w/ supernatural occult things that the church felt were contrary to religion both Catholics and Protestants went zealously after witches women accused of Satanism (contrary to Christianity, worshipping the devil) modern wiccas would say they aren't satanists, but pre-Christian... women-centered religion women were doing Wicca thing, but no distinction made b/t who was doing Satanism and who was doing Wicca classic stereotype witch is who they went after over anyone else--> older women living on their own (either spinsters or widows) marginalized, more defenseless fear of an autonomous woman authority figures are almost completely male if you're going after what you would consider to be evil in society, you're going after the Other probably 3/4 of ppl accused of witchery were women not exclusively, but there's an element of misogyny to it they believed that women are more sexually driven than men less likely to be able to restrain themselves women referred to as the 'weaker vessel' start targeting ppl, claiming that they were this diabolical opposing church nun is referred to as the wife of Christ they thought Satan wanted to have his brides (along with the physical stuff) accusing women of at the end of their services they just had one big orgy believed that men and women both would sell their souls to Satan Satan would give you Malleus Maleficarum (1486) mallet to do evil book that popularized idea that there are witches out there sabbat when witches would come together at some point during the year, only way to get back home was to fly so Satan also gave them the power to fly believed that Satan gave you formula for lotion that you could rub on yourself and fly belief that magic only worked best when you were naked went to meet Satan often in the form of a goat, a toad, or a dark mysterious handsome man had a black mass mass said backwards in Latin, crucifix held upside down, ate sliced onions or flesh of your own dead relatives or murdered infants, in England they said witches ate roast beef and ale then they had the big orgy having sex w/ Satan then you all fly home everywhere in Europe you were burnt at the stake for witchery, but England was under common law so they hanged witches (why they were hanged in Salem) psychosexual aspect Malleus Maleficarum (1486) hammer of the evil-doers two Dominican German friars said this was how you could root out witches saying that when talking to a witch, lead them to believe that they will not be put to death if they confess, but they will only 30 years after invention of the printing press one of the first best-sellers in history translated into different language endorsed by the pope at the time ppl began to think there was this vast diabolical conspiracy, alternative religion planting ideas in ppl's minds witch accusations were very rare until the 1400s--> witchcraft persecution didn't really happen in the Middle Ages height= 1550-1650 after everything progressive had happened scientific revolution was going on during that time period and renaissance had already happened and reformation so you had all of these sources of modern ideas yet this still occurred 1500s and late 1500s, there was a significant rise in prices (Price Revolution) inflation they were so convinced that prices would stay the same inflation rate was low by our standards, but everything tended to be fixed back then anxiety, sense that nothing was stable anymore skimmingtons, sense that the times were out of joint discovery of the New World had something to do with it it really rocked ppl's worlds entire hemisphere that ppl didn't know existed not really divided Protestant vs. Catholic Scotland had a high number of witch trials per capita, and it continued for a long time it tends to happen where there is religious war--> where Catholics and Protestants are in conflict if you are already in a situation where there are people who you think are on the side of Satan (heretics) so now there are ppl who are not only worshipping Christ incorrectly but worshipping Satan/someone other than Christ 'swimming a witch' they thought that water would tend to reject a witch (particularly about baptismal vow) thought part of becoming a witch was you had to renounce your baptismal vow would bless water would drag a witch across a body of water if she seemed to float, they said water was rejecting them and they were a witch if they sank, they pulled them out and weren't a witch tormentum insomniae sleep deprivation you don't let ppl fall asleep supposedly would loosen their tongue and they would speak the truth doesn't mean you start speaking the truth but start hallucinating and babbling a lot of accusations were projections of fantasies on ppl or something basically trying to kill your own doubt, own guilt, own anxiety also usual tortures after mid-1600s it starts to die down in England it ended earlier (1682) Salem in 1692 Scotland in 1727 last person killed in German states in 1756 (but different principalities stopped at different times) ppl confessing to things if they aren't guilty notoriety/fame but also for some of these women that was the only time in their lives when ppl were paying attention to them it made them seem special also some ppl could have convinced themselves that they had done it (whether senile or overly religious or mentally challenged) end of trials not a popular decision upper classes often instigated the end and common people resisted it greatly this had a great deal of popular support upper classes are the first ones affected by the Enlightenment difference b/t ppl and public--> public started turning against trials but ppl needed convincing religious wars and 30 Years' War ending corresponded to the end of the witchcraft trials secularization of gov when ppl start questioning whether Satan even exists or not, it means ppl don't conduct as many trials mass hysteria doesn't last forever rise of a more rational, skeptical, secular attitude decline of religious wars

united provinces of the netherlands

free from Spanish Habsburgs in late 16th century genre painting scenes of everyday life Mercantilism Dutch East India Company (VOC)- 1602 had 6 times the amount of investment capital in it for at least a century North was called the United Provinces, South was the Spanish netherlands unique in that they were a republic no monarch, only stadtholder Holland= only one of 7 provinces, most populous The Hague= the capital of the Netherlands Rotterdam= very important port city, was the most important one in the world unique in that they were a republic (besides Switzerland and Venice) dominant social class= bourgeoisie merchants, bankers, etc while they did have landowners and a type of aristocracy (House of Orange) gov/politics was dominated by bourgeois not an aristocratic society set the tone for society religiously tolerant good for business long tradition of being fairly easygoing dominant state church= Calvinist Dutch Reformed Church large Catholic minority only second class in that they didn't have much political say Jan Vermeer (d. 1675) one of the most famous painters today Girl with the Pearl Earring from Catholic minority Jewish minority left pretty much alone Rembrandt van Rijn (d. 1669) famous painter had a lot of Jewish friends, would have them pose as Mary, Jesus, etc bc THEY WERE JEWS innovative open to change no monarchy no huge palaces first true stock exchange in the world founded in 1602 Amsterdam Stock Exchange brilliant at banking Bank of Amsterdam founded in 1609 not state-owned but had connection w/ government said they stood behind deposits, guaranteed deposits up to a certain amount safer b/c gov ensured deposits if bank collapses, you won't lose everything waaaaaay ahead of everybody else even the Spanish would put their money in this b/c you got a good interest rate and it was considered safe had a big fat milk cow on their money represent prosperity but also not predators (like lions and eagles) golden age in art subject matter was different landscape new as being the only object of a painting ordinary life genre paintings landscapes still lives generally more modern not huge ppl or historical events Jan Vermeer (d. 1675) Girl in the Pearl Earring so many of his paintings have light source coming through on left side Rembrandt van Rijn (d. 1669) did a series of self portraits Dutch masters Anatomy Lesson every face in his paintings has distinct, particularized emotional appearance psychological acuity real ppl as he got older, he tended to do lots of biblical scenes very Protestant types of religious art also golden age for Dutch literature though the language is not that international so their literature is not hugely celebrated politically central country in trying to hold back France's ambitions Louis XIV hated the Dutch b/c they were everything he didn't like tolerant, republican, bourgeois, in the way William III was delighted when he came to the English throne b/c he wanted them in on his alliance against Louis caused a great flip in the balance of power empire tended to replace a lot of where the Portuguese had been and then pushed them out from 1580 to 1640, Portugal was not really governing itself (governed by a mainly Spanish king) felt Spanish did not do enough to defend their colonies Dutch took a lot from the Portuguese tip of Africa areas in India took Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) had that until British took it from them in 1815 crown jewel= Dutch East Indies Portuguese got there first by early 1600s, Dutch are moving in Nutmeg Wars Dutch push out Portuguese and then Dutch and English fight Dutch win at the expense of environmental destruction Taiwan-- took it from Portuguese, then Chinese took it from them Manhattan New Netherland at first, and city was New Amsterdam originally their own British eventually managed to drive them off New Zealand Zeeland= southernmost province in Netherlands guy also discovered Tasmanian island scientific discoveries invented two most important scientific instruments microscope and telescope only ppl eventually allowed to trade w/ Japan Japan eventually kicked out all Euros except the Dutch b/c other Euros were a lot of time trying to convert Japanese ppl b/c Japanese ppl needed to believe that the emperor was a god kept Dutch b/c they weren't interested in conversion, but only money even so only allowed to trade at Nagasaki each Dutch province elected own states had States General (national congress) loose confederation each of the 7 provinces picked their own stadtholder (generally the same guy) freedom, toleration

calvin

1509-1564/early to mid 16th century From france (northern France, Picardie) Expected to be a priest Humanist education Intellectual odyssey-- more than one university-- University of Orleans Began to get an excellent legal traning-- much more systematic thinker than Luther Religious experience-- almost complete change of heart very quickly about the whole Reformation question While in Paris Began thinking what Luther had said was correct Part of a group in Paris of Protestant-leaning people Francis I is heavily enforcing Catholicism in France People were getting burned at the stake for it 1535--> left France for Basel Where he wrote and published the first edition of his Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) Defense of French Protestants against persecution, directed to Francis I Expanded in several subsequent editions Became the most influential work of Protestant theology Began as an effort to extend Protestantism to France, and Calvin never abandoned hope that his homeland would be converted Fled Paris, friend was burned for Protestantism, goes a couple of other places first, but ends up in Geneva Fled persecution b/c he had become Protestant A guy from Geneva was trying to structure their church, tried to convince Calvin to stay in Geneva Said town council had voted to go Protestant, kicked out bishop (who was also political leader) of Geneva, but needed Calvin Said if Calvin didn't stay he would be cursed by God, he took it seriously Greatest contributions to religious reform came in church structure and discipline Had studied writings of the first generation of reformers and accepted w/o question justification by faith alone and the biblical foundation of religious authority Believed salvation came from God's grace More strongly than his predecessors he believed that the gift of faith was granted only to some and that each individual's salvation or damnation was predestined before birth Brought the doctrine of predestination to the center of the problem of faith Those who were predestined to salvation, "the elect," were obliged to govern Those who were predestined to damnation were obliged to be governed Thus, for the church that Calvin erected, discipline was the central concern Geneva becomes a model for reformed Protestantism Eventually had two main types of Protestants: Lutherans Reformed w/ Zwingli and Calvin Aka Presbyterian In British Isles, esp in Scotland, they get this name Pretty close to Zwingli about outward forms as opposed to Luther Whitewashed walls, simple unadorned churches b/t Luther and Zwingli Kept music, but did not accept instrumental music in churches-- only a cappella Only singing scripture-- the Psalms Luther kept a crucifix (cross w/ Christ's body on it), Calvin did not have crucifixes-- unadorned crosses, Zwingli did not want a cross at all Idolatry Not worshipping false idols Trying to be even more careful about avoiding idolatry Thinking you should focus on resurrected Christ instead of Christ on the cross-- Easter over Good Friday Holy commonwealth idea-- closer to Zwingli than Luther Reformed Zwingli churches in Switzerland often hop on the Calvinist train Church government-- Calvin addressed that question more than Luther did Luther said the pope was out But the secular prince would become the bishop, would appoint pastors Monarch was head of both church and state Calvin thought there was one ordained structure of government-- Presbyterian (government by elders) Ecclesiastical gov Deacons, doctors, elders, pastors pastors= closed to Catholic priest, gave sermons, administered sacraments, but you would elect him-- power flows from the ppl upwards elders= elected, Church is governed w/ pastor and elders together in a session/consistory, deal w/ the faith side of the church Deacons= deal w/ the worldly/earthly side of the Church, financial, etc., also elected doctors= theologians who can teach ppl to become pastors, elders, etc Provided a kind of structure to the church that Lutheranism didn't Calvinists could exist in a country where they were minority Lutherans couldn't really exist in a country where the ruler was not Lutheran Calvinism becomes the majority faith in Scotland, Holland, and Switzerland But there are very important minorities in polit life and so on France→ Huguenots Some key German states become Calvinist Fair number of Hungarians become Calvinist (eventually RCC holds on to most of them) Puritans in England-- ven though England becomes Anglican, they wanted to make the Church of England a Calvinist church Lutheranism was more a Germanic thing and stayed that way, Northern European Calvinism is more widespread Predestination Not a uniquely Calvinist thing Luther believed in it After Luther and Calvin's death, Calvinists stuck w/ it and Lutherans kind of drifted away God chooses souls that will be saved from creation Made Calvinists confident-- thought that God controls everything, but they are his agents, he works through them "If God is for us, who can be against us" You are supposed to assume that you are "the elect" Activist group-- believed you were supposed to be out there making a holy commonwealth, a society that glorifies God Lutheran priests had conservative view about authority is there by God Calvinist had activist view on this-- if an authority is unjust by God, you can fight back Huguenots Dutch Calvinists Scottish Presbyterians English Puritans They do fight back Ecclesiastical government-- God controls everything, don't separate God from politics, holy commonwealth, predestination flows from that Reformation would not have survived w/o Calvinist wave Gave second wave that made Reformation stronger and more lasting More militant, likelier to fight back More clearly not Catholic Lutherans weren't Catholic, but Calvinists were "more reformed" Much less likely to be reabsorbed into Catholicism-- irreconcilable First real international wave of Protestantism-- Lutheranism was really a Germanic thing Geneva became known as the Protestant Rome Great publishing center-- printing out catechisms, Bibles, prayer books Like the Vatican for Calvinism University of Geneva-- ppl came from all over Europe to study theology here Refugee center-- if you were fleeing from Catholic persecution

huguenots

Important Calvinist minority in France, activist, fought back against authority unjust by God In France, becoming a pretty strong minority in the 16th century→ 10-20% Nobles in higher percentages→ 40% Resisting power of the king, if you weren't a Catholic the king had less power to tell you what you had to do Tended to be more from towns More skilled, more literate

civic humanism

Influence of humanist values on practical affairs No distinction b/t active and contemplative life Life of scholarship= life of service Public service unto the people Being individual to serve the greater good Leonardo Bruni-- translated Plato and Aristotle, spread learning among intellectuals Leon Battista Alberti-- writer, architect, stressed that public service was what ultimately knowledge should be applied to, extolled civic virtues, valued individuality but said you should apply it to the group Said the active life was superior to contemplative life Believed you should get out there and do things Medieval scholars said contemplative life was superior (Dante represented medieval sensibility) Religious orders also both contemplative and active Active life is changing society for the better Said a republic is better than a monarchy Not necessarily a democracy, but the state is owned by the people People living in republics are citizens as opposed to subjects Implies you have ownership Some people have power other than just one Venice lasted as the longest republic Almost everyone was under a monarch Treats people as if they can actually rule themselves Niccolo Machiavelli-- the prince, instructing people about how to gain power and keep it Baldesar Castiglione's The Courtier→ etiquette book for ideal state servant

machiavelli

Late 15th to early 16th century From Florence Wrote The Prince (1513) A book about how to gain power and keep it Believed Italian people needed to be free from foreign control and needed a strong ruler to unite and save Italy Italian patriotism Being both the fox and the lion (overly fierce and brave, and sly, subtle, intelligent) Doing what you have to do-- the ends justify the means Laid foundation for realistic 16th century ruler Most important and controversial Renaissance work Purely secular in content and philosophy Separated all ethical consideration from analysis Fame and virtu Part of Florentine government Devoutly believed in republics Diplomat, secreatary Saw inner workings of Florentine local governments and how relations were b/t Florence and the outside world Also wrote long commentary on Livy's history of Rome Raison d'etat, realpolitik Ideas directly applied to warfare

carnival

before Lent penance leading up to Easter day before Lent= Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) Protestants got rid of it-- so still important in Catholicism can run all the way from Epiphany to Ash Wednesday oriented around Easter--> a movable feast, can vary a lot carne= meat valle= goodbye means giving up meat and the flesh carnal desires giving up sex giving up something you're going to miss at Carnival you indulge in those two things--> meat and sex there is a tradition in some cultures that all bets are off in Carnival rules don't really apply it is acceptable during this time to have wife-swapping Ash Wednesday is a sharp break breaking rules about sexuality, but also about social hierarchy theme= world turned upside down processions/floats= ppl doing things that are the reverse of what it is supposed to be masks= v important putting on diff persona "Lord of Misrule" someone elected the king for the day electing an outsider who gets to make the rules for the day able to grant noble titles for the day/week had immunity, could kick anyone's ass, even nobles would sometimes wear lots of sausages hanging from his suit cross-dressing upper classes went along w/ it starts to die off when in the 18th century the upper classes stop wanting to do it anymore two reasons for it: safety valve incredibly unequal society you let the poor, women, marginalized have their day so they don't explode by doing all that stuff, you are reinforcing the conventional view of how society is supposed to be saying 'look how crazy it would be if the world was like this' way of reinforcing conservative view of society importance of sausages--> lots of them

price revolution

inflation they were so convinced that prices would stay the same inflation rate was low by our standards, but everything tended to be fixed back then anxiety, sense that nothing was stable anymore skimmingtons, sense that the times were out of joint fall of real wages took place against backdrop of inflation rapid increase in prices due to population growth and import of precious metals from New World 16th-c govs understood little about relationship b/t money supply and prices gold and silver from America flooded international economy, raising commodity prices as prices rose so did defecits of the state, which as the largest purchaser of both agricultural and manufactured goods w/ huge deficits, states began to devalue their coins in mistaken belief that this would lower their debt debased coinage resulted in higher prices, and higher prices resulted in greater debt felt thruout the continent and played havoc w/ gov finances, international trade, and lives of ordinary ppl long leases meant landlords could not raise rent lords frequently held right to purchase agricultural produce at specified prices helped both lords and peasants plan assured lord steady supply and peasant steady market (but assumes steady prices) enduring increase in prices created profound social dislocation towns hit hard exchanged manufactured goods for food and suffered when grain prices rose faster than those of other commodities landholders who derived income from rent were squeezed landholders who received payment in kind reaped a windfall of more valuable agricultural goods peasants= largely protected from rise in food prices, but not insulated from consequences in grave peril if some part of their subsistence had to be obtained y labor now enormous incentive to produce surplus for market and begin to specialize in particular grains in high demands all land (including individual fam villager land) used to yield foodstuffs that could be exchanged for manufactured luxury goods tendency for all peasants to hold roughly equivalent amounts of land abruptly ceased fortunate could become prosperous by selling their surplus, unfortunate found ready purchasers for strips and common rights beneficial cycle turned vicious E Europe--> labor service enriched landed nobility, who were able to sell stores of grain in export market used laws to tie peasants to land in order to ensure that grain would be cultivated for market Poland-Lithuania became major supplier of cereals to N Europe, and Gdansk became most important agricultural seaport in world agricultural surplus from east could not make up for great shortfall in west by beginning of 17th c, western European states faced crisis of subsistence

revolt in the netherlands

passive resistance of nobles and magistrates was soon matched by the active resistance of the Calvinists unable to enforce Philip's policy, Margaret and her advisers agreed to a limited toleration but in summer of 1556, before it could be put into effect, band of Calvinists unleashed a storm of iconoclasm in the provinces, breaking stained glass windows and statues of the Virgin and the saints, which they claimed were idolatrous Catholic churches were stormed and turned into Calvinist meeting houses local authorities helpless in the face of determined Calvinists and apathetic Catholics-- they could not protect Church property iconoclasm gave way to open revolt fearing social rebellion, even the leading Protestant noblemen took part in suppressing the riots Rebellion and War in Spain, the events in Netherlands were treated for what they were: open rebellion despite the fact that Margaret had already restored order, Philip II was determined to punish rebels and enforce heresy laws large milit force under command of Duke of Alba (1507-1582), whose record of success was matched only by his record or brutality, was sent from Spain as an army of occupation Alba had made his reputation leading imperial troops against Lutherans gave no quarter to the Protestants of the Netherlands Alba lured Count Egmont and other Protestant noblemen to Brussels, where he publicly executed them in 1568 established military court to punish participants in the rebellion, a court that came to be called the Council of Blood many Protestants fled beyond Alba's jurisdiction Alba made example of several small towns that had been implicated in the iconoclasm allowed soldiers to pillage towns at will before slaughtering the entire pops and razing them to the ground end of 1568--> royal policy had gained a sullen acceptance in Netherlands but hostilities did not end next 80 yrs, w/ only occasional truces, Spain and Netherlands were at war Protestants Rebel Alba's policies drove the Protestants into rebellion forced Spanish gov to maintain its army by raising taxes from those provinces that had remained loyal soon loyal provinces were too in revolt, not over religion but over taxation and local autonomy tax resistance and fear of an invasion from France left Alba unprepared for the series of successful assaults Protestants launched in northern provinces during 1572 Protestant generals established a permanent base in NW provinces of Holland and Zeeland by 1575--> Protestant had gained a stronghold that they would never relinquish Prince William of Orange assumed the leadership of the two provinces that were now united against the tyranny of Philip's rule Spanish gov= collapsing all over the Netherlands William ruled in north and the States-General, a parliamentary body composed of representatives from the separate provinces, ruled in south Margaret of Parma had resigned in disgust @ Alba's tactics Alba had been relieved of his command when his tactics failed no one= in control of Spanish army soldiers, who had gone years w/ only partial pay, now roamed the southern provinces looking for plunder Brussels and Ghent= targets 1576--> worst atrocities of all occurred when mutinous Spanish troops sacked Antwerp one of the wealthiest cities in Europe, hoome to the most important mercantile and banking establishments in the world torn apart rampage lasted for days, many ppl killed and nearly 1/3 of the city burned to the grond "Spanish fury" in Antwerp effectively ended Philip's rule over Burgundian inheritance Protestants had established permanent home in north States-General had established ability to rule in south Spanish policy= discredited Pacification of Ghent (1576) to achieve a settlement Spanish gov conceded local autonomy in taxation, the central role of the States-General in legislation, and the immediate withdrawal of all Spanish troops from the Low Countries 5 southern provinces pledge to remain Catholic and accept authority of king's regent rift b/t provinces soon followed by permanent split 1581--> one group of provinces voted to depose Philip II, while a second group decided to remain loyal to him Philip II refused to accept dismemberment of his inheritance and refused to recognize the independent Dutch state that now existed in Holland thruout 1580s and 1590s, milit expeditions attempted to reunite the southern provinces and to conquer the northern ones Spanish milit success in south were outweighed by long-term failure of objectivve in north Twelve Years' Truce (1609) Spain and Netherlands concluded tacitly recognized the existence of the state of Holland by the beginning of the 17th century, Holland was not only an independent state, it was one of the greatest rivals of Spain and Portugal for the fruits of the empire

war of the spanish succession

reviving Grand Alliance w/o Spain William of Orange dies in 1702, so doesn't end up leading the war freak accident Anne becomes the British monarch, rules the exact same years Anne I (1702-1714) not a great leader, but stays in alliance John Churchill general who fought in this war, British army, kinda conducted British government in general Anne had a very very close relationship w/ his wife, Sarah Churchill lesbian? basically France and Spain vs everybody else Britain, Dutch, Austrian Empire, Sweden, specific German states (Brandenburg [turns into Prussia]) shows how strong France was that the war went in for a number of years often called the first world war in history fought mainly in Europe, but also in New World West Indies Canada Ohio Territory Asia both British and French wanted India b/c Britain's navy was able to get control of seas, British win war overseas on land in Europe, thanks to John Churchill, armies were often defeated there war should've ended in 1709, but allies drive such a hard bargain that the French keep fighting Peace of Utrecht (1713-1715) fighting stops in 1714 so many issues involved that they had to work through a lot and there were many separate treaties in the Netherlands French lose area around Hudson Bay in Canada, two maritime provinces (Nova-Scotia (used to be called Acadia) and Newfoundland) eventually expel French settlers there start of Britain grabbing a lot of Canada also rule that France and Spain can never have the same monarch Philip V stays pretty good king not kicked off so Spain recovers a little bit there is a Bourbon monarch rn ruling in Spain stripped away all Spanish European possessions Italian possessions Milan, Sardinia, Naples taken away from Spain ultimately the Southern part of Italy becomes ruled by the Austrian Habsburgs means Austria has a whole lot of interference w/ Italian affairs Sardinia was given to a state called Savoy had fought against Louis eventually known as the kingdom of Sardinia aka Piedmont most of Savoy today is in France Piedmont is at the foot of the Alps in Italy today Gibraltar at the foot of the Iberian peninsula right across from Morocco British took it still have it today one of the few crown colonies left today made a difference that Britain controlled that spot in later conflicts Austrians also get what had been the Spanish Netherlands now called Belgium after 1714, it is the Austrian Netherlands France has essentially been halted but still a strong power Spain has lost a lot of its power in Europe Britain comes out luckiest, w/ most Savoy on its way Brandenburg state in Germany asiento Britain wanted to be able to bring over slaves to Spanish colonies, Spanish New World Spain had to concede to allow British slave ships to bring over slaves to Spanish New World war not about idelogy, but about dynastic claims and also global/commercial war French settlers in what had been called Acadia eventually went to Louisiana and became the Cajuns 1714-1715 Hanoverians to England Death of Louis XIV treaty changes where Spanish-Habsburgs faced revolts in 1640s--> Sicily, Naples, Catalonia, Portugal

petrarch (1304-1374)

1304-1374/early to late 14th century The father of Renaissance humanism Latinized his name From Florence Writings have an impact on the development of the Italian language itself (along with Dante) First guy to go around to monastic libraries and helps recover some of Livy and other texts Revered cicero Lived in 1st c. BCE, in the time of Caesar, perhaps the greatest writer in Latin prose Wrote on philosophy, law, great rhetorician, great orator Petrarch loved his letters more than anything Afraid he might love Cicero more than Christ Wrote a book called the Secretum Meum An autobiography (very rare in that time in Europe) Talks about himself in a way that sounds very modern (Medieval writers rarely did that) To talk about your own individuality was considered spiritually arrogant Examines himself, talks about own inner conflicts Shows rise of individualism Internal guilt over talking about himself and being concerned with his own fame Hates medieval Latin Wanted Latin to go back the the pure golden age of Ciceronian Latin prose Yet sometimes wrote in Italian (poetry, sonnets, Petrarchan Sonnets) Imaginative literature Most important thing he did was revive Ciceronian Latin One of the great pioneers of using the vernacular (spoken/native language of ordinary life) Did not have Greek (came after him)

peace of westphalia

1648, NW Germany Took 5 years of negotiating to get peace→ very complicated conflict two different treaties together, the two treaties collectively end this war big turning point in history establishes geographical lines for the next century there are some significant changes also what this war represents as a turning point in civilization added Calvinism to the list of legal choices under the Peace of Augsburg ecclesiastical principalities if one had turned Protestant in the 16th century, they can stay Protestant but remaining ones still had to follow Peace of Augsburg and not change French = glad that the Low Countries end up being sort of split Spanish Habsburgs agreed that the Northern half of the Low Countries is now an independent country-- ratifying reality southern part stays under Spanish Habsburg rule why Belgium= Catholic, Netherlands= Calvinist but Dutch were acting like independent country as early as 1580s Habsburg family also recognizes Switzerland as being independent it was inside the old HRE where the Habsburgs really came from Swiss Confederation had tried for centuries to be its own republic that is now ratified good for French--> weakens Habsburgs Alsace and Lorraine were in the HRE, given to France both pretty wealthy, on the border of French and German speaking worlds Joan of Arc= from Lorraine, symbol= cross of Lorraine Lorraine was more French Alsace= more east, more German, capital= Strasbourg treaty was so complicated that it wasn't quite clear what the French had gotten at least in the eyes of the emperor so had to fight some wars to ensure they gained these things emperor is left almost completely as a figurehead princes wanted to rule their own states had already pretty much controlled domestic policy in theory, princes still under HRE for foreign policy and P of A gave princes control of religious policy but said each German prince controlled his own foreign policy HRE was a very hollow term, but keep electing them for a while victories of Counter-Reformation Habsburgs won and kept Bohemia Spanish lost control of northern half of the low countries Sweden gains some territory along the southern coast of the Baltic successors of Gustavus Adolphus make sure of this Holy Roman Emperor was elected--> 7 electors 1 elector was King of Bohemia Count Palatine (Prince of the Palatinate) 3 of the ecclesiastical principalities Mainz printing press Trier Marx from here (secular Jew) Cologne Brandenburg--> Margrave of Brandenburg got some territory out of the war b/c the prince fought on the Protestant side part of the kingdom of Prussia that will later unite Germany capital= Berlin didn't look like it no big cities no frontiers no good soil devastated by war gets bigger and bigger, gets many other states to unite under their domination Duke of Saxony Catholics get 3 archbishops and Bohemia (as long as the Habsburgs have it) Brandenburg, Saxony, and Palatinate are Protestant if Bohemia got into Protestant control, then Protestants would have a majority... this doesn't happen though Peace of Westphalia adds an elector--> Prince of Bavaria

anglican church

Aka Episcopal Comes about b/c of a political and marital problem Thomas Wolsey= chancellor during early reign of Henry, basically running the show, initially tells Henry he can get the annulment but can't Henry is determined to have a male heir, can't seem to have it, Catherine of Aragon→ only one child survives= Mary tudor By the end of the 1520s, Henry starts looking for other women, has mistresses, is unfaithful to Catherine, trying to have a male heir Not a Protestant in terms of theology, but Catholic church to this day does not have divorce Pope gave dispensation for marriage of Henry and Catherine of Aragon (said Catherine and Arthur's marriage wasn't legitimate b/c it wasn't consummated) Henry came back saying that the pope should never have given the dispensation, he had sinned by marrying his brother's wife, God was punishing him now by not giving him a male heir→ said pope should dispense the dispensation, doing it for the good of England Wanted an annulment w/ Catherine of Aragon so that he could marry Anne Boleyn Makes pope look bad, also Charles V was C of A's nephew Couldn't give the annulment By 1530s, Henry decides he will break away from the church If the pope can't give him the annulment, he will make himself the head of the church of England 1533→ started getting Parliament to pass laws that will distance them from Rome 1533→ granted annulment by Archbishop of Canterbury, married Anne Boleyn, she gave birth to Elizabeth (Henry = unhappy) Thomas More opposed this, resigned as chancellor in 1532, beheaded b/c he wouldn't accept Henry's annulment Act of Supremacy (1534) Parliament said whoever was king/queen of England was head of both church and state So that the pope had no jurisdiction The start of this Became more Protestant even though Henry didn't necessarily want it that way Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) Henry had made him Archbishop of Canterbury, granted annulment so he could marry Anne Boleyn Tried to push for a little more reform-- English translation of Bible, got rid of some of the ritual things Church doesn't become clearly Protestant until Henry dies Writes Book of Common Prayer under Edward VI (Catholic mass liturgical book translated into beautiful English, changed in certain ways to get rid of the distinctly Roman Catholic parts of it) Dissolution of monasteries Late 1530s→ Henry claims they are all corrupt, shuts them all down and takes all their lands Brings influx of wealth to monarchy and central gov (a lot of it blown by Henry) Some given to nobles to tie them to the crown Important for strengthening the monarchy Also changed the lives of common people Monasteries had provided health care, social welfare, artistic center, education Changes nature of society in England in a significant way Edward VI Raised as a Protestant, if he had lived longer the Church of England would've become almost Calvinist Mary Tudor Returns England to Catholicism, says she doesn't want to be the head of the church b/c the pope is the head of the church Bloody mary Had over 300 people burned at the stake for opposing the return to Rome Cranmer= most famous of the victims Not naturally heroic, scholar, didn't want to die Signed a recantation at one point, but then went back on it One of the Oxford martyrs, Protestant martyr, other bishops killed in this way Led to common thought that Catholics were intolerant and terrible Elizabeth I Moderate Protestant What the Church of England finally becomes→ Elizabethan settlement Calls itself a via media Middle path/road They think they combined the best of both worlds Some Catholic elements Uses the word priests, saints, liturgical churches (Book of Common Prayer at the core of their worship, set order of worship) Crucifixes in churches Music, including human hymns (not just psalms) Stained glass So outward forms were ok Took aspects of both Catholic and Protestant practices and combined them into the 'best' combination Protestant features: Pope is not the head of the church Catholic church outlawed in England for a long time (not fully legalized until the 19th century) Brings back vernacular in Church services Even the high church priests do not take the vow of chastity-- are not celibate No Purgatory Nothing like pilgrimages, shrines, saints' cults Monasticism was out, even if nuns come in much later 2 sacraments Was in many ways a Protestant church Deliberately fuzzy about certain things-- Elizabeth said not to define doctrine too specifically/narrowly Doesn't want things defined-- particularly the Eucharist Tended to split people So there was a real presence, but vague High Church Anglicans vs Low Church Anglicans High church→ stresses ritual and ceremony Closer to Catholicism, lots of liturgy, use the word priest Low church→ more Protestant, simpler services, don't use the word priest Depends on the minister of the church on what kind of church it will be Episcopacy Church government 3 ways → Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Episcopacy Form o f the Catholic church, Anglican, etc Government by bishops Pope not at top, but monarch Hierarchy Turned what had been Catholic diocese into Protestant ones Became known as not really puritanical about things-- a little looser Not everyone in England accepted the Church even though they tried to make it broad Wants a church that can be accepted by everyone Since it will be the only legal church, wants it to be a broad church-- inclusive Also wants to stay head of it Elizabethan settlement-- settling the religious question, early in her reign Called governor of the church, instead of being called head Early Anglican church was much more Protestant than it was in years to come-- didn't want a secular head of the church Puritans-- wanted to purify the Church of England, got the nickname as early as the 1560's Wanted to get rid of episcopacy Often Calvinists who thought the Anglican Church remained way too Catholic Dissenters/Nonconformists Name for people who were not on board w/ the Anglican Church Usually means English Protestants who are not Anglican Able to more safely express their dispute/discomfort w/ the Anglican Church In the 1600s life got harder for them under James I and Charles I Pilgrims left first-- 1620, Plymouth Rock Recusants Catholics who still wanted to stay Roman Catholics outlawed→ you could not legally have a Catholic mass said in England under Elizabeth I Become a minority Majority ppl in England accept the Anglican Church as it was

charles ii (british)

Became king w/ the Restoration at the end of the Commonwealth, mid to late 17th century Has to pretend that a lot of the English Civil War never happened had to pardon almost everyone except regicides who were drawn and quartered for the most part he is known as the merry monarch had a good sense of humor a lot of ppl got scared by what happened--> it went farther than they had wanted it to go Queen= Portuguese princess No children w/ her Lot of illegitimate children, but no legitimate heir James II= next king Produces whole new problem Raised Protestant, becomes Catholic as adult, produces Glorious REvolution wife= Portuguese princess had a lot of mistresses wore outdated clothing and was made fun of had a bunch of illegitimate children thing that hung over dynasty question of religion how much toleration England would have question of the role of Parliament to what extent, blah blah blah wanted to be like his father, but also was wise enough not to be blatantly absolutist he was fascinated by Catholicism made ppl suspicious on his deathbed, they had a Jesuit come and convert him and perform anointing of the sick he died a Catholic Test Act (1673) passed by Parliament about ppl who were not Anglican Christians Charles didn't even want this to happen you had to prove with a certificate that you had received communion in an Anglican Church at some point during the last year in order to hold a government position no good Roman Catholic would do this Puritans/more extreme Protestants also wouldn't do this you couldn't vote, hold office, go to university if you were a Dissenter or a Catholic Nonconformists someone who is contrary to the majority in Britain, it means a non-Anglican Protestant Presbyterians, Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists 1700s--> Methodists another very important dissenter group these ppl were a very important minority but they were second class citizens excludes these ppl from government trying to keep out radical political views question of Catholicism was still a problem fear that the court was leaning Catholic made a secret alliance w/ Louis XIV mainly trying to get money from France so he didn't have to go to Parliament part of the agreement was that Charles would either convert himself or make it easier for Catholics to live in England Nell Gwyn actress at a time when for the first time women were allowed to be on stage morally dubious thing mistress of Charles had two children by him popular w/ common ppl Protestant working class said at a point "It's me, the Protestant *****" why ppl liked her-- didn't put on airs "nah, I'm a hoe"-- Dr Echerd Louise de Kerouaille French foreign Catholic mistress of Charles great feud b/t her and Nell Gwyn had a son called Charles Lenox Charles would recognize his illegitimate children give them titles etc exclusion crisis (1678-1681) when it starts to be clear that James II will come to the throne ppl of Parliament began to pass things that said they wanted to exclude James II from the line to the throne some wanted to skip over to the next Protestant person in line others wanted him to legitimize his illegitimate child or skip to James II's children: who are Protestant Mary (William and Mary) Anne (will soon rule) Charles II vetoed this became an intense and violent crisis produced two nicknames exclusionists and non-exclusionists more conservative ppl voted against exclusion Tories-- loyalists in American Revolution became the conservative party term still used today more progressive ppl voted for exclusion Whigs-- revolutionaries in American Revolution became progressive party in favor of exclusion not just about being anti-Catholic idea that Catholicism is inherently and intimately intertwined with absolutism both originally put-down terms ultimately exclusion failed b/c Charles wouldn't allow it

henry of navarre

Bourbon, Huguenot, ruled late 16th to early 17th century Summer of 1572, married Margaret of Valois Male head of Bourbons at that point Had to beg for his life @ end of St Bartholomew's Day massacre Said he would become a Catholic, went back on it once he got out First king of the Bourbon dynasty Doesn't rule all of France in 1589 Henry III sometimes leaned towards him in the war of the 3 Henry's Declares himself king of France after Henry III is assassinated in 1589 Tells everyone he is Catholic in 1593, ppl accept him Says he is going back into the Catholic Church "Paris is well worth a mass" Is accepted by the majority of Catholics A lot of his Huguenot supporters were furious Toleration of peace born of exhaustion Catholics don't suddenly like Protestants, or vice versa Almost resignation, we just can't do this anymore, can't eradicate other side Most ppl said as long as he acts Catholic, they will accept it Some of the fighting continued even after this, but most supporters of the Catholic League give it up Crowned in 1594 Pretty good king After it looks like he has control Edict of Nantes (1598) edict= royal proclamation w/ force of law 3 main components Huguenots will now be toleration (to a certain extent) Could have freedom of worship, but only in certain towns Huguenots given control of towns where they had churches First attempt in Europe to have anything like what we consider to be religious toleratoin Marie de Medici= 2nd wife, mother of Louis XIII Popular king b/c he finally brought peace Brought about prosperity of France People's king→ promising prosperity of the common man Said he hoped even the lowest peasant would have a chicken in his pot He was able to subdue the Catholic League Becomes popular in early 1600s, but a number of Catholics thought he was deep-down going to make them all Protestants Assassinated by a hardcore Catholic in 1610 Son, Louis XIII became king at the age of 9

conquistadors

Conquerors Men who were not from the highest nobility (gentry/hidalgos) Looking for opportunity Wanted to make name and money by the sword Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro Hernando Cortes (1485-1547) having participated in conquest of Cuba, sought an independent command to lead expedition into Central America, where fabulous emp rumored to exist 1519--> found Aztec Empire loose confederation of native tribes that the Aztecs had conquered during previous century ruled by emperor Montezuma II (1502-1520) from capital at Tenochtitlan Cortes and men saw vast stores of gold and silver when invited to audience w/ emperor conquest took almost a year cavalry terrified Aztecs Aztec practice of taking battlefield captives to be used in religious sacrifices allowed many Spanish soldiers, who would otherwise have been killed, to be rescued and fight again by 1522, Cortes= master of area larger than all of Spain huge cost in native lives mostly due to exposure to Euro diseases such as smallpox, typhoid, and measles (natives= helpless) labor-intensive syst of agriculture could not survive rapid decrease in pop= famine sequence repeated everywhere Euros appeared 1531--> Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541) conquered Peruvian empire of the Incas vastly extended territ under Spanish control became true source of profit for crown when a huge silver mine was discovered in 1545 at Potosi in what is now southern Bolivia gold and silver that poured into Spain in next 25 years helped support Spanish dynastic ambitions in Europe during 16th c, more than 200K Spaniards migrated across ocean succeeding generations--> settlers created huge haciendas built on forced labor of black African slaves, who proved better able to endure rigors of mining and farming than natives Cortez takes Aztec empire by 1520s Had about 1000 men when he got started Pizarro takes Incan Empire by early 1530s Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile

new monarchies

Consolidated territories that were divided culturally,linguistically, and historically States of Europe= politicial units, forged by political means (diplomacy, marriage, war) Mongol Empire→ khanates in East Ottoman territories in Southeast Europe Russian state→ Muscovy Sweden, Norway, and Denmark Poland-Lithuania Hungary Holy Roman Empire German states→ Brandenburg, Bohemia, Bavaria... Archduchy of Austria Swiss Confederation Low Countries Focal poiint of Europe Italian peninsula divided into city-states French territories Iberian Peninsula Reconquista Portugal Aragon Castile Britain and Ireland

absolutism

Doesn't necessarily mean having a monarch Means ruler doesn't have to answer to any set of rules Whatever monarch says is law Arbitrary absolutist gov theory: James VI (1598) becomes king as a toddler when mother is driven off to England aka Jamie the Saxt Scots is as different from London English as Portuguese is to Spanish actually a lot of different words close to German before he became king of England, he wrote a book (5 years before he took the English throne) that came out in 1598 called the True Law of Free Monarchies (don't have to know that) argues that a king has to be free to do whatever he needs to do to have any sort of shackles that would keep it from being a free monarchy would impede what a king is supposed to be doing getting ok from nobles, legislature view based on paternalism Charles I said "The people have a right to expect good government. They do not have a right to expect self government." James's son analogues of father w/ Great Chain of Being God the father king is your father father of the family a hint of nepotism trying to justify bad deeds--> you care for ppl, but that doesn't mean they have a right to control themselves you have a fatherly/motherly/parental attitude towards someone you are supposed to love and take care of someone, you would die for them also meaning that you don't know your own best interest father/mother knows best patriarchy more associated with the male thing wife= Anne of Denmark suspicious, anxious Jean Bodin (1576) wrote a book called the Six Books of the Commonwealth defends absolute monarchy argument is similar to what James said they can't pick and choose when to be loyal to the king, even if it was a bad king St Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572) tension w/ Huguenots fear of the mob during his time, both Catholics and Protestants were often saying that they didn't have to obey a king if he was a heretic said ultimate loyalty was to God, so didn't have to obey ppl who had opposite religions he was Catholic said you cannot appeal to a higher loyalty and say God is more important than king but the practical result was anarchy, chaos, decades of horrible civil war tearing France apart argument based on the politique perspective said you have to put religious views aside to avoid endless civil war you can disobey and take your punishment, but cannot overthrow

masaccio

Early 15th century From Florence Lived to be 27 Created enduring legacy A number of important paintings Frescoes studied and sketched by all great artists of next generation naturalism Dept More color Each face is individualized Mottling (shade being cast), shadowed Shading of light and shadow and brilliant use of linear perspective to create illusion that a flat surface is 3D Sense of focus, direction Worked with standard Christian themes, but brought an entirely new approach to them all Expulsion of Adam and Eve From Garden of Eden Shows despair on Eve's face The Holy Trinity Use of linear perspective

Charles V

Early 16th to mid 16th century Son of Philip the Fair and Joanna the Crazy (grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy) Born and raised in Low Countries, where he ruled over Burgundy and Netherlands Thru a series of dynastic accidents, became heir to Spanish crown w/ possession in New World and to vast Habsburg estates that included Austria Reign ushered in Golden Age of Spain Charles I of Spain, Charles V as Holy roman Emperor 1519→ Maximilian I died, bribed people into making him HRE Spoke many languages-- Flemish, French, Spanish, Latin Had hard time learning German (needed it b/c of Habsburg descent) Never cared about learning English Habsburg jaw= main trait of family 3 main enemies during his reign: Francis I Valois king of France (starts ruling in 1515, around same time as Charles) Long Habsburg-Valois Wars Ottoman Empire and Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566) Probably strongest empire in the world under Suleiman Religious factors Dispute over who is ruling where Charles found rol as HRE to be an important responsibility Supposed to be ruler of all Christendom Secular counterpart to Pope Viewed himself as protector of Christian Europe in general Ottomans were the biggest threat in that respect Battle of Mohacs (1526) Lost to Ottomans Many died Hungary What's left of Hungary comes under control of Habsburgs Most of Hungary under Ottoman rule for a long time Siege of Vienna By ottomans Lasted for a while Held tough and Ottomans retreated Francis I formed informal alliance w/ Suleiman Some of his own German princes inside his own empire Late 1520's, 30's, 40's Protestants Particularly in North and East Some turned Lutheran Tried to force them to stay Catholic First Catholic-Protestant wars start in late 1520s b/c he has 3 enemies, he can't crush any of them Habsburgs ultimately win war Holds off Ottomans Own German princes turned heretics, unable to exterminate heresy, felt he had let down God and Church by not eliminating Protestantism in his lifetime Battle of Pavia (1525) Northern Italy, near Milan Showed impact of new warfare Great victory for Charles V Francis was there and was captured Held prisoner for a while Agreed to a treaty→ France had to concede that Milan, Burgundian inheritance, and Navarre would all go to the Habsburgs (all contested b/t Spanish and French) Francis immediately renounced it Charles V had half of Europe from mainly not war, but smart marriages Paternal grandmother= Mary of Burgundy (territory from there) Maternal grandparents-- Spain, New World, etc Charles V not called a "new monarch" Unable to form centralized, consolidated state Whereas Ferdinand and Isabella are new monarchs Charles V finally comes to conclusion that it is too spread out-- "my life has been spent in the saddle" Over 300 German principalities Does sort of consolidate by splitting up his land into two Abdicates in 1556 Lives a couple more years after that Divides it between: His son, Philip II Great rival to Elizabeth I Gets the best stuff Spain Italian territory Low Countries Burgundy New World The Philippines (named after him) This is fair-- he would've gotten all of it traditionally Spanish Habsburg line Ends in 1700 Finally ends Habsburg-Valois Wars Had not yet signed a treaty His brother, Ferdinand Eastern lands, German lands, Hungary, Bohemia, Austria Austrian Habsburg line-- doesn't end until 1918, when Austria-Hungary is broken up

james i

Early 17th century king of England Stewart Comes in as middle-aged man when Elizabeth I died (his relative) Not considered one of the more successful or admirable kings of England First to be ruling Scotland and England and Wales and Ireland Two different estabished churches Anglican and Presbyterian So we can't talk about GB yet Theory of absolutism Becomes king of Scotland as a toddler when mother is driven off to England Before he became king of England, he wrote a book (5 years before he took the English throne) that came out in 1598 Called the True Law of Free Monarchies Argues that a king has to be free to do whatever he needs to do View based on paternalism Ruling England and Scotland (England including Wales) Also claimed to be Lord of Ireland Very close relationship w/ Duke of Buckingham Had many children Strong leader Had act to follow→ Elizabeth I was very much romanticized She had left a pretty significant debt that he had to deal w/ (but ultimately added to it) Ppl had unreasonable expectations Also a Scot, Scots not well liked by English Above all, faced w/ Parliament and Puritans Puritans Under Elizabeth, there were Calvinists under C of E who wanted to be much more Protestant Got stronger in 1600s Hesitant to resist under Elizabeth out of fear that a Catholic would take the throne Now they were less likely to subdue themselves He also tried to have reconciliatory attitude towards Spain But Spain said English ahd to start treating their Catholics better, and he conceded Thought that when he came south he would be on their side Didn't like Presbyterianism/Calvinism b/c they uphold resistance to unjust authority, believe in fighting back Undermines ideas of divine right Loved that in England he was able to appoint all his own Church leaders Doesn't want to make any of the changes the Puritans want But asked for translation of the Bible→ King James Bible Parliament Butting heads over who should have pwr Saw himself as above Parliament Had to get consent from Parliament for money he= absolutist, increasingly so Parliament said they should have the pwr of consent to any kind of taxation Scottish ppl resisted king thru Presbyterian Church Common ppl of England thought king should be able to run gov just based on estates that he had→ "king should live of his own" Absurd to think of by 1600s King James Bible Called Authorised Version in England Met many different places to write it, he did not go Shaped English language Gunpowder Plot (1605) Conspiracy, plot on the part of extremist Catholics who= furious that they were continually persecuted in england Thought if they could wipe out whole ruling class in one fell swoop Only time when all ruling class= in 1 place= opening of Parliament (late October early November) Happens in House of Lords building Monarch reads address Was going to happen November 5, 1605 Robert Catesby= real leader Guy Fawkes setting fuse when he got caught Rented room across road from Westminster and tunneled into base of cellar and rolled in a bunch of barrels of gunpowder Guy Fawkes (military background) was going to set long fuse and ride off, blow up rulers of England and Scotland in one fell swoop Guy in House of Commons got letter from friend who knew about conspiracy and told guy not to go to ceremony Guy receiving letter went to gov and said something was up Ppl walked in right as he was lighting fuse Guy Fawkes= arrested, tortured horribly, drawn and quartered Guy Fawkes Day- November 5th Now called bonfire day Before very anti-Catholic For a while it was a way of reviving anti-Catholic sentiments Made him even more paranoid than he already was Didn't want to go after Catholics too badly b/c he was trying to make an alliance w/ Spain (unpopular) Sir Walter Raleigh= outspoken about keeping war going on against Spain To the point where James had him executed Favorite of Elizabeth Rise of Buckingham (George Villiers)--> went from being son of gentryman to duke (highest title) in 7 years Meteoric rise When he dies in 1625, climate isn't very good Sense that even ordinary person thought he= drop-off from elizabeth Leaving Charles I as next Stuart king of England and Scotland Daughter Elizabeth Stuart married Frederick V (German) J= criticized for not doing enough to help them Number of children Sophia (married princec of Hanover)--> led to current line of monarchs

thirty years' war

Early to mid 17th century Last big catholic-Protestant war in Europe, most horrible neither the Protestants nor the Catholics in the empire trusted e/o, thought they had true religion, etc Peace of Augsburg excluded Calvinism--> said you could only choose Lutheranism or Catholicism no German princes could even choose Calvinism some German princes did become Calvinist most important Calvinist 'splotch' in Germany was Palatinate (their ruler became Calvinist) ecclesiastical principalities→ their prince or ruler was a Catholic bishop, Peace of Augsburg specifically said that these principalities could never become Protestant, such a part of the Catholic ecclesiastical structure that Charles V really made this point, some of them did turn Protestant, particularly in the northern parts of Germany by 1600, you had a large number of German Protestants who legally were not supposed to be Protestant emperors in the 1500s did not try to enforce this rule really feared that an emperor might come in and try to enforce the rule Protestant states formed what was called the Protestant union in 1608 most Lutheran and all Calvinist states the next year, the Catholic states form the Catholic League HRE= right in the middle of Europe, surrounding countries care mutual paranoia Mathias (d. 1619) had been a fairly tolerant, easy-going Habsburg Catholic childless one of his younger cousins, Ferdinand, was the next in line even though you had to be elected that worried people b/c apparently there was a story that Ferdinand had promised to the Virgin Mary that he would never rule over heretics let Ferdinand rule some of his land 'for practice' Mathias let Ferdinand rule over Bohemia the word Bohemian= not the main-stream, not conventional, alternative lifestyle, more accepting of everything it is the western half of the Czech Republic today capital= Prague (in Bohemia and Czech Republic) bohemian ppl were largely czechs many had become Protestant kinda like Low Countries in that they let a lot of ppl worship different religions and it wasn't overly enforced Ferdinand II (1619-1637) becomes emperor eventually Habsburg very Catholic, intolerantly Catholic when he becomes king of Bohemia in 1617, starts to make life difficult for Protestants in Bohemia persecuting them shutting down Protestant churches, schools, etc. Defenestration of Prague (1618) Protestant nobles were furious, they marched to the castle in Prague where the Catholic officials were (not Ferdinand himself) said Ferdinand was a tyrant, broke promises took two of the Catholics and threw them out of the window intended for the guys to die but ended up falling into a pile of manure Protestant nobility in Bohemia then vote to depose Ferdinand didn't want him as king it was still technically an elected monarchy elected Frederick V ruler of the Palatinate German prince Calvinist electing a clear Protestant chose him b/c: he had relations w/ the House of Orange in the Netherlands head of the Protestant Union wife= Elizabeth Stewart, daughter of James I apparently the real driving force important b/c they have a daughter named Sophia who eventually marries a German prince who is the elector of Hanover why the royal family today is who they are-- where the line comes in called the 'Winter King' lasted only thru one season Habsburgs not about to let this happen 1619--> Frederick takes the throne, Mathias dies, Ferdinand becomes Emperor Ferdinand has support of all of the Habsburgs, including Habsburg Spanish king also Catholic League, led by the Duke of Bavaria war at first goes against the Protestant side Protestants are sort of divided Protestant union did not all come to his aid, said they don't have to help b/c alliance says if anyone is attacked they will help, but they thought he kinda started this fight Catholics were initially more united than Protestants pope encouraged any Catholic leader to help the Habsburgs single biggest German Catholic state= Bavaria Battle of White Mountain (1620) first major battle of the Thirty Years' War Frederick V, ruler of the Palatinate Calvinist German Chairman of the Protestant Unnion did not all join his side--> they said he started the war but the Calvinist members did help him 2 branches of the Habsburgs: Ferdinand II Spanish Habsburgs Married to a Stewart, daughter of James I related to Orange on mother's side Frederick loses this battle particularly important for Czechs (Bohemia) fell under complete control after the defeat Habsburgs declare the throne to be hereditary, not elected brought in Jesuits to try to convert ppl and set up schools shut down Protestant schools and churches @ start of 1600s, majority of Czechs were Protestant that is all pretty much eradicated today it is majority Catholic Catholic Church does not have fervent following among Czechs that Poland does and Hungary You still get the sense that the Czechs were driven back into the church native Czech nobility replaced by ppl the Habsburgs brought in from other parts of Europe Bohemia and Moravia are what now makes up the Czech republic stayed under Habsburg rule until November of 1918 Bohemia= region, of Czech ppl King of Bohemia after this, Habsburgs just keep winning for the next long time Protestants start to get nervous Ferdinand II (1619-1637) tried to take back the throne of Bohemia also trying to make the Holy Roman Empire a more centralized state along the lines of what Spain and England had become where the Holy Roman Emperor would really be the boss and to spread the Catholic Church Frederick V and Elizabeth Stewart become royal refugees--> bop around Europe never able to regain the Palatinate Christian IV king of Denmark who also ruled Norway trying to extend power of monarchy too Lutheran his army not able to defeat Habsburgs at all--> humiliated entered war in 1626 after about 10 years of fighting, any state that had helped Frederick were being conquered by Ferdinand finally issues Edict of Restitution (1629) to restore something that had been changed restoring things the way they should've been saying to enforce the Peace of Augsburg said the Peace of Augsburg had been violated in two ways, we are now going to go back and enforce this rule didn't say anything about Calvinism, so said you cannot be a Calvinist in the HRE not legal at all ecclesiastical principalities city-states scattered across empire w/ Catholic bishop as the ruler were never supposed to turn Protestant, but some had ppl thought he was heading towards getting rid of Protestantism in the entire empire brings counter-reaction on the part of Protestants even the conservative Lutherans who had not joined the war were moved to join the cause big turning point= Gustavus Adolphus (1611-1632) joined the war THE Swedish king Van Dyke beard= the style, Van Dyke was a great painter in the time period, painted many ppl w/ that look goes out of fashion in late 1600s then men go clean-shaven in 1700s facial hair comes back in by 1830s important not just for this war brilliant military leader the Napoleon of his day reorganized Swedish army one of the first to have soldiers wear uniforms had a whole lot of soldiers in his army that weren't Swedes enters war in 1630 smashes every Habsburg army he encounters tide is turning for the first time enters some Catholic states that had escaped all the destruction this was a violent, bloody, destructive war especially for civilians became synonymous w/ apocalyptic horror wins a series of battles fought in German states Germans= the ones that suffered the most fulfilled prophecy of being the 'lion of the north' Magdeburg (1631) right in the middle of Germany Catholics conquered it and pillaged and many were killed became a propaganda point--> Protestants need to avenge and join in used as a propaganda tool to get lukewarm Protestants to join the cause held out against Habsburg army for a while, when it fell the Habsburgs were horrible helped Gustavus Adolphus killed in a battle-- last big victory lost great leader Habsburgs start to recover a bit in the war, but can't completely win the war even w/ him gone b/c almost every Protestant country was involved country that makes sure that the Habsburgs don't win outright= France Habsburgs lose Louis XIII (1610-1643) 2nd Bourbon king raised Catholic Cardinal Richelieu (d. 1642) Catholic cardinal advising him pisses off the pope famous for believing in raison d'etat French equivalent of Machiavellianism defending something underhanded, unprincipled, immoral was a Catholic country had established Edict of Nantes entered the war on the Protestant side but politics took precedence over religion they were surrounded on all sides by the Habsburgs-- "Habsburg ring" Bourbons continue tradition of fighting the Habsburgs for almost 100 years politics is trumping religion officially join in 1635 (when they declare war on Habsburg Spain) but particularly worrying about Habsburgs ruling the Low Countries started as a religious war with political undertones, but ended as a political war with religious undertones started of religious questions war goes on into 1640s 12 Year Truce Spain and Dutch had signed treaty in 1609 that lasted 12 Years then expired and they went back to fighting armies lived off the land-- took whatever they could wherever they were even ppl whose armies were on 'their side' were still afraid were often mercenaries often weren't paid almost anything young men, inclined to be violent no rules, no one would punish them war led to a decline in the population of the HRE 1600s--> pop of Europe plateaus and maybe even declines a little bit from famine disruption caused by war not natural famine, but from conflict disrupts an already fragile substistence economy and sickness Plague made a big comeback and immense hunger meant that people were susceptible wolves appeared where they had not been seen for years retarded progress of the German states Battle of Rocroi (1643) Spanish army defeated by French army turning point French on ascent to become the great power again Spain on descent Spanish army seemed to be invincible before that took 5 years of negotiating to get peace started talking in 1643 it was such a complicated conflict that it took a long time Peace of Westphalia (1648) two different treaties Westphalia= region in NW part of Germany together, the two treaties collectively end this war negotiations took sooo long big turning point in history establishes geographical lines for the next century there are some significant changes also what this war represents as a turning point in civilization added Calvinism to the list of legal choices under the Peace of Augsburg ecclesiastical principalities if one had turned Protestant in the 16th century, they can stay Protestant but remaining ones still had to follow Peace of Augsburg and not change French = glad that the Low Countries end up being sort of split Spanish Habsburgs agreed that the Northern half of the Low Countries is now an independent country-- ratifying reality southern part stays under Spanish Habsburg rule why Belgium= Catholic, Netherlands= Calvinist but Dutch were acting like independent country as early as 1580s Habsburg family also recognizes Switzerland as being independent it was inside the old HRE where the Habsburgs really came from Swiss Confederation had tried for centuries to be its own republic that is now ratified good for French--> weakens Habsburgs Alsace and Lorraine were in the HRE, given to France both pretty wealthy, on the border of French and German speaking worlds Joan of Arc= from Lorraine, symbol= cross of Lorraine Lorraine was more French Alsace= more east, more German, capital= Strasbourg treaty was so complicated that it wasn't quite clear what the French had gotten at least in the eyes of the emperor so had to fight some wars to ensure they gained these things emperor is left almost completely as a figurehead princes wanted to rule their own states had already pretty much controlled domestic policy in theory, princes still under HRE for foreign policy and P of A gave princes control of religious policy but Peace of Westphalia said each German prince controlled his own foreign policy HRE was a very hollow term, but keep electing them for a while victories of Counter-Reformation Habsburgs won and kept Bohemia if Habsburgs were hoping to undo Reformation and make HRE a holy, centralized state Spanish lost control of northern half of the low countries Sweden gains some territory along the southern coast of the Baltic successors of Gustavus Adolphus make sure of this Holy Roman Emperor was elected--> 7 electors 1 elector was King of Bohemia Count Palatine (Prince of the Palatinate) 3 of the ecclesiastical principalities Mainz printing press Trier Marx from here (secular Jew) Cologne Brandenburg--> Margrave of Brandenburg got some territory out of the war b/c the prince fought on the Protestant side part of the kingdom of Prussia that will later unite Germany capital= Berlin didn't look like it no big cities no frontiers no good soil devastated by war gets bigger and bigger, gets many other states to unite under their domination Duke of Saxony Catholics get 3 archbishops and Bohemia (as long as the Habsburgs have it) Brandenburg, Saxony, and Palatinate are Protestant if Bohemia got into Protestant control, then Protestants would have a majority... this doesn't happen though Peace of Westphalia adds an elector--> Prince of Bavaria results Spain= in decline France on the rise Scandinavian world Denmark had been the dominant kingdom, but declines Sweden becoming the dominant power German ppl and society were devastated by famine and disease even after the war ends, the fact that you now have 300 essentially independent states 300 states, each w/ own prince, currency, bureaucracy, armies completely fragmented it will be a long time until they achieve that kind of political unity mixed results w/ Habsburgs lost claim to Switzerland and Low Countries but future lies to the East Austria-Hungary= lands that Habsburgs get their hands on one way or another grows eastward increasingly, particularly following the Danube sort of the end of Christendom any kind of political or social Christian unity accept that Protestants can't completely win, and Catholics can't completely win big turning point in terms of secularization of Western politics pope= furious territorial state was now the highest authority Pope denounced the Peace of Westphalia, utterly condemned it, said they shouldn't do it met w/ polite silence start of a type of toleration born of exhaustion a start to accepting the idea that you can't impose religion on ppl secularization of European society it turns into a conflict about the Habsburg family rather than religion as we go on, wars aren't really based on religion anymore

charles i

Early to mid 17th century England Son of James I Relied very heavily on Parliament funds Struggle b/t crown and Parliament reaches peak Is v different from father in some ways Shared certain things Belief in absolutism Fondness for Buckingham Didn't want to change C of E Liked episcopacy, Christmas, kneeling, high church Anglican (smells and bells), bliked being head of it Had older brother who died before becoming king→ not set out expecting to be king Conoisseur Patron of great painters Many different portraits of him (Van Dyke) Needs money Parliament willing to grant taxation only if he was willing to do something for them Quid pro quo Constant Demanded they raise taxes They say only if you persecute Catholics more in England and abroad, or change the Church, or accept constitutional limits on pwr Religion gets intertwined w/ political opposition Didn't take long for things to come to a head 3 years into his reign Puritans Episcopacy Wanted to get rid of this and its hierarchy Means having bishops Rulers didn't want to do this b/c it meant ceding pwr Wanted to get rid of bishops Wanted to get rid of a lot of ritual/outward forms But church stayed pretty high church under James and Charles 1628→ Buckingham assassinated by disgruntled officeseeker king= sad and ppl= joyful Petition of Right (1628) Series of documents Said Charles had been doing 4 things that were wrong Arbitrary arrest/imprisonment w/o cause shown Particularly critics, Puritans Throwing them in prison but not bringin them to trial Martial law He would proclaim military law in an area Means gov could do all sorts of things it couldn't normally Detaining ppl indefinitely Confiscating property Search and seizure Ppl felt he was using it for his own arbitrary reasons Extraparliamentary revenues Ways for king to raise $ w/o Parliament's consent Ppl thought more and more that these methods were dubious Ship money Forced loans Told you had to loan king money at low interest over long time Shaking down own population, virtual blackmail quartering/billeting In private homes Way to save money on part of the gov A burden Unpopular Said he had to stop doing these 4 things He had to grudgingly make promise in order to continue getting $ from Parliament Up there w/ Magna Carta, Bill of Rights House of Commons was going to condemn king, king sent in representative to stop Parliament from making decision Ultimately they agreed to condemn the king Era of Personal Rule (1629-1640) Charles is furious Doesn't let Parliament meet for 11 years Able to rely on his own, cut costs, stuff like that Resorted to do the things he promised not to do in Petition of Right Extraparliamentary revenue Brings back old laws from England that everyone had forgetten about Never technically repealed, but not enforced Started using forced loansa gain Big thing= ship money Many house of commons members refused to pay this and it went to courts Every port city had to supply king w/ ships that were outfitted for war→ medieval tradition Only supposed to happen when there was a real threat to England Only coastal cities do it traditionally Now king says he will take money in lieu of ship Uses it to practically run gov Couldn't give real explanation over the crisis that was going on Required even non-coastal cities to pay it Not tradition but not forbidden Comes to an end finally Isn't particularly popular b/c of his wife Henrietta Maria French princess Bourbon Sister of Louis XIII Open, devout Catholic→ Puritans not fond of this Trying to make alliance She got to have mass said for her in own private chapel in palace Two main ofifcials practically running the gov Thomas Wentworth (1593-1641) Made first Earl of Stratford Chancellor Conducting these pretty unpopular policies Pretty heavyhanded→ intolerant to opposition to king Archbishop of Canterbury/William Laud Not Catholic Believes in uniformity, as all absolutists do Loved C of E as it was Born in Scotland but grew up in England and didn't understand Scotland Scotland had v diff way of worshipping Tried to make Scottish ministers use Book of Common prayer Riot in Edinburgh, drove guy out of whole church Scottish church= up in arms National Covenant (1638) Prompted revolt in own kingdom of Scotland that woul dnot have happened if he had let it be Wrote this up saying they would resist any attempt to be made like church of England Covenanters Drew up army, invaded N England Finally knows he cannot keep not having Parliament meet Needs a lot of money Calls them in 1640, they= furious Complain so much he immediately sent them home (Short Parliament) Knows he has to call Parliament back (1640) Long Parliament (technically 1640-1660) Leverage over him Proposed # of reforms Parliament had to be summoned every 3 years Due process Imprisoned Laud Tells king if he wants Parliament to raise taxes he will have to do things for them Puritans of Parliament sympathize w/ Scots Start making demands 1640-1642, caves in a little bit Impeach and eventually execute Strafford and Laud Charles had to allow that to happen Say from now on the king has to agree that he can't go longer than 3 years w/o calling another Parliament King can't dissolve Parliament Taking control of own destiny Abolish all extraparliamentary revenues (ship money, forced loans) Parliament now controls taxation and revenues Prerogative courts= abolished (not common law courts) Viewed as instrument of absolutism He doesn't want to do any of this Trying to limit him in all sorts of ways 1642→ demanded 2 things he wouldn't agree to, led to war Tried to abolish episcopacy Wanted to control military Appointing generals, top officers Had to say no b/c that's the very definition of the king Went into House of Commons w/ guards Rides in to capture 5 men who were giving him trouble They got away Most outspoken opponents of king, radicals Incident starts tradition of king not being able to go into house of commons Children Mary→ went on to become Mary II of William and Mary James II (died before becoming king) Charles II (becomes king later) Princess Elizabeth Princess Anne (becomes queen later) Then goes to Nottingham Has more support there Announces he is declaring war on own Parliament Raises royal standard (royal flag) Then storm knocked flag over into mud (seen as a sign) Loses war and throne and head Captured, tried to make a deal, escapes and starts war up again, but by 1648 he is captured again Put on trial in January 1649 Accused of treason Refused to cooperate Said this was ridiculous b/c treason= defined as disloyalty to king Now ppl were saying there was something higher than king Knew he was gonna be found guilty Executed at end of January Said he was exchanging earthly crown for eternal crown Ppl rushed up to dip bits of linen into blood of king

richelieu

France Early to mid 17th century Favorite of Louis XIII Early to mid-17th century France Brought by Marie de Medicis in to be a main advisor to Louis XIII Clash eventually b/t them over who will have the ear of the king She is sort of banished and lost by Louis XIII he= brains of the operation Early to mid 16th century France Marie de Medicis brought him in to be a main advisor to Louis XIII Clash eventually b/t them over who will have the ear of the king She is sort of banished and lost Louis didn't like work of governing, Richelieu loved it, sort of running the gov Very Machiavellian Wrote a work where he said that if you have to do something for the good of the state that if you were a private person it would be a sin/crime, then it's justified Raison d'etat, end justifies the means Image of beign manipulative Tries to do religious duty, but clear that secular duties came first Urged Louis XIII to enter into the 30 Years' War on the Protestant side of Sweden and Netherlands b/c it was the anti-Habsburg side Huge example of it was raison d'etat, angered pope emphasis= France is surrounded by Habsburg ring and they must do everything they can to weaken that fam's pwr Ascent of France to greatness again To him, there were two main problems: Nobles Did not like him and he did not like/trust them Knew they were selfish and jealous Let nobles have a lot of gov positions that don't mean much but sound prestigious Main advisors/councillors were mainly bourgeois ppl Excluded nobles from real policy-making pwr Pwr based a lot on the fact that they all have these castles Richelieu tore a lot of them down Could still be a real obstacle to kings asserting pwr Banned nobles' right to duel Said it disrupts public order Cared about making nobles realize they were beneath the law too Every noble had a spy/informer placed n it who was reporting back to him Intendants Local administrators Richelieu divides France into 32 districts Had had provincial governors before (nobles) This person was appointed by the central gov (th king technically) over one of the 32 districts Answer onnly to the king Sometimes nobles, ofte nbourgeois Story of centralization Huguenots he= Catholic, doesn't like them Didn't like one provision of Edict of Nantes Huguenots controlled fortified towns w/ Protestant churches Almost like a state w/in a state Had to get rid of this To do this, he provoked a revolt French Huguenot nobles were stupid enough to fall into that Said he was going to get rid of rights for Huguenots Thought letting ppl have state w/in state was particularism (letting nobles have power) Revolt is crushed La Rochelle= portcity, sort of the city capital of Huguenot France Didn't get rid of hwole Edict of Nantes, but just getting rid of fortigied towns Not many about religious intolerance, about execution Getting rid of separate indpendent pwr insidee Later Louis XIV will revoke the entire edict Knew nobles were conspiring against him When he dies, France in on ascent, pretty good position, can't wonctrol wthat when Louis XIII dies the crown goes to Louis XIV at the age of 6 Drops dead somewhat eunexpactedly Absolutism vs constitutionalism 17th c, particularly w/ British Isles, this was the great question Absolutism doesn't necessarily mean having a monarch Means ruler doesn't have to answer to any set of rules Whatever monarch says is law Arbitrary absolutist gov Constitutionalism Means even the king is beneath the law Rule of law= so important Not just about democracy Rule of law= more important than majority rule Basic distinction= whether you have rule of law or not Does not even mean having a written constitution mother= GB Does not have a written constitution to this day Constitution can mean the way we are constituted Made up of unwritten things No one single document It is now accepted that the monarch is not the real sovereign→ Parliament is

raphael

Late 15th to early 16th century High Renaissance From Urbino Die greatest work in city that was starting to become real cultural center-- Rome Shift from Florence to Rome happening by 1500 Partly b/c money was in Rome (Pope) Not quite the Renaissance man Da Vinci was Famous for portraits, but also group scenes where there are a lot of figures but it all seems balanced and uncrowded Woman holding baby unicorn Supposedly impossible for people to capture Only possible by female virgin Portrait of Castiglione Very famous Not long life Portrait of Pope Leo X Trying to depict him accurately Arrogant Doesn't look compassionate, spiritual, otherworldly Kind of fleshy Into money Taste in art, not great spiritual leader Corruption Pope in 1517 (Martin Luther and Renaissance) Depicts humans at their best-- serene, in control, dignified School of Athens/Philosophy In the Vatican (one of 4 murals) Plato and Aristotle in the middle (Plato on left, Aristotle on the right), Plato= Aristotle's teacher Plato pointing up, more focused on supernatural Aristotle reaching out, more focused on natural world

Habsburg-Valois Wars

Late 15th to mid 16th century Go on after Wars of Italy Dynastic wars between royal families Valois family ruling most of what we call France, trying to assert claims well beyond Habsburgs become very international family, single most important royal family in Europe fought over Burgundian inheritance and Naples and Milan (claimed by both fams), Kingdom of Navarre Dynastic Wars, not national wars-- ruling families fighting not ideological or about belief systems Fighting over who will dominate Italy Charles VIII of France starts claiming control States like Venice and Pope ask Habsburgs to come in Fight over control of low countries, Burgundy, area on Pyrenees as well Not just about Italy, not b/t two kingdoms-- families at war Italy falls under foreign domination and will stay that way until at least the 1800s

leonardo da vinci

Mid 15th to early 16th century From Florence High Renaissance Artist, advisor, engineer, architect, inventor Truly a Renaissance Man Early sketches of airplanes, helicopters, parachutes, tanks, submarines Designed better type of irrigation screw, bridges, etc A lot of his work was stillborn (a lot of things didn't happen) Anatomical drawings Fascinated by motion Idol of intellect and curiosity Concern with beauty and personality Vitruvian Man Illustrations of an ancient Roman text about architecture, written by Vitruvius Drawing was that there is a symmetry in the human body that should be reflected in architecture Almost annotating the text Wrote a lot of his scientific works w/ a mirror image Worried that some of his thoughts were heretical Renaissance change w/ how society viewed science as being a cult and sorcery and sin to how we view science now Completed some paintings, particularly portraits Woman Holding Ermine Symbol of nobility And symbol of purity Woman reflects qualities of ermine Head of the Young Woman Humanity in her face After the Renaissance, 3D natural art became the norm for a while From a somewhat humble background Two most famous works: The Last Supper In Milan, mural on a wall in a monastery Geometric proportions Perspective going back Combining science w/ art Definite symmetry and balance Different expressions on every face Dramatic moment Mona Lisa Tiny Knowing, mysterious smile (not one of the extreme emotions people were normally in-- serious, agony, ecstasy) Sfumato technique Smokiness Deliberately making the area around the face and hand a little vague and indistinct La Gioconda Represents femininity in the aspect of the female as a mystery to the man Male fascination with women

columbian exchange

New World had practically no domesticated animals before this Before this, Europeans didn't have many of the food products that are so important today encounters b/t Euros and native Amers= cultural and intellectual event, also ecological and biological event (transfer of microbes, animals, and plants known as the Columbian Exchange) public health although ppl believe Americans originally settled by migration across land bridge that connected Russia to Alaska, those who made trek were few and over many generations had lost their immunity to diseases that they may have encountered in Europe when Spanish explorers arrived in Caribbean islands, carried agents of common diseases such as measles, smallpox, and influenza that raged in Euro pop centers and killed many but to which survivors carried lifetime immunity native pop endured first exposure to these diseases all at once Euros first contracted syphilis thru sexual encounters w/ American women animals Spanish brought horses, pigs, cows, and other domesticated animals unknown in Americas changed pattern of work and dietary customs among native pop pork and beef gradually entered diet of those who traded w/ colonists and ultimately into that of the general population plants number of foodstuffs ultimately had transforming effect on Euro diet tomato potato (so nutritious that laborers could nearly survive on it alone) became staple of German diet and in Ireland chili peppers found market in Hungary, where they were used as a condiment called paprika cocoa bean, after generations of refinement, used to make chocolate in France

movable type

Not necessarily an invention More accurate to say 'movable type' East Asia was ahead on this-- but Asian languages have much more complicated characters, held them up on printing You had to have breakthroughs in metal alloys/metallurgy w/ which you created the stencils, types of inks that wouldn't smear, writing materials you're printing on Once you get those things locked in, if you don't have any mistakes in the letters, you can print all of these off and there won't be variations or textual errors So revolutionary Had been using animal skins before-- particularly sheep, calf Expensive 1 whole Bible was 300 sheep Why books were so rare until the printing press Paper had been invented in China a long time ago Parchment is usually very wrinkled, doesn't work very well with printing You need paper to go along with it Johannes Gutenberg (1455) Date given for when movable type was created It wasn't just him who did it-- there are other people who should get credit Berg= hill or mountain Burg= fortress Once you get the printing press, you have more printed material, but also appetite for books drove the invention Drive for texts But probably 90% of European population was illiterate at the time In the first half of the 16th century, about 1 million Bibles in German were printed 15 million German-speaking population, 90% of whom were illiterate 200 Bibles were printed in 1455- Gutenberg Bibles 48 are still around Mainz-- on the River Rhine, where printing started and Gutenberg printed Bibles In Latin-- not the original Catholic Church defended keeping it in Latin (NOT vernacular) But can't say it was the original The language of the common people in the 300s in the western half of the Roman Empire These were Vulgate bibles Translated Bible into Latin

theories of resistance

Philippe Duplessis-Mornay (1579)- lesser magistrates French Huguenot Lesser magistrates Justifying having noble families leading resistance Kings can be resisted, but not by any private individual b/c there was this hierarchy of authority, if the king is clearly off the rails, it's up to the lesser magistrates/the next level of authority They have a right to overthrow the king and restrain him There were many rich and powerful noble fams in France He was justifying what was happening-- ratifying reality Opens up door to saying that anyone can be a rebel Juan de Mariana (1598)- tyrannicide Jesuit professor Said anyone has a right to kill a tyrant regicide/assassination If a king is a tyrant, anyone had right to kill him A lot of ppl didn't agree w/ him John Milton (1649)- contractual theory Not only wrote poetry, but many essays and theories Important political figure under Cromwell To him it's a contractual view of government Paternalism ultimately says that ppl cannot break the contract Contractual theory is a two-way street If the king doesn't hold up his end, then you don't have to follow him 1649= year Charles I put on trial and executed, England= republic King and subject have mutual obligations, if one doesn't hold up their side they can be imprisoned or executed Says that rulers exist for ppl The ruler is there for the benefit of the ppl, but if he is destroying freedom then it's not right There were rebellions and resistance all over europe 1640s→ bad decade, revolt almost everywhere in W Europe Combination of bad weather (cold, wet winters, crop failure) and lots of revolt Spain faces revolt in Portugal and Catalonia France still involved in 30 Years' War English Civil War Bread riots and rebellions in Italy Scotland and Ireland

northern renaissance

Renaissance began in Italy By late 1400s, ideas are spreading-- People coming from other areas who studied in Italy got excited about these intellectual ideas and brought them back to their own lands; Rulers in the North invited (bribed) Italian artists, humanists, philosophers to come North and do their thing Fundamental difference about this compared to italian: religious emphasis, specifically Christian (Christian humanism) Both have humanism in common-- Italians are not pagans, but it's about a matter of emphasis Italians often so caught up with ancient Greek and Roman culture, which was not Christian Northerners did not have this problem-- wanted to be able to have Greek to read the original New Testament; Old Testament in Hebrew Different emphasis even though it shares: Ad Fontes! Back to the sources, both the Northern and Italians believed there was something in the distant past that was pure and golden-- from the source Sources are different-- Italian fontes was classical antiquity, Greco-Roman culture; Northern fontes was the Bible-- New and Old Testament, Early Church fathers, idea that the earliest forms of Christianity are the purer forms, over time things get sullied, passed down, corrupted, warped In both cases, there is a sense of a distant past you are trying to get to-- recent past (middle ages) was something you had to denigrate Northerners-- most horrible thing about the middle ages was that the Church had gone wrong, paternity of the Reformation, neither one of the two most important Northern humanists turned Protestant, but laid foundation by stressing the need to get back to the sources-- Greek and Hebrew texts Kind of radical ideas-- educating women (Thomas more, Erasmus)-- trying to be fair-- value of education, even for women Humanists were ultimately optimistic-- not foolish, believed you could revive Christianity and society in general through scholarship Importance of using vernacular, as more people were getting educated, more people would not have Latin-- they could read, but only in their vernacular Emphasis on individual-- vernacular Bible eliminated 'middleman' of the priest/church, more individual, empowered individual, who read and interpreted it for themselves

elizabeth i

Ruled 1558-1603/mid 16th to early 17th century Moderate Protestant What the Church of England finally becomes→ Elizabethan settlement Anglican church calls itself a via media Middle path/road They think they combined the best of both worlds In many ways a Protestant church Deliberately fuzzy about certain things-- Elizabeth said not to define doctrine too specifically/narrowly Didn't want things defined-- particularly the Eucharist Tended to split ppl Said there was a real presence, but vague Episcopacy Church gov 3 ways of Church gov→ Presbyterian, Congregationalist, Episcopacy Form of the Catholic Church, Anglican Church, etc Gov by the bishops Pope not at the top in Anglican church, but the monarch Hierarchy Turned what had been Catholic diocese into Protestant ones Becomes known as not very puritanical abou things--> a little looser Wants a church that can be acepted by everyone Since it will be the only legal church, wants it to be a broad church-- inclusive Also wants to stay the head of it Elizabethan settlement-- settling the religious question, early in her reign Early Anglican church was much more Protestant than it was in years to come-- didn't want a secular head of the church Puritans-- wanted to purify the Church of England, got the nickname as early as the 1560's Wanted to get rid of the episcopacy Often Calvinists, who thought the Anglican Church remained way too Catholic Dissenters/Nonconformists Name for ppl who were not on board w/ the Anglican Church Someone who dissents from the Church of England Usually Protestants who are not Anglican Recusants Catholics who wanted to stay Roman Catholics Outlawed You could not legally have a Catholic mass said in England under Elizabeth I Comes from the Latin word meaning refuse/reject Become a minority Majority of ppl in England tended to accept the Anglican Church as it was Dissenters/Puritans were able to more safely express their dispute/discomfort w/ the Anglican Church In the 1600s life got harder for them under James I and Charles I Pilgrims left first-- 1620, Plymouth Rock

renaissance humanism

Secular outlook but by no means antireligious Developed in reaction to an intellectual world that was centered on the Church and dominated by otherworldly concerns Celebrated worldly achievements Applied learning to both religious and secular studies Most humanists were devoutly religious (not antireligious or hostile to church) Interest in human achievement and human potential must be set beside their religious beliefs Anti-clericalism Two main meanings: Broader sense-- Stress on humans as being important Also an approach to education Teaching humanities About human expression Rhetoric, language, grammar Being able to express yourself well Broad-based Learning things that aren't necessarily practical skills Learning how to live more deeply, not just learning a job skill 3 basic liberal arts: Grammar (how words are used, often in a very sophisticated way) Rhetoric (using words to persuade, move, and inspire, shape actions and opinions) Dialectic (logic, specifically in terms of making arguments, arguments in a back and forth way-- thesis and antithesis) Optimism about human nature Question of is human nature basically good, is it capable of progress and change for the better, or is it just stagnant? Medieval scholars and clergy said pride was the most heinous of the 7 deadly sins Renaissance humanists tended to think that pride in the right form was actually a good thing Celebrated human achievement-- says it drives you to do great things Virtu-- human beings are capable of good The church itself was often a source of humanist patronage L'uomo universale Philology Petrarch= father of Renaissance humanism Lorenzo Valla-- pioneered philology, invented modern textual criticism Baldassare Castiglione-- Renaissance view of education Civic humanism--said active life was superior to contemplative life, republic is better than monarchy