AP Euro Semester 1

Battle of Austerlitz

also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of Napoleon's greatest victories, where the French Empire effectively crushed the Third Coalition. On 2 December 1805 (20 November Old Style, 11 Frimaire An XIV, in the French Republican Calendar), a French army, commanded by Emperor Napoleon I, decisively defeated a Russo-Austrian army, commanded by Tsar Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, after nearly nine hours of difficult fighting.

Rococo Style

also referred to as "Late Baroque", is an 18th-century artistic movement and style, which affected several aspects of the arts including painting, sculpture, architecture, interior design, decoration, literature, music and theatre.

Rococo

an 18th-century artistic movement and style, which affected several aspects of the arts including painting, sculpture, architecture, interior design, decoration, literature, music and theatre. This style developed in the early part of the 18th century in Paris, France as a reaction against the grandeur, symmetry and strict regulations of the Baroque, especially that of the Palace of Versailles. In such a way, the artists opted for a more jocular, florid and graceful approach to Baroque art and architecture.

English Bill of Rights

an Act of the Parliament of England passed on 16 December 1689. It was a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William and Mary in March 1689 (or 1688 by Old Style dating), inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. It lays down limits on the powers of the crown and sets out the rights of Parliament and rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, the requirement for regular elections to Parliament and the right to petition the monarch without fear of retribution. It reestablished the liberty of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law, and condemned James II of England for "causing several good subjects being Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when papists were both armed and employed contrary to law".

Act of Uniformity

an Act of the Parliament of England. It was actually passed in 1559. It set the order of prayer to be used in the English Book of Common Prayer. All persons had to go to church once a week or be fined 12 pence (equivalent to just over £11 in 2007), a considerable sum for the poor. By this Act Elizabeth I made it a legal obligation to go to church every Sunday.

Thomas Jefferson

an American Founding Father, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the third President of the United States (1801-1809). He was a spokesman for democracy and the rights of man with worldwide influence. At the beginning of the American Revolution, he served in the Continental Congress, representing Virginia and then served as a wartime Governor of Virginia (1779-1781). Just after the war ended, from mid-1784 he served as a diplomat, stationed in Paris. In May 1785, he became the United States Minister to France.

Franz Joseph Haydn

an Austrian composer, one of the most prolific and prominent of the Classical period. He is often called the "Father of the Symphony" and "Father of the String Quartet" because of his important contributions to these forms. He was also instrumental in the development of the piano trio and in the evolution of sonata form. Clock Symphony, Military Symphony, Surprise Symphony

Council of Trent

an Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church. It is considered to be one of the Church's most important councils. It issued condemnations on what it defined as Protestant heresies at the time of the Reformation and defined Church teachings in the areas of Scripture and Tradition, Original Sin, Justification, Sacraments, the Eucharist in Holy Mass and the veneration of saints. It issued numerous reform decrees. By specifying Catholic doctrine on salvation, the sacraments, and the Biblical canon, it was answering Protestant disputes. It entrusted to the Pope the implementation of its work; as a result, Pope Pius IV issued the Tridentine Creed in 1565; and Pope Pius V issued in 1566 the Roman Catechism, in 1568 a revised Roman Breviary, and in 1570 a revised Roman Missal. Through these the Tridentine Mass was standardised (named after the city's Latin name Tridentum). In 1592, Pope Clement VIII issued a revised edition of the Vulgate Bible. __________, delayed and interrupted several times because of political or religious disagreements, was a major reform council; it was an embodiment of the ideals of the Counter-Reformation.

Jethro Tull

an English agricultural pioneer from Berkshire who helped bring about the British Agricultural Revolution. He perfected a horse-drawn seed drill in 1701 that economically sowed the seeds in neat rows, and later a horse-drawn hoe. His methods were adopted by many large landowners, and they helped form the basis of modern agriculture.

British East India Company

an English and later (from 1707) British joint-stock company formed for pursuing trade with the East Indies but which ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent, North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan. taxes on its tea helped lead to the American Revolution

Margaret Cavendish

an English aristocrat, a prolific writer, and a scientist. She became an attendant of Queen Henrietta Maria and travelled with her into exile in France, living for a time at the court of the young King Louis XIV a poet, philosopher, writer of prose romances, essayist, and playwright who published under her own name at a time when most women writers published anonymously. Her writing addressed a number of topics, including gender, power, manners, scientific method, and philosophy. Her utopian romance, The Blazing World, is one of the earliest examples of science fiction. She is singular in having published extensively in natural philosophy and early modern science. She published over a dozen original works; inclusion of her revised works brings her total number of publications to twenty one. championed and criticized as a unique and groundbreaking woman writer. She rejected the Aristotelianism and mechanical philosophy of the seventeenth century, preferring a vitalist model instead. She criticized and engaged with the members of the Royal Society of London and the philosophers Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, and Robert Boyle. She has been claimed as an advocate for animals and as an early opponent of animal testing.

Thomas Cromwell

an English lawyer and statesman who served as chief minister to King Henry VIII of England from 1532 to 1540. He was one of the strongest advocates of the English Reformation. He helped to engineer an annulment of the king's marriage to the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon, in order to allow Henry to marry his mistress Anne Boleyn. After failure to obtain approval from the Pope, in 1534 parliament endorsed the king's claim to be head of a breakaway Church of England, and he supervised the new church from the unique posts of vicegerent in spirituals and vicar general.

Oliver Cromwell

an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was Puritan, so he allied with them after the execution of Charles I. Ironically ruled in much the same way Charles I did.

William Hogarth

an English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic, and editorial cartoonist who has been credited with pioneering western sequential art. His work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects". Marriage a la Mode A Harlot's Progress A Rake's Progress

William Harvey

an English physician. He was the first to describe completely and in detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the brain and body by the heart, though earlier writers had provided precursors of the theory. Disproved some of the theories set by Galen.

Thomas Gainsborough

an English portrait and landscape painter. The Blue Boy Mrs. Richard Brinsely Sheridan

John Wilkes

an English radical, journalist, and politician. He was first elected Member of Parliament in 1757. In the Middlesex election dispute, he fought for the right of his voters—rather than the House of Commons—to determine their representatives. In 1768 angry protests of his supporters were suppressed in the St George's Fields Massacre. In 1771, he was instrumental in obliging the government to concede the right of printers to publish verbatim accounts of parliamentary debates. In 1776, he introduced the first Bill for parliamentary reform in the British Parliament. During the American War of Independence, he was a supporter of the American rebels, adding further to his popularity with American Whigs. In 1780, however, he commanded militia forces which helped put down the Gordon Riots, damaging his popularity with many radicals.

Castlereagh

an Irish and British statesman. As British Foreign Secretary, from 1812 he was central to the management of the coalition that defeated Napoleon and was the principal British diplomat at the Congress of Vienna. He was also leader of the British House of Commons in the Liverpool government from 1812 until his death by suicide in August 1822. Early in his career, as Chief Secretary for Ireland, he was involved in putting down the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and was instrumental in securing the passage of the Irish Act of Union of 1800. His foreign policy from 1814 was to work with the leaders represented at the Congress of Vienna to provide a peace in Europe consistent with the conservative mood of the day. Much more than prime minister Lord Liverpool, he was responsible for the repressive domestic measures.

Cardinal Mazzarin

an Italian Catholic cardinal, diplomat, and politician, who served as the chief minister of France from 1642 until his death; succeeded his mentor, Cardinal Richelieu. Fronde started because people did not like him

Giordano Bruno

an Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, mathematician, astrologer and astronomer. His cosmological theories went beyond the Copernican model: while supporting its heliocentrism, he also correctly proposed that the Sun was just another star moving in space, and claimed as well that the universe contained an infinite number of inhabited worlds populated by other intelligent beings. The Roman Inquisition found him guilty of heresy and he was burned at the stake.

Girolamo Cardano

an Italian Renaissance mathematician, physician, astrologer and gambler. He wrote more than 200 works on medicine, mathematics, physics, philosophy, religion, and music. His gambling led him to formulate elementary rules in probability, making him one of the founders of the field. Did work in the field of algebra

Caravaggio

an Italian artist active in Rome, Naples, Malta, and Sicily between 1592 (1595?) and 1610. His paintings, which combine a realistic observation of the human state, both physical and emotional, with a dramatic use of lighting, had a formative influence on the Baroque school of painting. Calling of St. Matthew; The Musicians; Entombment of Christ; Conversion of St. Paul

Cesare Beccaria

an Italian jurist, philosopher and politician best known for his treatise On Crimes and Punishments (1764), which condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology. He promoted criminal justice.

Niccolo Tartaglia

an Italian mathematician, engineer (designing fortifications), a surveyor (of topography, seeking the best means of defense or offense) and a bookkeeper from the then-Republic of Venice (now part of Italy). He published many books, including the first Italian translations of Archimedes and Euclid, and an acclaimed compilation of mathematics. He was the first to apply mathematics to the investigation of the paths of cannonballs, known as ballistics, in his Nova Scientia, "A New Science;" his work was later validated by Galileo's studies on falling bodies. He also published a treatise on retrieving sunken ships.

Uccello, Paolo

an Italian painter and a mathematician who was notable for his pioneering work on visual perspective in art. Giorgio Vasari in his book Lives of the Artists wrote that he was obsessed by his interest in perspective and would stay up all night in his study trying to grasp the exact vanishing point. He used perspective in order to create a feeling of depth in his paintings and not, as his contemporaries, to narrate different or succeeding stories. His best known works are the three paintings representing the battle of San Romano (for a long time these were wrongly entitled the "Battle of Sant' Egidio of 1416"). Also did a St. George and the Dragon piece

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo

an Italian painter and printmaker from the Republic of Venice. He was prolific, and worked not only in Italy, but also in Germany and Spain. (don't really know what he did)

Tiepolo

an Italian painter and printmaker from the Republic of Venice. He was prolific, and worked not only in Italy, but also in Germany and Spain. (hasn't really done stuff I recognize)

Torricelli

an Italian physicist and mathematician, best known for his invention of the barometer. wrote namesake law regarding the speed of a fluid flowing out of an opening, which was later shown to be a particular case of Bernoulli's principle. gave the first scientific description of the cause of wind

Lyncean Academie

an Italian science academy, located at the Palazzo Corsini on the Via della Lungara in Rome, Italy. Founded in 1603 by Federico Cesi, it was the first academy of sciences to exist in Italy and a locus for the incipient scientific revolution. The academy was named after the lynx, an animal whose sharp vision symbolizes the observational prowess that science requires. Galileo was the most famous member; lived monastically

Pacification of Ghent

an alliance of the provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands for the purpose of driving mutinying Spanish mercenary troops from the country and promoting a peace treaty with the rebelling provinces Holland and Zeeland.

linear perspective

an art technique explored by Brunelleschi; allowed artists to depict things realistically in space as one would see them a depth cue that is related to both relative size and the next depth cue, texture gradient.

Monmouth's Rebellion

an attempt to overthrow James II, who had become King of England, Scotland and Ireland upon the death of his elder brother Charles II on 6 February 1685. James II was a Roman Catholic, and some Protestants under his rule opposed his kingship. James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of Charles II, claimed to be rightful heir to the throne and attempted to displace James II.

Pragmatic Sanction

an edict issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI to ensure that the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs could be inherited by a daughter. The Head of the House of Habsburg bore the title of Archduke of Austria and ruled the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Bohemia, Italian territories and the Austrian Netherlands. This measure does not concern the dignity of Roman Emperor, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, which remained elective, although the Archduke of Austria was also Holy Roman Emperor for centuries. Since their marriage in 1708, Charles and his wife Elizabeth Christine had not had children, and since 1711 Charles had been the sole male member of the House of Habsburg alive. Charles' elder brother Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I had died without male issue, making accession of a female a very plausible contingency. Because the Salic law precluded female inheritance, Charles VI needed to take extraordinary measures to avoid a succession dispute. These precautions proved wise as Charles VI was ultimately succeeded by his elder daughter Maria Theresa (born 1717). Nevertheless, her accession was promptly met with the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession.

Edict of Fontainbleau

an edict issued by Louis XIV of France, also known as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Edict of Nantes of 1598, had granted the Huguenots the right to practice their religion without persecution from the state. Though Protestants had lost their independence in places of refuge under Richelieu, they continued to live in comparative security and political contentment. From the outset, religious toleration in France had been a royal, rather than a popular policy. The lack of universal adherence to his religion did not sit well with Louis XIV's vision of perfected autocracy: "Bending all else to his will, Louis XIV resented the presence of heretics among his subjects."

Prince Henry the Navigator

an important figure in the early days of the Portuguese Empire and the Age of Discoveries in total. He was responsible for the early development of European exploration and maritime trade with other continents. encouraged his father to conquer Ceuta (1415), the Muslim port on the North African coast across the Straits of Gibraltar from the Iberian peninsula. He learnt of the opportunities from the Saharan trade routes that terminated there, and became fascinated with Africa in general; he was most intrigued by the Christian legend of Prester John and the expansion of Portuguese trade. He is regarded as the patron of Portuguese exploration.

Jacques Louis David

an influential French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. In the 1780s his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity toward a classical austerity and severity, heightened feeling chiming with the moral climate of the final years of the Ancien Régime. Oath of the Horatii Death of Socrates The Tennis Court Oath Death of Marat Coronation of Napoleon Napoleon at Saint-Bernard Pass

Joshua Reynolds

an influential eighteenth-century English painter, specialising in portraits and promoting the "Grand Style" in painting which depended on idealization of the imperfect. He was one of the founders and first president of the Royal Academy, and was knighted by George III in 1769. Lord Heathfield Sarah Siddons as the Tragic Muse

Sturm und Drang

"storm and stress" a proto-Romantic movement in German literature and music taking place from the late 1760s to the early 1780s, in which individual subjectivity and, in particular, extremes of emotion were given free expression in reaction to the perceived constraints of rationalism imposed by the Enlightenment and associated aesthetic movements.

Montagnards

"the Mountain"; extremists who wanted to kill the king; want to run France directly from Paris a political group during the French Revolution whose members, called ______________, sat on the highest benches in the Assembly. The term, which was first used during the session of the Legislative Assembly, did not come into general use until 1793.

Holy Alliance

(also called the Grand Alliance) was a coalition created by the monarchist great powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia. It was created after the ultimate defeat of Napoleon at the behest of Czar Alexander I of Russia and signed in Paris on 26 September 1815.

Ferdinand of Austria

(might be this guy, but I'm not sure) Holy Roman Emperor from 1558, king of Bohemia and Hungary from 1526, and king of Croatia from 1527 until his death. Before his accession, he ruled the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburgs in the name of his elder brother, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The key events during his reign were the contest with the Ottoman Empire, whose great advance into Central Europe began in the 1520s, and the Protestant Reformation, which resulted in several wars of religion.

Leonardo da Vinci

A "Renaissance man"; painted things such as the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper and Madonna on the Rocks; also created blueprints for many machines

Civic Humanism

A variant of republicanism indicating active, participatory, patriotic citizenship as well as the ethos and educational ideal that goes with it. This term was first used by the historian Hans Baron to describe an upsurge of patriotic republicanism as a response to foreign aggression and despotism, informed by the revival of classical models in Renaissance Florence.

Battle of Leipzig

AKA Battle of the Nations fought by the coalition armies of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden against the French army of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, at the namesake place in Saxony. Napoleon's army also contained Polish and Italian troops as well as Germans from the Confederation of the Rhine. The battle marked the culmination of the autumn campaign of 1813 during the German campaign and involved over 600,000 soldiers, making it the largest battle in Europe prior to World War I. Being decisively defeated for the first time in battle, Napoleon was compelled to return to France while the Allies hurried to keep their momentum, invading France early the next year. Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was exiled to Elba in May 1814.

Mary I

AKA Bloody; tried to turn English back Catholic; married Catholic husband; executed tons of people and stuff

Society of Friends

AKA Quakers central doctrine is the priesthood of all believers

Foundling Homes

AKA orphanages (?)(I guess they became popular during the 1700s)

Haskalah Movement

AKA the Jewish Enlightenment, was a movement among European Jews in the 18th-19th centuries that advocated adopting enlightenment values, pressing for better integration into European society, and increasing education in secular studies, Hebrew language, and Jewish history.

Alberti, Leon Battista

An Italian Renaissance poet and writer, among other things; he was also an architect and humanist; author of "How To Paint" and recommended grid system for painting

Cottage Industry

An industry where the creation of products and services is home-based, rather than factory-based. While products and services created by this are often unique and distinctive given the fact that they are usually not mass-produced, producers in this sector often face numerous disadvantages when trying to compete with much larger factory-based companies.

Menno Simons

Anabaptist that created a group named after him

William Laud

Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633 to 1645. One of the High Church Caroline divines, he opposed radical forms of Puritanism. This, and his support for King Charles I, resulted in his beheading in the midst of the English Civil War.

Erasmus

Author of In Praise of Folly; satirist; wanted Catholic Reform but didn't want to break with church outright

Henry VIII

Broke England away from Catholicism; had many wives...

Olympe de Gouges

Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791) challenged the practice of male authority and the notion of male-female inequality. She was executed by guillotine during the Reign of Terror for attacking the regime of the Revolutionary government and for her close relation with the Girondists.

Early Renaissance (art)

Describes the beginning of the "rebirth"; dominated by artists such as Brunelleschi, Donatello, Ghiberti, Masaccio, and Uccello

Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz

Elector and Archbishop of Mainz from 1514 to 1545, and Archbishop of Magdeburg from 1513 to 1545. obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of indulgences in his diocese; procured the services of John Tetzel to sell the indulgences.

Elector Frederick III / King Frederick I

Elector of Brandenburg (1688-1713) and Duke of Prussia in personal union (Brandenburg-Prussia). The latter function he upgraded to royalty, becoming the first King in Prussia (1701-1713). From 1707 he was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel (German: Fürstentum Neuenburg). He was also the paternal grandfather of Frederick the Great.

Frederick William I, the Great Elector

Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia - and thus ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia - from 1640 until his death. A member of the House of Hohenzollern, he is popularly known as "The Great Elector" (German: Der Große Kurfürst) because of his military and political prowess. He was a staunch pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class. He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously. His shrewd domestic reforms gave Prussia a strong position in the post-Westphalia political order of north-central Europe, setting Prussia up for elevation from duchy to kingdom, achieved under his son and successor.

Elba

Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, French emperor Napoleon I was exiled here after his forced abdication in 1814 and arrived at Portoferraio on May 3, 1814 to begin his exile there. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of six hundred men. Although he was nominally sovereign of this place, the island was patrolled by the British Royal Navy. During the months Napoleon stayed on the island, he carried out a series of economic and social reforms to improve the quality of life, partly to pass the time and partly out of a genuine concern for the well-being of the islanders. Napoleon stayed there for 300 days. He returned to France on February 26, 1815 for the Hundred Days.

Duke of Parma

He is best known for his successful campaign 1578-1592 against the Dutch Revolt, in which he captured the main cities in the south (now Belgium) and returned them to the control of Catholic Spain.

Leopold II of Austria

He was also Holy Roman Emperor Holy Roman Emperor and King of Hungary and Bohemia from 1790 to 1792, Archduke of Austria and Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1765 to 1790. He was a son of Emperor Francis I and his wife, Empress Maria Theresa, thus the brother of Marie Antoinette. He was a moderate proponent of enlightened absolutism. allied with Prussia to try to help Louis XVI during French Revolution (?)

Joseph II of Austria

Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790. He was the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I, and was the brother of Marie Antoinette. He was thus the first ruler in the Austrian dominions of the House of Lorraine, styled Habsburg-Lorraine (von Habsburg-Lothringen in German). He was a proponent of enlightened absolutism; however, his commitment to modernizing reforms subsequently engendered significant opposition, which eventually culminated in an ultimate failure to fully implement his programmes. He has been ranked, with Catherine II of Russia and Frederick II of Prussia, as one of the three great Enlightenment monarchs.

Modena

I actually don't know what's important about this place. Sorry.

Titian

Italian Renaissance artist; Venus of Urbino; Assumption of Mary

Brunelleschi, Filippo

Italian Renaissance artist; created the dome for Florence Cathedral and credited with rediscovering single-point (or linear) perspective (since I think the Greeks did it first)

Bruni, Leonardo

Italian humanist, historian and statesman. He has been called the first modern historian; wrote History of the Florentine People and New Cicero

Savonarola

Italian monk; ordered Bonfire of Vanities; thought Medici had gone too far with humanism and thought things had become corrupt; throws Medici out at first but then is later executed and the Medici return

Catherine de Medici

Italian noblewoman who was Queen consort of France from 1547 until 1559, as the wife of King Henry II of France. When husband died in 1560, she became regent on behalf of her ten-year-old son King Charles IX and was granted sweeping powers. After Charles died in 1574, she played a key role in the reign of her third son, Henry III. He dispensed with her advice only in the last months of her life. sons reigned in an age of almost constant civil and religious war in France. At first, she compromised and made concessions to the rebelling Protestants, or Huguenots, as they became known. She failed, however, to grasp the theological issues that drove their movement. Later, she resorted in frustration and anger to hard-line policies against them. In return, she came to be blamed for the excessive persecutions carried out under her sons' rule, in particular for the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572, in which thousands of Huguenots were killed in Paris and throughout France.

Christine de Pisan

Italian-French female writer; wrote The Book of the City Ladies and books of poetry

Declaration of Independence

July 4th 1776; listed reasons why the colonies were breaking away from England; Jefferson was one of the writers

Frederick William I

King in Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg (as Frederick William II) from 1713 until his death. He was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. Father of Frederick the Great treated him cruelly built up Prussia's army but doesn't really use it

Edward VI of England

King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death. He was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine. The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, he was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England's first monarch raised as a Protestant. Did Book of Common Prayer stuff and English Reform

James II

King of England, Ireland, and Scotland from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch to reign over the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Louis XVI

King of France and Navarre from 1774 until 1791, after which he was subsequently King of the French from 1791 to 1792, before his deposition and execution during the French Revolution. reign at first marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideals. These included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the proposed reforms with hostility, and successfully opposed their implementation; increased discontent among the common people ensued. From 1776 he actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the ancien régime which culminated at the Estates-General of 1789. Discontent among the members of France's middle and lower classes resulted in strengthened opposition to the French aristocracy and to the absolute monarchy, of which he and his queen Marie Antoinette were viewed as representative. In 1789, the Bastille was stormed during riots in Paris, and the French Revolution began. His indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France eventually to view him as a symbol of the perceived tyranny of the ancien régime, and his popularity deteriorated progressively.

Louis XVI

King of France and Navarre from 1774 until 1791, after which he was subsequently King of the French from 1791 to 1792, before his deposition and execution during the French Revolution. His father, Louis, Dauphin of France, was the son and heir apparent of Louis XV of France. Due to the Dauphin's death in 1765, Louis succeeded his grandfather in 1774. The first part of his reign was marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideals. These included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the proposed reforms with hostility, and successfully opposed their implementation; increased discontent among the common people ensued. From 1776 he actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the ancien régime which culminated at the Estates-General of 1789. Discontent among the members of France's middle and lower classes resulted in strengthened opposition to the French aristocracy and to the absolute monarchy, of which he and his queen Marie Antoinette were viewed as representative. In 1789, the Bastille was stormed during riots in Paris, and the French Revolution began.

George I

King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 until his death, and ruler of the Duchy and Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) in the Holy Roman Empire from 1698. born in Hanover, in what is now Germany, and inherited the titles and lands of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg from his father and uncles. A succession of European wars expanded his German domains during his lifetime, and in 1708 he was ratified as prince-elector of Hanover. At the age of 54, after the death of Queen Anne of Great Britain, he ascended the British throne as the first monarch of the House of Hanover. Towards the end of his reign, actual power was held by Sir Robert Walpole, now recognised as Britain's first de facto prime minister.

George II

King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) and Archtreasurer and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 (O.S.) until his death. last British monarch born outside Great Britain: he was born and brought up in northern Germany. exercised little control over British domestic policy, which was largely controlled by the Parliament of Great Britain. As elector, he spent 12 summers in Hanover, where he had more direct control over government policy. He had a difficult relationship with his eldest son, Frederick, who supported the parliamentary opposition. During the War of the Austrian Succession, he participated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, and thus became the last British monarch to lead an army in battle. In 1745, supporters of the Catholic claimant to the British throne, James Francis Edward Stuart ("The Old Pretender"), led by James's son Charles Edward Stuart ("The Young Pretender" or "Bonnie Prince Charlie"), attempted and failed to depose him in the last of the Jacobite rebellions. After Prince Frederick died unexpectedly in 1751, his grandson became heir apparent and ultimately king.

George III of Britain

King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death. He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg ("Hanover") in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two Hanoverian predecessors he was born in Britain, spoke English as his first language, and never visited Hanover. His life and reign, which were longer than those of any previous British monarch, were marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdoms, much of the rest of Europe, and places farther afield in Africa, the Americas and Asia. Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years' War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of its American colonies were soon lost in the American Revolutionary War. Further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. known for insanity

George III

King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death. He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg ("Hanover") in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two Hanoverian predecessors he was born in Britain, spoke English as his first language, and never visited Hanover. known for being insane lost the colonies in North America

John Zapolyai

King of Hungary (as John I) from 1526 to 1540. His rule was disputed by Archduke Ferdinand I, who also claimed the title King of Hungary. He was Voivode of Transylvania before his coronation. (involved in some Ottoman War stuff I think)

Louis II Jagiellon

King of Hungary, Croatia and King of Bohemia from 1516 to 1526. He was killed during the Battle of Mohács fighting the Ottomans. (don't know much else about him)

Frederick William II of Prussia

King of Prussia, from 1786 until his death. He was in personal union the Prince-Elector of Brandenburg and the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. Pleasure-loving and indolent, he is seen as the antithesis to his predecessor, Frederick II. Under his reign, Prussia was weakened internally and externally, and he failed to deal adequately with the challenges to the existing order posed by the French Revolution. His religious policies were directed against the Enlightenment and aimed at restoring a traditional Protestantism. However, he was a patron of the arts and responsible for the construction of some notable buildings, among them the Brandenburger Tor in Berlin. (supported Louis XVI during Revolution?)

Philip IV

King of Spain and Portugal; ascended the thrones in 1621 and reigned in Spain until his death and in Portugal until 1640. Philip is remembered for his patronage of the arts, including such artists as Diego Velázquez, and his rule over Spain during the challenging period of the Thirty Years' War. On the eve of his death in 1665, the Spanish Empire had reached 12.2 million square kilometres (4.7×106 sq mi) in area but in other respects was in decline, a process to which his inability to achieve successful domestic and military reform is felt to have contributed. apparently tried to acquire power to create an absolute monarchy but ultimately failed

Charles XIV of Sweden (Bernadotte)

King of Sweden (as Charles XIV John) and King of Norway (as Charles III John) from 1818 until his death. Before he became king, he was also the Sovereign Prince of Pontecorvo, in Southern Italy, between 1806 and 1810. served a long career in the French Army. He was appointed as a Marshal of France by Napoleon I, though the two had a turbulent relationship. His service to France ended in 1810, when he was elected the heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne because the Swedish royal family was dying out with King Charles XIII. Baron Carl Otto Mörner (22 May 1781 - 17 August 1868), who was a Swedish courtier, and obscure member of the Riksdag of the Estates, advocated for the succession.

Henry of Navarre

Later becomes _____ IV; signed Edict of Nantes Involved in War of the Three _____

Egyptian Campaign

Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in the Orient, ostensibly to protect French trade interests, undermine Britain's access to India, and to establish scientific enterprise in the region.

Infernal Regiments

No idea what this refers to. Sorry

Durer, Albrecht

Northern Renaissance artist; noted for woodcuts, self-portraits, Knight, Death, and the Devil, and Apocalypse series

Lord North

Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782. He led Great Britain through most of the American War of Independence. He also held a number of other cabinet posts, including Home Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer.

Charles, Elector of Bavaria (Charles II)

Prince-elector of Bavaria from 1726 and Holy Roman Emperor from 24 January 1742 until his death in 1745. A member of the House of Wittelsbach, he was notably the first person not born of the House of Habsburg to become emperor in over three centuries. supported by Frederick II to become Holy Roman Emperor after death of Austria's Charles VI over Maria Theresa; fights with him in first two Silesian Wars (War of Austrian Succession)

Huguenots

Protestants in France

House of Vasa

Royal House of Sweden 1523-1654 and of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1587-1668. It originated from a noble family in Uppland of which several members held high office during the 15th century. Started by Gustavus (Gustav I)

Philip V of Spain

Spanish monarch that fought alongside Louis XIV of France during War of Spanish Succession King of Spain from 1 November 1700 to 15 January 1724, when he abdicated in favor of his son Louis, and from 6 September 1724, when he assumed the throne again upon his son's death, to his death. Before his reign, he occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a grandson of King Louis XIV. His father, Louis, the Grand Dauphin, had the strongest genealogical claim to the throne of Spain when it became vacant in 1700. However, since the Grand Dauphin and Philip's older brother, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, could not be displaced from their place in the succession to the French throne, King Charles II of Spain named him as his heir in his will. It was well known that the union of France and Spain under one monarch would upset the balance of power in Europe, such that other European powers would take steps to prevent it.

Mehmet II

Sultan of the Ottoman Empire twice, first for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire, transforming the Ottoman state into an empire. He continued his conquests in Asia, with the Anatolian reunification, and in Europe, as far as Bosnia and Croatia.

Charles X (Sweden)

Swedish king who began the First Northern War; enlarged Swedish empire by doing so

Test Act of 1673

This act enforced upon all persons filling any office, civil or military, the obligation of taking the oaths of supremacy and allegiance and subscribing to a declaration against transubstantiation and also of receiving the sacrament within three months after admittance to office. Passed in response to Declaration of Indulgence

Montesquieu

Wrote The Spirit of the Laws a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Age of Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He did more than any other author to secure the place of the word despotism in the political lexicon, and may have been partly responsible for the popularization of the terms feudalism and Byzantine Empire.

Martin Bucer

Zwinglian humanist who tried to mediate between Luther and Zwingli; arranged Colloquy of Marburg; helped write English Book of Common Prayer; made Strasbourg a safe haven for German Lutherans

William Pitt, the Elder

a British Whig statesman who led Britain during the Seven Years' War (known as the French and Indian War in North America). He again led the country (holding the official title of Lord Privy Seal) between 1766 and 1768. Much of his power came from his brilliant oratory. He was out of power for most of his career, and became famous for his attacks on the government, such as Walpole's corruption in the 1730s, Hanoverian subsidies in the 1740s, peace with France in the 1760s, and the uncompromising policy toward the American colonies in the 1770s.

Lord Admiral Horatio Nelson

a British flag officer famous for his service in the Royal Navy, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. He was noted for his inspirational leadership and superb grasp of strategy and unconventional tactics, which resulted in a number of decisive naval victories. He was wounded several times in combat, losing one arm in the unsuccessful attempt to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the sight in one eye in Corsica. Of his several victories, the best known and most notable was the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, during which he was shot and killed.

William Pitt, the Younger

a British politician of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He became the youngest Prime Minister in 1783 at the age of 24. He left office in 1801, but was Prime Minister again from 1804 until his death in 1806. He was also the Chancellor of the Exchequer throughout his premiership. best known for leading Britain in the great wars against France and Napoleon.

Duke of Wellington

a British soldier and statesman, a native of Ireland from the Anglo-Irish Ascendancy, and one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century. rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the allied forces to victory against the French at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the allied army which, together with a Prussian army under Blücher, defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo.

Robert Walpole

a British statesman who is generally regarded as the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. Although the position of "Prime Minister" had no recognition in law or official use at the time, he is nevertheless acknowledged as having held the office de facto because of his influence within the Cabinet. Served during reigns of George I and George II

Johann Tetzel

a Catholic German Dominican preacher known for selling indulgences, which allow a remission of temporal punishment due to sin, the guilt of which has been forgiven, by the payment of money to the church. Greatly angered Luther

Hus, Jan

a Czech priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague. After John Wycliffe, the theorist of ecclesiastical Reformation, this person is considered the first Church reformer, as he lived before Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. He urged the elimination of worldliness and corruption of clergy; attacked power of papacy

Ole Romer

a Danish astronomer who in 1676 made the first quantitative measurements of the speed of light.

Tycho Brahe

a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. He was born in Scania, then part of Denmark, now part of modern-day Sweden. In his De nova stella (On the new star) of 1573, he refuted the Aristotelian belief in an unchanging celestial realm. His precise measurements indicated that "new stars," (stellae novae, now known as supernovae) in particular that of 1572, lacked the parallax expected in sub-lunar phenomena, and were therefore not "atmospheric" tailless comets as previously believed, but were above the atmosphere and moon. Using similar measurements he showed that comets were also not atmospheric phenomena, as previously thought, and must pass through the supposedly "immutable" celestial spheres assisted by Kepler, who later used his data

Rembrandt

a Dutch painter and etcher. He is generally considered one of the greatest painters and printmakers in European art and the most important in Dutch history. His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the Dutch Golden Age when Dutch Golden Age painting, although in many ways antithetical to the Baroque style that dominated Europe, was extremely prolific and innovative. Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp; Return of the Prodigal Son; Nightwatch; The Jewish Bride

Vermeer

a Dutch painter who specialized in domestic interior scenes of middle-class life. Vermeer was a moderately successful provincial genre painter in his lifetime. He seems never to have been particularly wealthy, leaving his wife and children in debt at his death, perhaps because he produced relatively few paintings. The Milkmaid; The Astronomer; Girl with a Pearl Earring; The Allegory of Painting

Jan Oldenbarnvelt

a Dutch statesman who played an important role in the Dutch struggle for independence from Spain. supported a Republic rule of government; at odds with Maurice of Orange over this and religious toleration; led to decapitation

Leeuwenhoek

a Dutch tradesman and scientist. He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist. He is best known for his work on the improvement of the microscope and for his contributions towards the establishment of microbiology. Raised in Delft, Netherlands, he worked as a draper in his youth, and founded his own shop in 1654. He made a name for himself in municipal politics, and eventually developed an interest in lensmaking. Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which are now referred to as microorganisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, and blood flow in capillaries (small blood vessels).

Rubens

a Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality. He is well known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. Arrival of Marie de' Medici at Marseilles; Elevation of the Cross; Judgment of Paris

Peter Paul Rubens

a Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality. He is well known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. Marie de Medici Cycle Judgment of Paris Elevation of the Cross

Marquis de Lafayette

a French aristocrat and military officer born in Chavaniac, in the province of Auvergne in south central France. He was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a leader of the Garde nationale during the French Revolution. During the French Revolution, he attempted to maintain order—to the point of ordering the Garde nationale to fire on demonstrators at the Champ de Mars in July 1791—an action for which he ultimately was persecuted by the Jacobins. In August 1792, as the radical factions in the Revolution grew in power, he tried to flee to the United States through the Dutch Republic. He was captured by Austrians and spent more than five years in prison.

Bernard de Fontenelle

a French author. Isaiah Berlin said ___________ "was the most civilized man of his time, and indeed of most times." (wrote Plurality of Worlds, which explained scientific theories in common language (French))

Jacques Bossuet

a French bishop and theologian, renowned for his sermons and other addresses. He has been considered by many to be one of the most brilliant orators of all time and a masterly French stylist. Court preacher to Louis XIV of France ,he was a strong advocate of political absolutism and the divine right of kings. He argued that government was divine and that kings received their power from God. He was also an important courtier and politician.

Cardinal Richelieu

a French clergyman, noble and statesman. Consecrated as a bishop in 1608, he later entered politics, becoming a Secretary of State in 1616. He soon rose in both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a Cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIII's chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642; he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, whose career he had fostered. crushed nobility; took away military and political rights of Huguenots while preserving religious freedom; used intendants

Talleyrand

a French diplomat. He worked successfully at the highest level (usually as foreign minister) for the regime of Louis XVI, through several governments of the French Revolution and then for Napoleon, Louis XVIII, Charles X, and Louis-Philippe. Most of them distrusted him but, like Napoleon, found him indispensable.

Jean-Baptiste Racine

a French dramatist, one of the three great playwrights of 17th-century France (along with Molière and Corneille), and an important literary figure in the Western tradition. He was primarily a tragedian, producing such "examples of neoclassical perfection" as Phèdre, Andromaque, and Athalie, although he did write one comedy, Les Plaideurs, and a muted tragedy, Esther, for the young.

Guise Family

a French ducal family, partly responsible for the French Wars of Religion. They were Catholic; attacked Huguenots

Francois Quesnay

a French economist of the Physiocratic school. He is known for publishing the "Tableau économique" (Economic Table) in 1758, which provided the foundations of the ideas of the Physiocrats. This was perhaps the first work to attempt to describe the workings of the economy in an analytical way, and as such can be viewed as one of the first important contributions to economic thought. His Le Despotisme de la Chine, written in 1767, describes Chinese politics and society, and his own political support for constitutional Oriental despotism. Wealth of society determined by production, not by gold or sliver Production always traced back to agriculture Productivity at its highest when govt doesn't interfere

Maximilien Robespierre

a French lawyer and politician, and one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. As a member of the Estates-General, the Constituent Assembly and the Jacobin Club (Jacobin leader during the Reign of Terror), he advocated against the death penalty and for the abolition of slavery, while supporting equality of rights, universal suffrage and the establishment of a republic. He opposed war with Austria and the possibility of a coup by the Marquis de Lafayette. As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, he was an important figure during the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror, which ended a few months after his arrest and execution in July 1794.

Napoleon Bonaparte

a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the latter stages of the French Revolution and its associated wars in Europe. he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814. He undertook many reforms across Europe, ending feudalism for example. In 1799, he took power in a coup d'état on November 9, 1799 ("the 18th Brumaire" according to the revolutionary calendar) and installed himself as First Consul. In 1804 he made himself emperor of the French people. He fought a series of wars —the Napoleonic Wars—that involved complex coalitions for and against him, but Britain was always his great enemy.

Antoine Watteau

a French painter whose brief career spurred the revival of interest in colour and movement (in the tradition of Correggio and Rubens). He revitalized the waning Baroque style, and indeed moved it to the less severe, more naturalistic, less formally classical Rococo. Embarkation for Cythera

Jean-Baptiste Moliere

a French playwright and actor who is considered to be one of the greatest masters of comedy in Western literature. Among his best-known works are Le Misanthrope (The Misanthrope), L'École des Femmes (The School for Wives), Tartuffe ou L'Imposteur (Tartuffe or the Hypocrite), L'Avare (The Miser), Le Malade Imaginaire (The Imaginary Invalid), and Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (The Bourgeois Gentleman).

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

a French politician who served as the Minister of Finances of France from 1665 to 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. His relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister. He achieved a reputation for his work of improving the state of French manufacturing and bringing the economy back from the brink of bankruptcy. Historians note that, despite his efforts, France actually became increasingly impoverished because of the King's excessive spending on wars. He worked to create a favourable balance of trade and increase France's colonial holdings. tapestries and glass and stuff

Jacques Necker

a French statesman of Swiss birth and finance minister of Louis XVI, a post he held in the lead-up to the French Revolution in 1789. summoned and dismissed multiple times under Louis XVI dismissal of this guy made Third Estate think that King was wary of Estates General first to publish financial figures forgets to include war debt recommended that taxes should be fairer; wanted nobility to pay share (dismissed after that; summoned later)

Moses Mendelssohn

a German Jewish philosopher to whose ideas the Haskalah (the 'Jewish enlightenment' of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) is indebted. Although himself a practicing orthodox Jew, he has been referred to as the father of Reform Judaism.

Thomas a Kempis

a German canon regular of the late medieval period and the most probable author of The Imitation of Christ, which is one of the best known Christian books on devotion. (I guess he created the concept of modern devotion?)

Johann Sebastian Bach

a German composer, organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist of the Baroque period. He enriched established German styles through his skill in counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and the adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. His compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Mass in B minor, the The Well-Tempered Clavier, more than 200 cantatas, two Passions, and keyboard works. His music is revered for its intellectual depth, technical command, and artistic beauty.

Fuggers

a German family that was a historically prominent group of European bankers, members of the fifteenth and sixteenth-century mercantile patriciate of Augsburg, international mercantile bankers, and venture capitalists. Alongside the Welser family, the family controlled much of the European economy in the 16th century and accumulated enormous wealth. This banking family replaced the de' Medici family, who influenced all of Europe during the Renaissance. Supported Charles V

Leibniz

a German mathematician and philosopher. He occupies a prominent place in the history of mathematics and the history of philosophy. developed the infinitesimal calculus independently of Isaac Newton, and his mathematical notation has been widely used ever since it was published. It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and Transcendental Law of Homogeneity found mathematical implementation (by means of non-standard analysis). He became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. While working on adding automatic multiplication and division to Pascal's calculator, he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator in 1685 and invented a namesake "wheel", used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the binary number system, which is at the foundation of virtually all digital computers. most noted for his optimism, e.g., his conclusion that our Universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one that God could have created; along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th century advocates of rationalism. (parodied by Voltaire in the form of Pangloss in Candide)

Kepler

a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation. Was the assistant of Brahe.

Balthasar Neumann

a German military artillery engineer and architect who developed a refined brand of Baroque architecture, fusing Austrian, Bohemian, Italian, and French elements to design some of the most impressive buildings of the period, including the Würzburg Residence and the Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, called Vierzehnheiligen in German.

Philipp Melanchthon

a German reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation, and an influential designer of educational systems. He stands next to Luther and Calvin as a reformer, theologian, and molder of Protestantism. Along with Luther, he is the primary founder of Lutheranism. They both denounced what they believed was the exaggerated cult of the saints, asserted justification by faith, and denounced the coercion of the conscience in the sacrament of penance by the Catholic Church, that they believed could not offer certainty of salvation. Helped write Augsburg Confession

House of Hanover

a German royal dynasty which has ruled the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg (German: Braunschweig-Lüneburg), a namesake German kingdom, the Kingdom of Great Britain, the Kingdom of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It succeeded the House of Stuart as monarchs of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714 and held that office until the death of Queen Victoria in 1901.

Paracelsus

a German-Swiss Renaissance physician, botanist, alchemist, astrologer, and general occultist. He founded the discipline of toxicology. He is also known as a revolutionary for insisting upon using observations of nature, rather than looking to ancient texts, in open and radical defiance of medical practice of his day. He is also credited for giving zinc its name, calling it zincum, and for the terms "gas", "chemistry", and "alcohol". Modern psychology often also credits him for being the first to note that some diseases are rooted in psychological illness. pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. also considered the father of toxicology

George Frederick Handel

a German-born British Baroque composer famous for his operas, oratorios, anthems and organ concertos. Born in a family indifferent to music, he received critical training in Halle, Hamburg and Italy before settling in London (1712) as a naturalized British subject in 1727. By then he was strongly influenced by the great composers of the Italian Baroque and the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition. Messiah, Sarabande, Water Music

Ivan III

a Grand Prince of Moscow and "Grand Prince of all Rus" (Великий князь всея Руси). Sometimes referred to as the "gatherer of the Russian lands," he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde over the Rus, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. He was one of the longest-reigning Russian rulers in history. Created "the Third Rome" in Moscow and Russia; married Byzantine princess; brought Orthodox faith to Russia

converso

a Jew or Muslim who converted to Catholicism in Spain or Portugal, particularly during the 14th and 15th centuries, or one of their descendents. Mass conversions once took place under significant government pressure. The Treaty of Granada (1491) at the last surrender of Al-Andalus issued clear protections of religious rights; the Alhambra Decree (1492) began the reversal.

Spinoza

a Jewish-Dutch philosopher. By laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism, including modern conceptions of the self and, arguably, the universe, he came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy. His magnum opus, the posthumous Ethics, in which he opposed Descartes's mind-body dualism, has earned him recognition as one of Western philosophy's most important thinkers.

St. Peter's Basilica

a Late Renaissance church located within Vatican City. Designed principally by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, it is the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture and remains one of the largest churches in the world. While it is neither the mother church of the Roman Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome, it is regarded as one of the holiest Catholic sites. It has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world" and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom".

St. Peter's Basilica

a Late Renaissance church located within Vatican City. Designed principally by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, it is the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture and remains one of the largest churches in the world. While it is neither the mother church of the Roman Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome, it is regarded as one of the holiest Catholic sites. It has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world" and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom". Required the sale of indulgences to build, though

Short Parliament

a Parliament of England that sat from 13 April to 5 May 1640 during the reign of King Charles I of England, so called because it lasted only three weeks. Charles called it together so that he could raise money, but because the members expressed concerns about ship money and wanted to vote on his obtaining of finances for a war with Scotland (which they would have probably refused), he called it off.

Grand Duchy of Warsaw

a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit. It was held in personal union by one of Napoleon's allies, King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. Following Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia, the duchy was occupied by Prussian and Russian troops until 1815, when it was formally partitioned between the two countries at the Congress of Vienna.

Vasco da Gama

a Portuguese explorer, one of the most successful in the Age of Discovery and the commander of the first ships to sail directly from Europe to India. He is one of the most famous and celebrated explorers from the Discovery Ages, being the first European to reach India by sea.

Field Marshall von Blucher

a Prussian Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) who led his army against Napoleon I at the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig in 1813 and at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 with the Duke of Wellington. The honorary citizen of Berlin, Hamburg and Rostock bore the nickname "Marschall Vorwärts" ("Marshal Forwards") because of his approach to warfare.

Grigory Potemkin

a Russian military leader, statesman, nobleman and favorite of Catherine the Great. He died during negotiations over the Treaty of Jassy, which ended a war with the Ottoman Empire that he had overseen. associated with namesake fake villages

John Knox

a Scottish clergyman and a leader of the Protestant Reformation who is considered the founder of the Presbyterian denomination in Scotland. He is believed to have been educated at the University of St Andrews and worked as a notary-priest. Influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart, he joined the movement to reform the Scottish church. He was caught up in the ecclesiastical and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal Beaton in 1546 and the intervention of the regent of Scotland Mary of Guise. He was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549.

John Law

a Scottish economist who believed that money was only a means of exchange that did not constitute wealth in itself and that national wealth depended on trade. He was appointed Controller General of Finances of France under King Louis XV. In 1716 he established the Banque Générale in France, a private bank, but three-quarters of the capital consisted of government bills and government-accepted notes, effectively making it the first central bank of the nation. He was responsible for the Mississippi Bubble and a chaotic economic collapse in France. He was a gambler and a brilliant mental calculator. He was known to win card games by mentally calculating the odds. He originated economic ideas such as "The Scarcity Theory of Value" and the "Real bills doctrine". His views held that money creation will stimulate the economy, that paper money is preferable to metallic money which should be banned, and that shares are a superior form of money since they pay dividends.

Duke of Alva

a Spanish noble, soldier, and diplomat. He was titled the 3rd Duke of Alba de Tormes and 1st Duke of Huéscar, 4th Marquis of Coria, 3rd Count of Salvatierra de Tormes, 2nd Count of Piedrahita, 8th Lord of Valdecorneja, Grandee of Spain, and an Illustrious Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Alba was a trusted adviser and servant of Charles I of Spain (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) and his successor Philip II, both chief steward and member of their Councils of State and War. He was charged with the government of the Duchy of Milan (1555-1556), the Kingdom of Naples (1556-1558), the Netherlands (1567-1573) and the Kingdom of Portugal (1580-1582). He represented Philip II at Philip's betrothal to Elizabeth of Valois, daughter of Henry II of France, and to Anne of Austria, daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II. Considered by historians as the greatest general of his time and one of the best in history, he distinguished himself in La Jornada de Túnez, and in many campaigns during the Religious Wars, including the Mühlberg, Jemmingen and Alcántara. He is most remembered in Western European history for his sometimes brutal attempts to pacify, and eradicate sedition in, the Netherlands, where he suppressed and punished a Dutch uprising. He capped his career as an old man with the succession crisis in Portugal in 1580, conquering that kingdom for Philip II. Because of his military genius Spain achieved the unification of all the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula and the consequent expansion of the overseas territories.

Siege of Vienna 1683

a battle that took place after Vienna had been besieged by the Ottoman Empire for two months. It was a battle of the Holy Roman Empire in league with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Holy League) versus the Ottoman Empire and chiefdoms of the Ottoman Empire, and took place at the Kahlenberg mountain near Vienna. The battle marked the beginning of the political hegemony of the Habsburg dynasty in the Holy Roman Empire and Central Europe. Holy League Victory

Deism

a belief system in which God sets the universe in motion and does not affect what happens afterward; runs like a clock

Nationalism

a belief, creed or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with, or becoming attached to, one's nation. (very strong with French?)

Directory

a body of five directors that held executive power in France following the National Convention and preceding the Consulate. The period of this regime (2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799), commonly known as the namesake era, constitutes the second to last stage of the French Revolution. 1795 - 1799

Scientific Method

a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. Put forth by Bacon.

Presbyterianism

a branch of Reformed Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles; angered by entry of English into Anglo-Spanish war against French Huguenots

Charter of the Nobility (1785)

a charter issued by the Russian empress Catherine II. It recognized the corps of nobles in each province as a legal corporate body and stated the rights and privileges bestowed upon its members. The charter was divided into an introduction and four sections: Personal rights and privileges of the gentry. Corporate self-organization of the gentry. Assemblies of Nobility Genealogy books. Documents, establishing nobility. Notable rights given to the Gentry via the charter include being exempt from taxation, controlling the economic gains of their serfs, being exempt from corporal punishment, allowing them the right to assembly, and allowing them to be tried in their own courts.

Potosi

a city and the capital of the department of a namesake place in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world by elevation at a nominal 4,090 metres (13,420 ft) and it was the location of the Spanish colonial mint. It lies at the foot of the Cerro de _______—sometimes referred to as the Cerro Rico ("rich mountain")—a mountain popularly conceived of as being "made of" silver ore, which has always dominated the city. The Cerro Rico is the reason for this place's historical importance, since it was the major supply of silver for Spain during the period of the New World Spanish Empire.

Siena

a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of the same name. the republic was defeated by the rival Duchy of Florence in alliance with the Spanish crown. After 18 months of resistance, it surrendered to Spain on 17 April 1555, marking the end of the republic. The new Spanish King Philip, owing huge sums to the Medici, ceded it (apart a series of coastal fortress annexed to the State of Presidi) to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to which it belonged until the unification of Italy in the 19th century.

Milan

a city-state ruled by two families in the Renaissance: the Visconti and the Sforza

Florence

a city-state where the Medici ruled and where most of the (Italian) Renaissance took place

Great Chain of Being

a concept derived from Plato and Aristotle, and developed fully in Neoplatonism. It details a strict, religious hierarchical structure of all matter and life, believed to have been decreed by God. It starts from God and progresses downward to angels, demons (fallen/renegade angels), stars, moon, kings, princes, nobles, men, wild animals, domesticated animals, trees, other plants, precious stones, precious metals, and other minerals. (probably destroyed during the Scientific Revolution)

Hanseatic League

a confederation of cities mostly along the Baltic coast; banded together for preferential trading privileges; also for mutual defense

Confederation of the Rhine

a confederation of client states of the First French Empire. It was formed initially from 16 German states by Napoleon after he defeated Austria and Russia in the Battle of Austerlitz. The Treaty of Pressburg, in effect, led to the creation of this. It lasted from 1806 to 1813.

Congress of Vienna

a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The objective was to provide a long-term peace for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The leaders were conservatives who sought to achieve long-term peace in Europe by a balance of power, and to restore traditional rulers to Napoleon's puppet states.

Great Northern War

a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter the Great of Russia, Frederick IV of Denmark-Norway and Augustus II the Strong of Saxony-Poland-Lithuania. Frederick IV and Augustus II were forced out of the alliance in 1700 and 1706 respectively, but rejoined it in 1709. George I of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) joined the coalition in 1714 for Hanover and in 1717 for Britain, and Frederick William I of Brandenburg-Prussia joined it in 1715. Charles XII led the Swedish army. On the Swedish side were Holstein-Gottorp, several Polish and Lithuanian magnates under Stanisław Leszczyński (1704-10) and Cossacks under the Ukrainian Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1708-10). The Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I. Result: Coalition victory: Tsardom of Russia establishes itself as a new power in Europe. Decline of the Swedish Empire and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Territorial changes: Treaty of Nystad: Russia gains the three dominions Estonia, Livonia and Ingria as well as parts of Kexholm and Viborg. Treaties of Stockholm: Prussia gains parts of Swedish Pomerania. Hanover gains Bremen-Verden. Treaty of Frederiksborg: Holstein-Gottorp loses its part of the Duchy of Schleswig to Denmark.

Navigation Acts

a continuation of laws that restricted the use of foreign shipping for trade between England (after 1707, Great Britain) and its colonies. It is a process which had started in 1651. Their goal was to force colonial development into lines favorable to England, and stop direct colonial trade with the Netherlands, France, and other European countries. The original ordinance of 1651 was renewed at the Restoration by Acts of 1662, 1663, 1670, and 1673 subsequently subject to minor amendment. These Acts also formed the basis for British overseas trade for nearly 200 years. on the whole, these acts were obeyed, except for the Molasses Act of 1733, which led to extensive smuggling because no effective means of enforcement was provided until the 1750s. Irritation because of stricter enforcement under the Sugar Act of 1764 became one source of resentment by merchants in the American colonies against Great Britain. This in turn helped push the colonies to start the American Revolution.

Spanish Inquisition (1478)

a country-wide persecution of people not of the Catholic faith in the namesake place (so pretty much persecuted Jews and Muslims); led to degradation of human resources in the long-run, though (but let the papacy favor this country); made this country predominantly Roman Catholic

Battle of Mohacs

a decisive event for the history of East-Central Europe for the following centuries. In the battle, forces of the Kingdom of Hungary led by King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia were defeated by forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. The Ottoman victory led to the partition of Hungary for several centuries between the Ottoman Empire, the Habsburg Monarchy, and the Principality of Transylvania. The death of Louis II as he fled the battle marked the end of the Jagiellon dynasty in Hungary and Bohemia, whose dynastic claims were absorbed by the Habsburgs via the marriage of Louis' sister. Result: Decisive Ottoman victory; End of Ottoman-Hungarian Wars, Start of Ottoman-Habsburg Wars, Collapse of Medieval Hungary

Battle of Yorktown

a decisive victory by a combined force of American Continental Army troops led by General George Washington and French Army troops led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army commanded by British lord and Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis. The culmination of the Yorktown campaign, the siege proved to be the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War, as the surrender by Cornwallis, and the capture of both him and his army, prompted the British government to negotiate an end to the conflict.

taille

a direct land tax on the French peasantry and non-nobles in Ancien Régime France. The tax was imposed on each household and based on how much land it held.

Sforza family

a family that acquired the dukedom and Duchy of Milan from the previously ruling Visconti family in the mid-15th century, and lost it to the Spanish Habsburgs about a century later.

Popish Plot

a fictitious conspiracy concocted by Titus Oates that between 1678 and 1681 gripped the Kingdoms of England and Scotland in anti-Catholic hysteria. Oates alleged that there existed an extensive Catholic conspiracy to assassinate Charles II, accusations that led to the execution of at least 22 men and precipitated the Exclusion Bill Crisis. Eventually Oates' intricate web of accusations fell apart, leading to his arrest and conviction for perjury.

Mississippi Bubble

a financial scheme in 18th-century France that triggered a speculative frenzy and ended in financial collapse. The scheme was engineered by John Law, a Scottish adventurer, economic theorist, and financial wizard who was a friend of the regent, the Duke d'Orléans. Economic crash due to inflation (over-printing of money) and over-speculation in New World colonies

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

a fundamental document of the French Revolution and in the history of human rights, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right", the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. (one written in 1789; another in 1793)

Humanism

a group of philosophies and ethical perspectives which emphasize the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers individual thought and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over established doctrine or faith (fideism).

Cossacks

a group of predominantly East Slavic people who became known as members of democratic, semi-military and semi-naval communities, predominantly located in Ukraine and in Southern Russia. They inhabited sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper, Don, Terek, and Ural river basins and played an important role in the historical and cultural development of both Russia and Ukraine. Because of their military tradition, their forces played an important role in Russia's wars of the 18th-20th centuries such as the Great Northern War, the Seven Years' War, the Crimean War, Napoleonic Wars, Caucasus War, numerous Russo-Turkish Wars, and the First World War. (I think it's these people, but I'm not entirely sure)

Bohemia

a historical country, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech lands. It is located in the contemporary Czech Republic with its capital in Prague. Matthias Corvinus was a king of this place (and other places as well)

Hugo Grotius

a jurist in the Dutch Republic. With Francisco de Vitoria and Alberico Gentili he laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law. He was also a philosopher, theologian, Christian apologist, playwright, historiographer and poet. supported religious toleration and republic form of government; exiled by Maurice of Orange for this

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

a law passed on 12 July 1790 during the French Revolution, that subordinated the Roman Catholic Church in France to the French government. completed the destruction of the monastic orders, legislating out of existence "all regular and secular chapters for either sex, abbacies and priorships, both regular and in commendam, for either sex", etc. It also sought to settle the chaos caused by the earlier confiscation of Church lands and the abolition of the tithe.

James Boswell

a lawyer, diarist, and author born in Edinburgh, Scotland. He is best known for the biography he wrote of one of his contemporaries, the English literary figure Samuel Johnson, which the modern Johnsonian critic Harold Bloom has claimed is the greatest biography written in the English language.

Archbishop Thomas Cranmer

a leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and, for a short time, Mary I. He helped build the case for the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which was one of the causes of the separation of the English Church from union with the Holy See. Along with Thomas Cromwell, he supported the principle of Royal Supremacy, in which the king was considered sovereign over the Church within his realm.

Ulrich Zwingli

a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system, he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, a scholarly centre of humanism. He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln, where he was influenced by the writings of Erasmus. Influenced by Luther but strongly disagreed with him regarding transubstatiation and stuff

Royal Society of London

a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society still in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II.

Academie Royale

a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research. It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, and is one of the earliest Academies of Sciences.

Prester John

a legendary figure; a Christian patriarch and king said to rule over a Christian nation lost amidst the Muslims and pagans in the Orient. kingdom contained legendary stuff his kingdom was thus the object of a quest, firing the imaginations of generations of adventurers, but remaining out of reach. He was a symbol to European Christians of the Church's universality, transcending culture and geography to encompass all humanity, in a time when ethnic and inter-religious tension made such a vision seem distant.

Battle of the Nile

a major naval battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the Navy of the French Republic at Aboukir Bay on the Mediterranean coast off Egypt from 1 to 3 August 1798. The battle was the climax of a naval campaign that had ranged across the Mediterranean during the previous three months, as a large French convoy sailed from Toulon to Alexandria carrying an expeditionary force under then General Napoleon Bonaparte. In the battle, the British forces, led by Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson (later Lord Nelson), defeated the French.

War of the League of Augsburg

a major war of the late 17th century fought between King Louis XIV of France, and a European-wide coalition, the Grand Alliance, led by the Anglo-Dutch Stadtholder-King William III, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, King Charles II of Spain, Victor Amadeus II of Savoy, and the major and minor princes of the Holy Roman Empire; was fought primarily on mainland Europe and its surrounding waters, but it also encompassed a theatre in Ireland and in Scotland, where William III and James II struggled for control of the British Isles, and a campaign (King William's War) between French and English settlers and their respective Indian allies in colonial North America. The War was the second of Louis XIV's three major wars. (France vs the world pretty much)

Cesare Borgia

a man idolized by Machiavelli in The Prince; son of Pope Alexander VI; received territory and power from his father but was unable to retain it long after his father died (immortalized in Assassin's Creed)

Putting-out System

a means of subcontracting work. Historically it was also known as the workshop system and the domestic system. In putting-out, work is contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who complete the work in off-site facilities, either in their own homes or in workshops with multiple craftsmen.

Estates-General

a meeting of the three estates; not called in a very long time; conditions of the meeting caused problems; started to set up French Revolution a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate). summoned in 1789 by King Louis XVI to propose solutions to his government's financial problems, it sat for several weeks in May and June 1789 but came to an impasse as the three estates clashed over their respective powers. It was brought to an end when many members of the Third Estate formed themselves into a National Assembly, signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Marburg Colloquy

a meeting that attempted to solve a dispute between Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli over the Real Presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper. I think this was arranged by Bucer

Bourgeoisie

a member of the French upper class or upper-middle class

Peninsular War

a military conflict between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies occupied Portugal in 1807, and escalated in 1808 when France turned on Spain, its ally until then. It lasted until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814, and is regarded as one of the first wars of national liberation, significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare.

Sack of Rome

a military event carried out by the mutinous troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in Rome, then part of the Papal States. It marked a crucial imperial victory in the conflict between Charles and the League of Cognac (1526-1529) — the alliance of France, Milan, Venice, Florence and the Papacy. ties pope to HRE

Ptolemaic model of the universe

a model of the universe that states that the Earth is at the center and all heavenly bodies revolve around it (the heavenly bodies are also crystal spheres?)

Louis XV

a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reached maturity in 1723, his kingdom was ruled by Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, his first cousin twice removed, as Regent of France. Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinal's death in 1743, at which time the young king took over sole control of the kingdom. During his reign, his government returned the Austrian Netherlands, won at the Battle of Fontenoy of 1745, but given back to Austria by the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748, and ceded most of New France to Great Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years' War in 1763. His reign also saw the incorporation of the territories of Lorraine and Corsica into the kingdom of France. Most scholars believe his decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy. and made more vulnerable to distrust and destruction, as happened in the French Revolution, which broke out 15 years after his death. "Apres moi, le deluge" Madame Pompadour was his mistress

Louis XIV

a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of monarchs of major countries in European history. built Versailles; "Sun King"; "I am the State"; Edict of Fontainbleau; also got involved in several wars

Louis XVIII

a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1814 to 1824 except for a period in 1815 known as the Hundred Days. He spent twenty-three years in exile, from 1791 to 1814, during the French Revolution and the First French Empire, and again in 1815, during the period of the Hundred Days, upon the return of Napoleon I from Elba.

Louis XIII

a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged to the French crown. succeeded his father Henry IV as king of France and Navarre a few months before his ninth birthday. His mother, Marie de' Medici, acted as regent during his minority. Mismanagement of the kingdom and ceaseless political intrigues by Marie de' Medici and her Italian favourites led the young king to take power in 1617 by exiling his mother and executing her followers, including Concino Concini, the most influential Italian at the French court. relied heavily on Cardinal Richelieu's support built up monarchical power involved in 30 Years War

Charles VIII

a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1483 to his death in 1498. He succeeded his father Louis XI at the age of 13. His elder sister Anne of France acted as regent until 1491 jointly with her husband Peter II, Duke of Bourbon. During Anne's regency, the great feudal lords rebelled against royal centralisation efforts in a conflict known as the Mad War (1485-1488), which resulted in a victory for the royal government. married Anne of Brittany in 1491 after she had already been married by proxy to the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in a ceremony of questionable validity. Occupied elsewhere, Maximilian failed to press his claim. Upon his marriage, he became Duke of Brittany and created a Union of Brittany and France that enabled France to avoid total encirclement by Habsburg territories. Got France involved in Italian Wars.

Henry II of France

a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 31 March 1547 until his death in 1559. The second son of Francis I, he became Dauphin of France upon the death of his elder brother Francis III, Duke of Brittany, in 1536. persevered in the Italian Wars against the House of Habsburg and tried to suppress the Protestant Reformation even as the Huguenots became an increasingly large minority in France during his reign. Died in jousting tourney; wife was Catherine de Medici

Henry III of France

a monarch of the House of Valois who was elected the monarch of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1573 to 1575 and ruled as King of France from 1574 until his death. He was the last French monarch of the Valois dynasty. Involved in War of the Three _____

Pietism

a movement within Lutheranism that began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century, and had almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. While declining as an identifiable Lutheran group, some of its theological tenets influenced Protestantism and Anabaptism generally, inspiring Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement and Alexander Mack to begin the Brethren movement; combined the Lutheranism of the time with the Reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous Christian life.

Holy Roman Empire

a multi-ethnic and complex union of territories in Central Europe existing from 962 to 1806. grew out of East Francia, a primary division of the Frankish Empire, and explicitly proclaimed itself the continuation of the Western Roman Empire under the doctrine of translatio imperii ("transfer of rule" via a succession of singular rulers vested with supreme power). Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned as emperor by Pope Leo III in 800, restoring the title in the West after more than three centuries. The title was passed in a desultory manner during the decline and fragmentation of the Carolingian dynasty, eventually falling into abeyance. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, beginning an unbroken line of emperors running for over eight centuries. Although Charlemagne was the first to bear the title and the agglomeration grew out of his empire, Otto I is generally regarded as the founder and the date of his coronation as the beginning of this empire.

Mercantilism

a national economic policy that says that a nation benefits by accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods. caused frequent wars; encouraged colonization

Mercantilism

a national economic policy that says that a nation benefits by accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods; dominated Western European economic policy and discourse from the 16th to late-18th centuries. reason for frequent wars (e.g. American Revolution)

Battle of Trafalgar

a naval engagement fought by the Royal Navy against the combined fleets of the French and Spanish Navies, during the War of the Third Coalition (August-December 1805) of the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815). The battle was the most decisive naval victory of the war. Twenty-seven British ships of the line led by Admiral Lord Nelson aboard HMS Victory defeated thirty-three French and Spanish ships of the line under French Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve off the southwest coast of Spain, just west of the namesake cape. The Franco-Spanish fleet lost twenty-two ships, without a single British vessel being lost.

Kingdom of Westphalia

a new country of 2.6 million Germans that existed from 1807-1813. It included territory in Hesse and other parts of present-day Germany. While formally independent, it was a vassal state of the First French Empire and was ruled by Napoleon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte.

Hohenzollerns

a noble family and royal dynasty of electors, kings, and emperors of Brandenburg, Prussia, Germany, and Romania. It originated in the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the 11th century. ruled Prussia and eventually Germany

Bartholomeu Diaz

a nobleman of the Portuguese royal household, was a Portuguese explorer. He sailed around the southernmost tip of Africa in 1488, the first European known to have done so.

Pocket Borough

a parliamentary borough or constituency in England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom which had a very small electorate and could be used by a patron to gain undue and unrepresentative influence within the Unreformed House of Commons.

Peace of Lodi (1454)

a peace agreement between Milan, Naples, and Florence signed on April 9, 1454 at namesake place in Lombardy, on the banks of the Adda. It put an end to the long struggles between expansive Milan, under Filippo Maria Visconti, and Venice in the terraferma, which had produced a single decisive Venetian victory, at the battle of Maclodio in 1427, in which the Venetian ally was Florence, but had resulted in no lasting peace established permanent boundaries between Milanese and Venetian territories in Northern Italy, along the river Adda. Francesco Sforza was confirmed as the rightful duke of Milan. A principle of a balance of power in Northern Italy was established, one that excluded ambitions of smaller states: the republic of Genoa, the house of Savoy, the Gonzaga and the Este.

Interregnum

a period between the reign of two monarchs; happened in England and Russia

Dutch Golden Age

a period in Dutch history, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. The first half is characterized by the Eighty Years' War till 1648.

Baroque

a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music. The style began around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to most of Europe.

Baroque Style

a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music. The style began around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to most of Europe.

Reign of Terror

a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution". The death toll ranged in the tens of thousands, with 16,594 executed by guillotine (2,639 in Paris), and another 25,000 in summary executions across France.

Jean-Paul Marat

a physician, political theorist and scientist best known for his career in France as a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution. His journalism became renowned for its fierce tone, uncompromising stance toward the new leaders and institutions of the revolution, and advocacy of basic human rights for the poorest members of society. He was one of the most radical voices of the French Revolution. He became a vigorous defender of the sans-culottes, publishing his views in pamphlets, placards and newspapers, notably his "L'Ami du peuple", which helped make him their unofficial link with the radical, republican Jacobin group that came to power after June 1793. He was assassinated by Charlotte Corday, a Girondist sympathizer, while in his specialized bowel room. In his death he became an icon to the Jacobins, a sort of revolutionary martyr, as portrayed in David's famous painting of his death.

Act of Supremacy

a piece of legislation that granted King Henry VIII of England Royal Supremacy, which means that he was declared the supreme head of the Church of England.

Tennis Court Oath

a pivotal event during the first days of the French Revolution. It was a pledge signed by 576 of the 577 members from the Third Estate who were locked out of a meeting of the Estates-General on 20 June 1789. The only person who did not sign was Joseph Martin-Dauch, a politician who would not execute decisions not sanctioned by the king. They made a makeshift conference room inside a tennis court located in the Saint-Louis district of the city of Versailles, near the Palace of Versailles. pledged "not to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the kingdom is established".

Avignon

a place in France where the pope lived for some time

Castile

a place where Queen Isabella ruled

Monroe Doctrine

a policy of the United States introduced on December 2, 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression, requiring U.S. intervention. At the same time, the doctrine noted that the United States would neither interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. some say that it was inspired by the Napoleonic Wars

Girondins

a political faction in France within the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention during the French Revolution. They campaigned for the end of the monarchy but then resisted the spiraling momentum of the Revolution. They came into conflict with The Mountain (Montagnards, a more radical faction within the Jacobin Club). This conflict eventually led to the fall of them and their mass execution, the beginning of the Reign of Terror. Prominent ones included Jacques Pierre Brissot, Jean Marie Roland and his wife Madame Roland. They had an ally in American Founding Father Thomas Paine. Brissot and Madame Roland were executed with the guillotine and Jean Roland (who had gone into hiding) committed suicide when he learned what had transpired. Paine was arrested and imprisoned but narrowly escaped execution.

Levellers

a political movement during the English Civil War which emphasized popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law, and religious tolerance, all of which were expressed in the manifesto "Agreement of the People". They came to prominence at the end of the First English Civil War and were most influential before the start of the Second Civil War. (seen as radicals)(wanted to give fairly big rights)(ex: free speech to all)

Metternich

a politician and statesman of Rhenish extraction and one of the most important diplomats of his era, serving as the Foreign Minister of the Austrian Empire from 1809 until the liberal revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation. One of his first tasks was to engineer a détente with France that included the marriage of Napoleon to the Austrian Arch-Duchess Marie Louise. Soon after, however, he engineered Austria's entry into the War of the Sixth Coalition on the Allied side, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau that sent Napoleon into exile and led the Austrian delegation at the Congress of Vienna which divided post-Napoleonic Europe between the major powers. In recognition of his service to the Austrian Empire he was raised to the title of Prince in October 1813. (known for diplomacy and namesake system)(?)

University of Padua

a premier Italian university. It was founded in 1222 as a school of law and was one of the most prominent universities in early modern Europe. It is among the earliest universities of the world and the second oldest in Italy. developed many scientists

Emelyan Pugachev

a pretender to the Russian throne who led a great Cossack insurrection during the reign of Catherine II. (it was a peasant revolt as well)(affects Catherine's policies)

Principle of Legitimacy

a principle stating that the rulers who were dethroned by Napoleon should get their countries back and reign the same territories that they reigned before Napoleon

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood. Already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, he was engaged as a court musician in Salzburg, but grew restless and travelled in search of a better position, always composing abundantly. While visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame but little financial security. During his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his early death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons. He composed over 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, and his influence on subsequent Western art music is profound. Requiem, Eine Kleine Nachtmusik, among tons of other pieces

Galen

a prominent Roman (of Greek ethnicity) physician, surgeon and philosopher. Arguably the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, he contributed greatly to the understanding of numerous scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic. He was proven wrong in many respects by scientists (like Harvey) during the Scientific Revolution, though

Savoy

a region of France. It comprises roughly the territory of the Western Alps situated between Lake Geneva in the north and Dauphiné in the south. Home to a royal house by the same name.

Hermeticism

a religious and philosophical tradition based primarily upon pseudepigraphical writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus ("Thrice Great"). These writings have greatly influenced the Western esoteric tradition and were considered to be of great importance during both the Renaissance and the Reformation. The tradition claims descent from a prisca theologia, a doctrine which affirms that a single, true theology exists which is present in all religions and was given by God to man in antiquity. connection with the development of science during the time from 1300 to 1600 A.D. The prominence that it gave to the idea of influencing or controlling nature led many scientists to look to magic and its allied arts (e.g., alchemy, astrology) which, it was thought, could put Nature to the test by means of experiments. Consequently it was the practical aspects of such writings that attracted the attention of scientists

Act of Religious Settlement

a response to the religious divisions created in England over the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I. This response, described as "The Revolution of 1559", was set out in two Acts of the Parliament of England. The Act of Supremacy of 1558 re-established the Church of England's independence from Rome, with Parliament conferring on Elizabeth the title Supreme Governor of the Church of England, while the Act of Uniformity of 1559 outlined what form the English Church should take, including the re-establishment of the Book of Common Prayer.

Thermidorean Reaction

a revolt in the French Revolution against the excesses of the Reign of Terror. It was triggered by a vote of the National Convention to execute Maximilien Robespierre, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, and several other leading members of the Terror. This ended the most radical phase of the French Revolution.

Withdrawing Room

a room where visitors may be entertained; a room to which the owner of the house, his wife, or a distinguished guest who was occupying one of the main apartments in the house could "withdraw" for more privacy. It was often off the great chamber (or the great chamber's descendant, the state room or salon) and usually led to a formal, or "state" bedroom.

Versailles

a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. was the center of political power in France from 1682, when Louis XIV moved from Paris, until the royal family was forced to return to the capital in October 1789 after the beginning of the French Revolution.

Jagiellon Dynasty

a royal dynasty originating from the Lithuanian House of Gediminas that reigned in Central European countries (present day Lithuania, Belarus, Poland, Ukraine, Latvia, parts of Estonia, Russia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Croatia) between the 14th and 16th centuries. Members of the dynasty were Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1377-1392 and 1440-1572), Kings of Poland (1386-1572), Kings of Hungary (1440-1444 and 1490-1526), and Kings of Bohemia (1471-1526). They reigned over Poland during the Renaissance.

Jagiellon Dynasty

a royal dynasty originating from the Lithuanian House of Gediminas that reigned in Central European countries (present day Lithuania, Belarus, Poland, Ukraine, Latvia, parts of Estonia, Russia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Croatia) between the 14th and 16th centuries. Members of the dynasty were Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1377-1392 and 1440-1572), Kings of Poland (1386-1572), Kings of Hungary (1440-1444 and 1490-1526), and Kings of Bohemia (1471-1526). stay until 1572

English Civil War

a series of armed conflicts and political problems between Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and Royalists (Cavaliers).

The Fronde

a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. provoked in response to Cardinal Mazzarin; finally resulted in the disempowerment of the territorial aristocracy and the emergence of absolute monarchy.

Hapsburg-Valois (Italian) Wars

a series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 that involved, at various times, most of the city-states of Italy, the Papal States, most of the major states of Western Europe (France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Scotland) as well as the Ottoman Empire. Originally arising from dynastic disputes over the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples, the wars rapidly became a general struggle for power and territory among their various participants, and were marked with an increasing number of alliances, counter-alliances, and betrayals. In France, Henry II was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion in 1562. The states of Italy were reduced to second-rate powers and Milan and Naples were annexed directly to Spain. They had a number of consequences for the work and workplace of Leonardo da Vinci; his plans for a "Gran Cavallo" big horse statue in 1495 were dropped when the seventy tons of bronze intended for the statue were instead cast into weapons to save Milan. Later, following a chance encounter with Francis I after the Battle of Marignano, Leonardo agreed to move to France, where he spent his final years.

War(s) of the Roses

a series of dynastic wars fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York (whose heraldic symbols were the red and the white rose, respectively) for the throne of England. They were fought in several sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1485, although there was related fighting both before and after this period. They resulted from the social and financial troubles following the Hundred Years' War. The final victory went to a relatively remote Lancastrian claimant, Henry Tudor, who defeated the last Yorkist king Richard III and married Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth of York to unite the two houses. The House of Tudor subsequently ruled England and Wales until 1603.

French Revolutionary Wars

a series of major conflicts fought between the French Republic government and several European Monarchies from 1792 to 1802. Marked by French revolutionary fervour and military innovations, the campaigns saw the French Revolutionary Armies defeat a number of opposing coalitions. They resulted in expanded French control to the Low Countries, Italy, and the Rhineland. The wars depended on extremely high numbers of soldiers, recruited by modern mass conscription.

Three partitions of Poland

a series of three partitions that took place in the second half of the 18th century and ultimately ended the existence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; Belarusian: Рэч Паспалітая Абодвух Народаў; Lithuanian: Abiejų Tautų Respublika), resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland, and Lithuania, its partner in the Commonwealth, for 123 years. The partitions were conducted by the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia and Habsburg Austria, which divided up the Commonwealth lands among themselves progressively in the process of territorial seizures.

Thirty Years War

a series of wars principally fought in Central Europe, involving most of the countries of Europe. It was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, and one of the longest continuous wars in modern history. Initially, religion was a motivation for war as Protestant and Catholic states battled it out even though they all were inside the Holy Roman Empire. Changing the relative balance of power within the Empire was at issue. Gradually, it developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers of Europe. In this general phase the war became less specifically religious and more a continuation of the Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence, leading in turn to further warfare between France and the Habsburg powers.

95 Theses

a set of arguments that Martin Luther nailed to the door of a church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517; starts Reformation

Russo-Turkish Wars

a set of wars fought in Asia between the two namesake groups of people (some of them were fought by Catherine II)

Flight to Varennes

a significant episode in the French Revolution during which King Louis XVI of France, his wife Marie Antoinette, and their immediate family attempted unsuccessfully to escape from Paris in order to initiate a counter-revolution. They desired to hide in Austria due to Marie's heritage, and hoped they would find safety in their newly found French Austrian agreement. Their escape only led them as far as the namesake small town, where they were recognized and immediately arrested.

Paris Commune

a socialistic government that briefly ruled Paris starting from the middle of March 1871. Though elected as the city council, it eventually proclaimed its own authority to govern all of France.

William III of Orange (and England)

a sovereign Prince of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau by birth. From 1672 he governed as Stadtholder over Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, and Overijssel of the Dutch Republic. From 1689 he reigned over England and Ireland (and other places). In what became known as the "Glorious Revolution", on 5 November 1688 he invaded England in an action that ultimately deposed King James II & VII and won him the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Piedmont-Sardinia

a state in Europe from the early 14th century until the mid-19th. It was the predecessor state of today's Italy. A small state with weak institutions when it was acquired by the House of Savoy in 1720, the Savoyards united their insular and continental domains and built it into one of the great powers by the time of the Crimean War (1853-56).

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Roman Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants), during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX, the massacre took place four days after the wedding of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant Henry III of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). This marriage was an occasion for which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris.

Unitarianism

a theological movement, named for its understanding of God as one person, in direct contrast to Trinitarianism, which defines God as three persons coexisting consubstantially as one being.

Aristotelian thought

a tradition of philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle...

National Assembly

a transitional body between the Estates-General and the Legislative Assembly 1789 - 1791

Malleus Maleficarum

a treatise on the prosecution of witches, written in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer, a German Catholic clergyman. The book was first published in Speyer, Germany, in 1487. main purpose was to attempt to systematically refute arguments claiming that witchcraft does not exist, to discredit those who expressed skepticism about its reality, to claim that witches were more often women than men, and to educate magistrates on the procedures that could find them out and convict them.

Cartesian dualism

a view about the relationship between mind and matter which claims that mind and matter are two ontologically separate categories; claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way. there are two fundamental kinds of substance: mental and material. the mental does not have extension in space, and the material cannot think

Danish Civil War (1533 - 36)

a war fought between Bishops and Lutheran King Christian III; reduces power of Catholics (and drives them out)

Dutch War 1672

a war fought by France, Sweden, the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, the Archbishopric of Cologne and England against the Dutch Republic, which was later joined by the Austrian Habsburg lands, Brandenburg and Spain to form a quadruple alliance. The war ended with the Treaty of Nijmegen of 1678, which granted France control of the Franche-Comté and some cities in Flanders and Hainaut, all formerly controlled by Spain. The year 1672 in Dutch is often referred to as Het Rampjaar, meaning the year of disaster. (England joined French in this because Louis XIV gave Charles II money; Parliament forced Charles to support Dutch eventually?)

Seven Years War

a war that took place between 1754 and 1763 with the main conflict being in the seven-year period 1756-1763. It involved most of the great powers of the time and affected Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines. In the historiography of some countries, the war is alternatively named after combatants in the respective theatres: the French and Indian War (North America, 1754-63); Pomeranian War (with Sweden and Prussia, 1757-62); Third Carnatic War (on the Indian subcontinent, 1757-63); and Third Silesian War (with Prussia and Austria, 1756-63). main powers: (Prussia, Great Britain, Hanover) vs. (Austria, France, Russia, Spain, and Sweden)

four elements

air, water, earth, fire

Duke of Buckingham

ally of James I and Charles I; tried to negotiate marriage of Charles I to someone from Spain; did not go over well with Parliament; killed by a soldier fighting in the Anglo-Spanish War

Women's March to Versailles

also known as The October March, it was one of the earliest and most significant events of the French Revolution. It began among women in the marketplaces of Paris who, on the morning of 5 October 1789, were near rioting over the high price and scarcity of bread. Their demonstrations quickly became intertwined with the activities of revolutionaries who were seeking liberal political reforms and a constitutional monarchy for France. The market women and their various allies grew into a mob of thousands and, encouraged by revolutionary agitators, they ransacked the city armory for weapons and marched to the Palace of Versailles. The crowd besieged the palace and in a dramatic and violent confrontation they successfully pressed their demands upon King Louis XVI. The next day, the crowd compelled the king, his family, and most of the French Assembly to return with them to Paris. These events effectively ended the independent authority of the king.

Anabaptists

ancestors of Amish and Mennonites; believed in Separation of Church and State, non-participation in secular government, and adult baptism; caused Munster revolt of 1534 - 1535; John of Leiden was a leader before he was killed

United Provinces

another name for Dutch Republic

Jonathan Swift

author of A Modest Proposal and Gulliver's Travels an Anglo-Irish satirist, essayist, political pamphleteer (first for the Whigs, then for the Tories), poet and cleric who became Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. He is remembered for works such as Gulliver's Travels, A Modest Proposal, A Journal to Stella, Drapier's Letters, The Battle of the Books, An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity, and A Tale of a Tub.

Voltaire

author of Candide and other writings a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state. He was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken advocate, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma, and the French institutions of his day.

Immanuel Kant

author of Critique of Pure Reason knowledge has constraints because mind limits empiricism dichotomy between Locke and Descartes; rationalism and empiricism certain innate things exist; all knowledge gained through experience encounter world through mind; experiences come through senses but filtered through mind a German philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figure of modern philosophy. He argued that human concepts and categories structure our view of the world and its laws, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to hold a major influence in contemporary thought, especially in fields such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics.

Edward Gibbon

author of Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, was published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788. The Decline and Fall is known for the quality and irony of its prose, its use of primary sources, and its open criticism of organised religion.

Descartes

author of Discoure on Method; a French philosopher, mathematician, and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his Meditations on First Philosophy continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Created namesake coordinate system. Proponent of rationalism. "I think, therefore I am"

Denis Diderot

author of Encyclopedia (or Encyclopedie) a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent person during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopédie along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert.

Locke

author of Essay Concerning Human Understanding an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence. his theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau and Kant. He was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to pre-existing Cartesian philosophy, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception.

Marin Mersenne

author of Harmonie Universelle; a French theologian, philosopher, mathematician and music theorist, often referred to as the "father of acoustics". studied optics and string oscillations

Thomas Hobbes

author of Leviathan; an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory. Championed absolute sovereign; believed human state of nature was terrible

Robert Hooke

author of Micrographia; an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath. published Micrographia, a book describing observations made with microscopes and telescopes, as well as some original work in biology; coined the term cell for describing biological organisms, the term being suggested by the resemblance of plant cells to monks' cells. (did many other things in science, though)

Francis Bacon

author of New Atlantis and Novum Organum; English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. After his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. has been called the creator of empiricism. His works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry famously died by contracting pneumonia while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat.

Copernicus

author of On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres; a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the center.

Samuel Richardson

author of Pamela an 18th-century English writer and printer. He is best known for his three epistolary novels: Pamela: Or, Virtue Rewarded (1740), Clarissa: Or the History of a Young Lady (1748) and The History of Sir Charles Grandison (1753). He was an established printer and publisher for most of his life and printed almost 500 different works, with journals and magazines.

Pascal

author of Pensees; a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Christian philosopher. invented the mechanical calculator. important mathematician, helping create two major new areas of research: he wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of 16, and later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science. Following Galileo and Torricelli, in 1646 he refuted Aristotle's followers who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. Following a mystical experience in late 1654, he had his "second conversion", abandoned his scientific work, and devoted himself to philosophy and theology. His two most famous works date from this period: the Lettres provinciales and the Pensées, the former set in the conflict between Jansenists and Jesuits. In this year, he also wrote an important treatise on the arithmetical triangle. Between 1658 and 1659 he wrote on the cycloid and its use in calculating the volume of solids.

Samuel Johnson

author of The Rambler (a periodical) an English writer who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. He was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and has been described as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history". (wrote dictionary of English language; very intelligent as a child)

Alexander Pope

author of The Rape of the Locke and Essay on Man an 18th-century English poet, best known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer. Famous for his use of the heroic couplet, he is the third-most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, after Shakespeare and Tennyson.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

author of The Social Contract and Emile loved the "general will" "man is born free and everywhere he is in chains" a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th-century. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought. He argued that private property was the start of civilization, inequality, murders and wars. his novel Émile, or On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction. His autobiographical writings—his Confessions, which initiated the modern autobiography, and his Reveries of a Solitary Walker—exemplified the late 18th-century movement known as the Age of Sensibility, and featured an increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later characterized modern writing. His Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and his On the Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought.

Thomas Kuhn

author of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions: a 1962 book about the history of science. Its publication was a landmark event in the history, philosophy, and sociology of scientific knowledge and triggered an ongoing worldwide assessment and reaction in—and beyond—those scholarly communities; challenged the then prevailing view of progress in "normal science". Normal scientific progress was viewed as "development-by-accumulation" of accepted facts and theories; argued for an episodic model in which periods of such conceptual continuity in normal science were interrupted by periods of revolutionary science. The discovery of "anomalies" during revolutions in science leads to new paradigms. New paradigms then ask new questions of old data, move beyond the mere "puzzle-solving" of the previous paradigm, change the rules of the game and the "map" directing new research.

Adam Smith

author of The Wealth of Nations a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, he is best known for two classic works: The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. He is cited as the "father of modern economics" and is still among the most influential thinkers in the field of economics today.

Henry Fielding

author of Tom Jones and Joseph Andrews an English novelist and dramatist known for his rich earthy humour and satirical prowess, and as the author of the novel Tom Jones.

David Hume

author of Treatise on Human Nature and Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding posited that if we don't know anything about matter, we also don't know about interaction cause and effect based only on experience; cannot be proven identity based on experience and connections with the natural world; can only be inferred leads to radical skepticism: knowledge is impossible known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism.

Laurence Sterne

author of Tristram Shandy an Anglo-Irish novelist and an Anglican clergyman. He is best known for his novels The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, and A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy; but he also published many sermons, wrote memoirs, and was involved in local politics.

John Locke

author of Two Treatises on Government; widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence. Believed in good human nature; natural rights and stuff

Castiglione, Baldassare

author of the Book of the Courtier; said how a nobleman or diplomat should act

Arminianism

based on the theological ideas of the previously Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560-1609) and his historic supporters known as the Remonstrants. (branch of Calvinism?)

James I

became king of England and Scotland (and Ireland) after death of Elizabeth I; first of the Stuarts

Invasion of Russia, 1812

began on 24 June 1812 when Napoleon's Grande Armée crossed the Neman River in an attempt to engage and defeat the Russian army. Napoleon hoped to compel Tsar Alexander I of Russia to cease trading with British merchants through proxies in an effort to pressure the United Kingdom to sue for peace. The official political aim of the campaign was to liberate Poland from the threat of Russia. Napoleon named the campaign the Second Polish War to curry favor with the Poles and provide a political pretense for his actions. This was ultimately a failed effort for Napoleon

John Wesley

began the Methodist movement an Anglican cleric and Christian theologian. He is largely credited, along with his brother Charles, as founding the Methodist movement which began when he took to open-air preaching in a similar manner to George Whitefield. In contrast to Whitefield's Calvinism, he embraced the Arminian doctrines that were dominant in the 18th-century Church of England. Methodism in both forms became a highly successful evangelical movement in Britain and later in the United States. His work also helped lead to the development of the Holiness movement and Pentecostalism.

Bodily humors

blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile

Book of Common Prayer

book of prayer and Protestant stuff assembled by Edward VI and Cranmer; reintroduced by Elizabeth I

Marie Antoinette

born an Archduchess of Austria, was Dauphine of France from 1770 to 1774 and Queen of France and Navarre from 1774 to 1792. She was the fifteenth and penultimate child of Holy Roman Emperor Francis I and Empress Maria Theresa. In April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, Dauphin of France, she became Dauphine of France. She assumed the title of Queen of France and of Navarre when her husband, Louis XVI of France, ascended the throne upon the death of Louis XV in May 1774. After seven years of marriage, she gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the first of four children. Initially charmed by her personality and beauty, the French people generally came to dislike her, accusing "L'Autrichienne" (meaning the Austrian (woman)) of being profligate, promiscuous, and of harboring sympathies for France's enemies, particularly Austria, her country of origin. The Diamond Necklace incident damaged her reputation further, although she was completely innocent in this affair. She later became known as Madame Déficit because of her lavish spendings during famine times. The royal family's flight to Varennes had disastrous effects on French popular opinion: Louis XVI was deposed and the monarchy abolished on 21 September 1792; the royal family was subsequently imprisoned at the Temple Prison. Eight months after her husband's execution, she was herself tried, convicted by the Convention of treason to the principles of the revolution, and executed by guillotine on 16 October 1793.

Louis XI

called the Universal Spider (because of his love of scheming), was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father Charles VII. Once rebelled against father and was forgiven, but later actions exiled him to Burgundy; eventually came back after his father died (helped end Hundred Years War?)

Magellan

captain of the first crew to circumnavigate the globe

Cardinal Wolsey

cardinal that was very diplomatic and right-hand man of Henry VIII (for a time); people started to turn on him; accused of treason; died on way to trial; he tried his best to annul marriage to Catherine of Aragon though and did do some good diplomacy (Field of the Cloth of Gold)

Versailles

castle built by Louis XIV I guess came to symbolize extravagance of ancien regime (?)(I don't really know)

Council of Constance

church council that resolved the Great Schism; put one pope back in power; occurred in 1415

Venice

city-state famed for its waterways and gondolas

Pisa

city-state famous for a leaning tower

Naples

city-state that was strangely enough ruled by Spanish king Ferdinand at one point

National Convention

comprised the constitutional and legislative assembly of France and sat from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795 (the 4th of Brumaire of the year IV under the French Republican Calendar adopted by the Convention). Robespierre and Danton Committee of Public Safety 1792 - 1795

Battle of Saratoga

conclusively decided the fate of British General John Burgoyne's army in the American War of Independence and are generally regarded as a turning point in the war. News of Burgoyne's surrender was instrumental in formally bringing France into the war as an American ally, although it had previously given supplies, ammunition and guns, notably the de Valliere cannon, which played an important role in Saratoga. Formal participation by France changed the war to a global conflict. This battle also resulted in Spain contributing to the war on the American side.

Committee of Public Safety

created in April 1793 by the National Convention and then restructured in July 1793, formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a stage of the French Revolution. It succeeded the previous Committee of General Defence (established in January 1793) and assumed its role of protecting the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. As a wartime measure, it was given broad supervisory powers over military, judicial, and legislative efforts. It was formed as an administrative body to supervise and expedite the work of the executive bodies of the Convention and of the government ministers appointed by the Convention. As it tried to meet the dangers of a coalition of European nations and counter-revolutionary forces within the country, it became more and more powerful. Jacobins eventually took over; Robespierre was an effective dictator

Boris Godunov

de facto regent of Russia from c. 1585 to 1598 and then the first non-Rurikid tsar from 1598 to 1605. The end of his reign saw Russia descend into the Time of Troubles. Took over after Ivan IV's successor(s) died

Decree Abolishing the Feudal System

declared with the idea of calming the populace and encouraging them towards civility. paved the way for the Assembly to make the Declaration of the Rights of Man. a decree that does the titular action; makes everyone pay taxes; everyone can hunt freely; etc.

Northern (Christian) Humanism

describes the focus in Northern countries on spiritual matters (?); precursor to Reformation

Columbus

discovered America in 1492...(also was supported by Ferdinand and Isabella)

Line of Demarcation / Treaty of Tordesillas

division of the world into two parts by the pope for Spain and Portugal; a lot better for Spain though

Constitution of the United States

drafted during the namesake convention in Philadelphia; replaced the Articles of Confederation

Ottoman Empire

empire that conquered Byzantine Empire using gunpowder by 1453 a contiguous transcontinental empire founded by Turkish tribes under Osman Bey in north-western Anatolia in 1299. conquest of Constantinople by Mehmet II in 1453

Treaty of Paris, 1783

ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain on one side and the United States of America and its allies on the other. The other combatant nations, France, Spain and the Dutch Republic had separate agreements. Its territorial provisions were "exceedingly generous" to the United States in terms of enlarged boundaries.

Treaty of Aix-la-chapelle

ended the War of the Austrian Succession following a congress assembled on 24 April 1748 at the namesake place

First Treaty of Paris (1814)

ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 May between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies. It established peace between France and the United Kingdom, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, who in March had defined their common war aim in Chaumont, and was also signed by Portugal and Sweden. Spain signed later in July. restored Bourbon Monarchy to France set up Congress of Vienna

Long Parliament

established on 3 November 1640[a] to pass financial bills, following the Bishops' Wars. It received its name from the fact that through an Act of Parliament, it could be dissolved only with the agreement of the members, and those members did not agree to its dissolution until after the English Civil War and close to the end of Interregnum on 16 March 1660. It sat from 1640 until 1648, when it was purged, by the New Model Army. In the chaos following the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, General George Monck allowed the members barred in 1648 to retake their seats so that they could pass the necessary legislation to allow the Restoration and dissolve this.

Richard III

fairly unpopular British monarch; took over after Edward IV (York family I think) died; named Lord Protector over Edward V (Edward IV's son) and Richard (other son of Edward); Edward IV's marriage was declared invalid though, so this person became king; princes in tower disappeared (thought this person killed them); eventually killed by Henry VII at Bosworth Field

Leipzig Debate

famous debate where Luther debated with Johann Eck over Reformation matters; too close to call back then but people say Luther won

Grand Armee

first entered the annals of history when, in 1805, Napoleon I renamed the army that he had assembled on the French coast of the English Channel for the proposed invasion of Britain. It never achieved its primary goal, as Napoleon had to re-deploy it east in order to eliminate the threat of Austria and Russia, which were part of the Third Coalition assembled against France. Thereafter, the name was used for the principal French army deployed in the Campaigns of 1805 and 1807, where it got its prestige, 1809, 1812, and 1813-14. In practice, however, this term is used in English to refer to all of the multinational forces gathered by Napoleon I in his campaigns of the early 19th century.

Catherine of Aragon

first wife of Henry VIII; gave birth to later Bloody Mary; marriage was eventually annulled

Physiocrats

followers of Quesnay's doctrines of government, believing that the inherent natural order governing society was based on land and its natural products as the only true form of wealth

Jansenists

followers of a Calvinistic movement within Catholicism; condemned by papacy followers of a Christian theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination.

New Model Army

formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War, and was disbanded in 1660 after the Restoration. It differed from other armies in the series of civil wars referred to as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in that it was intended as an army liable for service anywhere in the country (including in Scotland and Ireland), rather than being tied to a single area or garrison. Its soldiers became full-time professionals, rather than part-time militia. To establish a professional officer corps, the army's leaders were prohibited from having seats in either the House of Lords or House of Commons. This was to encourage their separation from the political or religious factions among the Parliamentarians. (created by Cromwell in response to the frequent absences of unpaid troops)

First Northern War

fought between Sweden and its adversaries the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1655-60), Russia (1656-58), Brandenburg-Prussia (1657-1660), the Habsburg Monarchy (1657-60) and Denmark-Norway (1657-58 and 1658-60). The Dutch Republic often intervened against Sweden. Result: Treaties of Roskilde (1658) and Copenhagen (1660) (Sweden and Denmark) Treaty of Oliva (1660) (Sweden and Habsburg, Brandenburg, Poland-Lithuania) Treaties of Valiesar (1658) and Cardis (1661) (Sweden and Russia) Territorial changes: Scania, Halland, Blekinge, Bohuslän and Ven become Swedish Duchy of Prussia becomes a sovereign state Sweden's sovereignty in Swedish Livonia accepted Loss of New Sweden to the Netherlands

Battle of Waterloo

fought on Sunday, 18 June 1815, near namesake place in present-day Belgium, then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. An Imperial French army under the command of Emperor Napoleon was defeated by the armies of the Seventh Coalition, comprising an Anglo-allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington combined with a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard von Blücher. It was Napoleon's last battle. This defeat ended his rule as Emperor of the French, marking the end of his Hundred Days return from exile.

Ignatius Loyola

founder of the Jesuits; wrote Spiritual Exercises

Thomas More

friend and advisor to Henry VIII; wrote Utopia; later executed because he didn't want to recognize Henry VIII as leader of English Church

Episcopacy

government of a church by bishops...

Edict of Nantes

granted the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic. In this, Henry aimed primarily to promote civil unity; separated civil from religious unity, treated some Protestants for the first time as more than mere schismatics and heretics, and opened a path for secularism and tolerance. In offering general freedom of conscience to individuals, it offered many specific concessions to the Protestants, such as amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field or for the State and to bring grievances directly to the king. It marked the end of the religious wars that had afflicted France during the second half of the 16th century.

Pope Urban VIII

head of the Catholic Church from 6 August 1623 to his death in 1644. He was the last pope to expand the papal territory by force of arms, and was a prominent patron of the arts and reformer of Church missions. However, the massive debts incurred during his papacy greatly weakened his successors, who were unable to maintain the papacy's longstanding political and military influence in Europe. He was also involved in a controversy with Galileo and his theory on heliocentrism during his reign.

Stamp Act

imposed a direct tax by the British Parliament specifically on the colonies of British America, and it required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper produced in London, carrying an embossed revenue stamp. These printed materials were legal documents, magazines, newspapers and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies.

War of Austrian Succession

involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the realms of the House of Habsburg. The war included King George's War in North America, the War of Jenkins' Ear (which formally began on 23 October 1739), the First Carnatic War in India, and the First and Second Silesian Wars. major powers: (Prussia, Bavaria, France, Spain) vs. (Austria, Russia, Great Britain, Hanover)

St. Helena

island to which Napoleon was exiled for the last time; it is an island of volcanic origin in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is part of the British Overseas Territory of St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, which also includes the Ascension Island and the islands of Tristan da Cunha. The British used the island as a place of exile, most notably for Napoleon I, Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo and more than 5,000 Boer prisoners.

Declaration of Pillnitz

joint agreement by Austria and Prussia saying that they would help the French king if necessary a statement issued on 27 August 1791 at the namesake castle near Dresden (Saxony) by the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and Frederick William II of Prussia. It declared the joint support of the Holy Roman Empire and of Prussia for King Louis XVI of France against the French Revolution.

Francis I

king of France; rivals Henry VIII and Charles V a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1515 until his death. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. He succeeded his cousin and father-in-law Louis XII, who died without a male heir. persevered in the long and ruinous military conflict between France and the Holy Roman Empire known as the Italian Wars. In his struggle against Imperial hegemony he unsuccessfully sought the support of Henry VIII of England at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. As an alternative, he formed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with Suleiman the Magnificent, a controversial move for a Christian king at the time.

Frederick William III

king of Prussia from 1797 to 1840. He ruled Prussia during the difficult times of the Napoleonic wars and the end of the old German Empire. Steering a careful course between France and her enemies, after a major military defeat in 1806, he eventually and reluctantly joined the coalition against Napoleon in the Befreiungskriege. Following Napoleon's defeat he was King of Prussia during the Congress of Vienna which assembled to settle the political questions arising from the new, post-Napoleonic order in Europe.

Philip II

king of Spain and Portugal; During his marriage to Queen Mary I, he was King of England and Ireland and pretender to the kingdom of France; Under his rule, Spain reached the height of its influence and power, directing explorations all around the world and settling the colonisation of territories on all the known continents; during his reign there were separate state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596. This was partly the cause for the declaration of independence which created the Dutch Republic in 1581. A devout Catholic, he is also known for organizing a huge naval expedition against Protestant England in 1588, known usually as the Spanish Armada which was unsuccessful partly due to storms and grave logistical problems.

Philip III

king of Spain and Portugal; reliance on his corrupt chief minister, the Duke of Lerma, drew much criticism at the time and afterwards. For many, the decline of Spain can be dated to the economic difficulties that set in during the early years of his reign. Nonetheless, as the ruler of the Spanish Empire at its height and as the king who achieved a temporary peace with the Dutch (1609-21) and brought Spain into the Thirty Years' War (1618-48) through an (initially) extremely successful campaign, his reign remains a critical period in Spanish history.

Charles XI (Sweden)

king of Sweden; His father died when he was five years old, so Charles was educated by his governors until his coronation at the age of seventeen. Soon after, he was forced out on military expeditions to secure the recently acquired dominions from Danish troops in the Scanian War. Having successfully fought off the Danes, he returned to Stockholm and engaged in correcting the country's neglected political, financial and economic situation, managing to sustain peace during the remaining 20 years of his reign. Changes in finance, commerce, national maritime and land armaments, judicial procedure, church government and education emerged during this period. rebuilds absolute monarchy in Sweden

Charles XII (Sweden)

king of Sweden; In 1700, a triple alliance of Denmark-Norway, Saxony-Poland-Lithuania and Russia launched a threefold attack on the Swedish protectorate of Swedish Holstein-Gottorp and provinces of Livonia and Ingria, aiming to draw advantage as Sweden was unaligned and ruled by a young and inexperienced king, thus initiating the Great Northern War. Leading the formidable Swedish army against the alliance, Charles had by 1706 forced to submission all of his foes except Russia. Able to fight against Russia for a while but eventually loses and gives up Swedish territory; begins the decline of Sweden to second-rate power

Condotierri

leaders of bands of mercenary soldiers in Renaissance Italy who sold their services to the highest bidder

National Guard

led by Lafayette at one point French National Army

The 100 Days

marked the period between Emperor Napoleon I of France's return from exile on Elba to Paris on 20 March 1815 and the second restoration of King Louis XVIII on 8 July 1815. This period saw the War of the Seventh Coalition, and includes the Waterloo Campaign and the Neapolitan War.

Capitalism

market system where everyone benefits (as opposed to mercantilism); free market an economic system in which trade, industry and the means of production are controlled by private owners with the goal of making profits in a market economy.

Oprichniki

members of an organization established by Tsar Ivan the Terrible to govern the division of Russia known as the Oprichnina (1565-1572). in charge of the suppression of internal enemies of the Tsar. Guided by Ivan, they laid waste to civilian populations. They dressed in black garb, similar to a monastic habit, and bore the insignia of a severed dog's head (to sniff out treason and the enemies of the Tsar) and a broom (to sweep them away). The dog's head was also symbolic of "nipping at the heels of the Tsar's enemies." They were sometimes called the "Tsar's Dogs" on account of their loyalty to him. They also rode black horses in order to inspire greater terror.

Junkers

members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by Slavic peasants with few rights. They were a dominant factor in Prussian and, after 1871, German military, political and diplomatic leadership.

Junkers

members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights. They were a dominant factor in Prussian and, after 1871, German military, political and diplomatic leadership. The most famous one was Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. They were expelled by the Soviets after 1944 and their lands confiscated.

Charles I

monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649 (spoiler alert). Noted for dismissing Parliament multiple times; raised money through ship money; arrested members of Parliament; accused of Catholic sympathies started English Civil War

Charles II (England)

monarch put on throne of England (and I guess the other places as well) via Restoration; accused of being tolerant towards Catholics because he passed Declaration of Indulgence (improved religious toleration); Parliament was angered with siding with France in Dutch War and forced him to side with Dutch

Boyars

nobility class (especially in Russia); crushed under Ivan IV and Peter the Great

Machiavelli, Niccolo

notorious author of The Prince and The Discourses; Florentine statesman and political philosopher

Great Terror

occurred at the end of the Reign of Terror; increased repression during June and July 1794; caused the coup of 9 Thermidor Year II (27 July 1794), leading to the Thermidorian Reaction, in which several instigators of the Reign of Terror were executed, including Saint-Just and Robespierre.

Great Fear

occurred between 17 July - 3 August 1789, in France at the start of the French Revolution. A series of peasant rebellions helped cause a subsequent general panic known as _________. Rural unrest had been present in France since the worsening grain shortage of the spring, and fueled by the rumors of an aristocrat "famine plot" to starve or burn out the population, peasant and town people mobilized in many regions. In response to rumors, fearful peasants armed themselves in self-defense and, in some areas, attacked manor houses. The content of the rumors differed from region to region -- in some areas it was believed that a foreign force were burning the crops in the fields while in other areas it was believed that bandits were burning buildings. Fear of the peasant revolt was a deciding factor in the decision to abolish feudalism.

Benjamin Franklin

one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. A noted polymath, he was a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, musician, inventor, satirist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, a namesake stove, a carriage odometer, and the glass 'armonica'. He facilitated many civic organizations, including a fire department and a university.

Pope Innocent VIII

one of the bad popes; openly recognized children (?)

House of Hapsburg-Lorraine

one of the longest-reigning royal houses in the history of Europe. Following the failure of both Emperor Joseph I and Emperor Charles VI to produce a son and heir, the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 left the throne to the latter's yet unborn daughter, Maria Theresa. In 1736 Emperor Charles arranged her marriage to Francis of Lorraine who agreed to exchange his hereditary lands for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany (as well as Duchy of Teschen from the Emperor). At Charles's death in 1740 the Habsburg lands passed to Maria Theresa and Francis, who was later elected Holy Roman Emperor as Francis I. This house was then created, and survived, the War of the Austrian Succession.

Christopher Wren

one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history. He was accorded responsibility for rebuilding 52 churches in the City of London after the Great Fire in 1666, including his masterpiece, St. Paul's Cathedral, on Ludgate Hill, completed in 1710.

Ficino, Marsilio

one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance, an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism who was in touch with every major academic thinker and writer of his day, and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin. His Florentine Academy, an attempt to revive Plato's school, had enormous influence on the direction and tenor of the Italian Renaissance and the development of European philosophy.

Empiricism

opposed rationalism; a theory of knowledge which states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. in science, emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation. asserts that "knowledge is based on experience" and that "knowledge is tentative and probabilistic, subject to continued revision and falsification." (Locke was one of the supporters of this)

Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

order founded by Ignatius Loyola; eventually adopted by Pope Paul III; missionaries and stuff

marranos

originally Jews living in the Iberian Peninsula who converted or were forced to convert to Christianity, some of whom may have continued to observe rabbinic Judaism in secret. The term came into later use in 1492 with the Castilian Alhambra Decree, reversing protections originally in the Treaty of Granada (1491).

Potemkin Villages

originally used to describe a fake village, built only to impress. According to the story, the namesake person erected fake settlements along the banks of the Dnieper River in order to fool Empress Catherine II during her visit to Crimea in 1787. The phrase is now used, typically in politics and economics, to describe any construction (literal or figurative) built solely to deceive others into thinking that some situation is better than it really is. Some modern historians claim the original story is exaggerated.

Jacobites

people who wanted to restore James II and his heirs to the English throne

Diet of Worms

place where Luther was summoned to recant beliefs; Luther refuses; condemned as a heretic and enemy of the state by namesake Edict

Salons

places where hostesses hosted philosophes (?)

House of Orange

played a central role in the politics and government of the Netherlands — and at times in Europe; pretty much the family the Dutch turned to whenever they needed a monarch

Virgin Politics

politics of Elizabeth I?

Pope Clement VII

pope during Sack of Rome; tried to prevent Henry VIII from breaking with church (or rather hastened it?)

Julius II

pope famous for actually going into battle; commissioned Michaelangelo to paint Sistine Chapel ceiling (pretty sure he made Raphael paint some stuff as well)

Pope Paul III

pope that starts Council of Trent and seriously tries to combat Reformation

Pope Alexander VI

poster child for bad pope; Lucrezia and Cesare were his children; very debauched and corrupt

Augsburg Confession

primary confession of faith of the Lutheran Church and one of the most important documents of the Lutheran Reformation. It was written in both German and Latin and was presented by a number of German rulers and free-cities at the Diet of _______ on June 25, 1530.

Bastille

prison famously stormed by angry French citizens on July 14th, 1789; was a fortress in Paris, known formally as the Bastille Saint-Antoine. It played an important role in the internal conflicts of France and for most of its history was used as a state prison by the kings of France. It was stormed by a crowd on 14 July 1789 in the French Revolution, becoming an important symbol for the French Republican movement, and was later demolished

Bishop George Berkeley

published Principles of Human Knowledge and Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous; believed that both secondary and primary qualities of objects were constructs of the mind; to be is to be perceived; cannot rely on senses; continuity when awake; world is divided into 2 things: spirit and ideas; physical world is an image in God's mind; God is prime mover; matter is just God's mind primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immaterialism" (later referred to as "subjective idealism" by others). This theory denies the existence of material substance and instead contends that familiar objects like tables and chairs are only ideas in the minds of perceivers, and as a result cannot exist without being perceived; also known for his critique of abstraction, an important premise in his argument for immaterialism

Neopotism

putting friends in power...

Mary of Guise

queen of Scotland as the second spouse of King James V. She was the mother of Mary, Queen of Scots, and served as regent of Scotland in her daughter's name from 1554 to 1560. (came from France though) (fights England and Protestants and stuff?)

Mary, Queen of Scots

queen regnant of Scotland from 14 December 1542 to 24 July 1567 and queen consort of France from 10 July 1559 to 5 December 1560. claimed Elizabeth's throne as her own and was considered the legitimate sovereign of England by many English Catholics, including participants in a rebellion known as the Rising of the North. Perceiving her as a threat, Elizabeth had her confined in a number of castles and manor houses in the interior of England. After eighteen and a half years in custody, she was found guilty of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth, and was subsequently executed.

inductive reasoning

reasoning that derives general principles from specific observations (outdated definition)

Silesian Wars

refer to three conflicts between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy for control of Silesia and the County of Kladsko from 1740 to 1763.

Protectorate

refers to England under relatively absolute rule by Cromwell (?)

French Empire

refers to Napoleon's territory...

Grand Tour

refers to a trip around Europe that an upper class student would take at the completion of his or her education

Turkish Wars

refers to conflicts between Russia and other namesake entity; refers to a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and contemporary European powers, then joined into a Holy League, during the last decades of the 17th century. Result: Decisive Holy League victory Treaty of Karlowitz Territorial changes: Austria wins lands in Hungary and the Balkans, Poland wins control over parts of Ukraine, Russia captures Azov, Venice captures the Morea

Creation of Childhood

refers to development of early education (?)(I honestly have no idea)

Natural Law

refers to laws that exist in nature...(Locke)

Laissez faire

refers to pure capitalism with little government intervention

Argyle's Rebellion

refers to rebellion in Scotland that took place at same time as Monmouth's rebellion (?)

Radical Revolution

refers to revolution under Jacobins (?)

Roundheads

refers to the (at least partially) Puritan rebels in the English Civil War

Cavaliers

refers to the Royalists in the English Civil War; rode horses

Clockwork Universe

refers to the idea that the universe follows set scientific laws; only put into motion by God; according to Deism (?)

18th Century demographic changes

refers to the increase in population and diversity during the 1700s (?)

Regicide

refers to the killing of a king (in England's case, Charles I...)

Asiento

refers to the permission given by the Spanish government to other countries to sell people as slaves to the Spanish colonies, between the years 1543 and 1834. In British history, it usually refers to the contract between Spain and Great Britain created in 1713 that dealt with the supply of African slaves for the Spanish territories in the Americas. The British government passed its rights to the South Sea Company.

First Consul

refers to the position Napoleon held before becoming Emperor of France (?)

Restoration

refers to the process in which Charles II was put on the English throne

Schmalkaldic War

refers to the short period of violence from 1546 until 1547 between the forces of Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (simultaneously King Charles I of Spain), commanded by Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba, and the Lutheran ________ League within the domains of the Holy Roman Empire.

Balance of Power

refers to the stability maintained by the European nations by forming alliances; disrupted by wars only to be reestablished by treaties and new alliances

suppression of Jesuits

refers to the suppression and persecution of a particular group of Christians by Pope Clement XIV; they flee to Russia and Prussia

William and Mary

refers to the two monarchs that deposed James II

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain

refers to the two monarchs who united the Spanish provinces of Aragon and Castile through marriage; also known for completing the Reconquista, ordering conversion or exile of their Muslim and Jewish subjects and for supporting and financing Christopher Columbus' 1492 voyage that led to the opening of the "New World".

Parlements

regional legislative and judicial bodies in Ancien Régime France. (maybe they were destroyed during French Rev?)

Peasants Revolt

revolt by the namesake people during the confusion caused by the Reformation; the people in this revolt were condemned by Luther, who favored the princes

Munster Revolt

revolt where Anabaptists tried to take over a German city and start a society there; lasted a few years until leaders were overthrown and kileld

sans-culottes

revolutionaries who dominated the National Convention; known for not wearing breeches the radical left-wing partisans of the lower classes; typically urban labourers, which dominated France. Though ill-clad and ill-equipped, they made up the bulk of the Revolutionary army during the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars.

Peter the Great

ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from 7 May [O.S. 27 April] 1682 until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his half-brother. In numerous successful wars he expanded the Tsardom into a huge empire that became a major European power. According to historian James Cracraft, he led a cultural revolution that replaced the traditionalist and medieval social and political system with a modern, scientific, Europe-oriented, and rationalist system. famous for beard tax; Westernization; oppressed serfs; divided Russia into provinces; Table of Ranks

Emperor Charles V

ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I as Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II as King of Spain in 1556. He became heir to Hapsburg, Burgundian, and Spanish thrones after a series of events.

Isaac Newton

scientists who first proposed universal laws (his dealt with gravitation...) set up Enlightenment; his mechanics were applied to human beings

Tsar Alexander I

served as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and the first Russian King of Poland from 1815 to 1825. He was also the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland and Lithuania. He succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleonic Wars. In the first half of his reign he tried to introduce liberal reforms, while in the second half his conduct became much more arbitrary, which led to the revocation of many earlier reforms. In foreign policy he gained some successes, mainly by his diplomatic skills and by winning several military campaigns. (lost to Napoleon at first; later beat Napoleon in 1812)

Treaty of Paris (1763)

signed on 10 February 1763 by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement, after Britain's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years' War. The signing of the treaty formally ended the Seven Years' War, otherwise known as the French and Indian War in the North American theatre, which marked the beginning of an era of British dominance outside Europe.

Second Treaty of Paris (1815)

signed on 20 November 1815 following the defeat and second abdication of Napoleon Bonaparte. In February, Napoleon had escaped from his exile on Elba; he entered Paris on 20 March, beginning the Hundred Days of his restored rule. Four days after France's defeat in the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was persuaded to abdicate again, on 22 June. King Louis XVIII, who had fled the country when Napoleon arrived in Paris, took the throne for a second time on 8 July.

Treaty of Karlowitz

signed on 26 January 1699 in Sremski Karlovci, in modern-day Serbia, concluding the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683-97 in which the Ottoman side had been defeated at the Battle of Zenta. It marks the end of Ottoman control in much of Central Europe and the beginning of the empire's phase of stagnation, with their first major territorial losses after centuries of expansion, and established the Habsburg Monarchy as the dominant power in central and southeast Europe.

Corsica

small island that is Napoleon's birthplace

Maximilian I

son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor and Eleanor of Portugal, was King of the Romans (also known as King of the Germans) from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1493 until his death, though he was never in fact crowned by the Pope, the journey to Rome always being too risky. He had ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of his father's reign, from c. 1483. He expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through war and his marriage in 1477 to Mary of Burgundy, the heiress to the Duchy of Burgundy, but he also lost the Austrian territories in today's Switzerland to the Swiss Confederacy. By marrying his son Philip the Handsome to the future Queen Joanna of Castile in 1498, he established the Habsburg dynasty in Spain and allowed his grandson Charles to hold the throne of both León-Castile and Aragon, thus making him the first de jure King of Spain.

South Sea Bubble

speculative bubble by namesake English trading company; led to market crash and bad stuff

Martin Luther

started Reformation by writing 95 Theses; did a ton of other stuff (Diet of Worms)(translated Bible into German)

Classical Style

style in architecture, literature, and the arts, which sought to emulate the ideals of Classical antiquity and especially those of Classical Greece. While still tightly linked to the court culture and absolutism, with its formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, the new style was also a cleaner style—one that favored clearer divisions between parts, brighter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than complexity, and the typical orchestra size increased.

Sublunary Realm

the "imperfect" realm of the universe according to Aristotle; contained 4 elements: earth, air, fire, and water

Rump Parliament

the English Parliament after Colonel Pride purged the Long Parliament on 6 December 1648 of those members hostile to the Grandees' intention to try King Charles I for high treason. (I think this is just the Parliament that ruled during the Commonwealth until disbanded by Cromwell)

Marquis de Louvois

the French Secretary of State for War for a significant part of the reign of Louis XIV. He and his father would increase the French Army to 400,000 soldiers, an army that would fight four wars between 1667 and 1713.

Code Napoleon

the French civil code established under Napoléon I in 1804. It forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified. first modern legal code to be adopted with a pan-European scope, and it strongly influenced the law of many of the countries formed during and after the Napoleonic Wars.

Ivan IV (the Terrible)

the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and Tsar of All the Russias from 1547 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres, approximately 4,046,856 km2 (1,562,500 sq mi). He managed countless changes in the progression from a medieval state to an empire and emerging regional power, and became the first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of All the Russias. described as intelligent and devout, yet given to rages and prone to episodic outbreaks of mental illness. On one such outburst he killed his groomed and chosen heir Ivan Ivanovich. This left the Tsardom to be passed to his younger son, the weak and intellectually disabled Feodor Ivanovich. Harshly treated nobility

Whigs

the Puritan faction of Charles II's Parliament; controlled it from 1678 - 1681; they were generally against Charles

Spanish Armada

the Spanish fleet that sailed against England under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia in 1588, with the intention of overthrowing Elizabeth I of England and putting an end to her involvement in the Spanish Netherlands and in privateering in the Atlantic and Pacific. failed miserably

Epistemology

the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge and is also referred to as "theory of knowledge". It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which knowledge pertinent to any given subject or entity can be acquired. Much of the debate in this field has focused on the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification.

Simony

the buying and selling of church offices

Gutenberg, Johannes

the creator of a namesake printing press...

War of the Three Henrys

the eighth and final conflict in the series of civil wars in France known as the Wars of Religion. The war was fought between the royalists, led by Henry III of France; the Huguenots, led by the heir-presumptive Henry of Navarre; and the Catholic League, led by Henry I, Duke of Guise and funded and supported by Philip II of Spain. The war was instigated by King Philip to keep Spain's enemy, France, from interfering with the Spanish army in the Netherlands and his planned invasion of England and Russia.

Joseph-Napoleon Bonaparte

the elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, who made him King of Naples and Sicily (1806-1808), and later King of Spain.

Henry Guise

the eldest son of Francis, Duke of Guise, and Anna d'Este. His maternal grandparents were Ercole d'Este II, Duke of Ferrara, and Renée of France. In 1576 he founded the Catholic League to prevent the heir, King Henry of Navarre, head of the Huguenot movement, from succeeding to the French throne. A powerful opponent of the Queen Mother, Catherine de' Medici, he was assassinated by the bodyguards of her son, King Henry III. Involved in War of the Three _____

Popular culture

the entirety of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture, especially Western culture of the early to mid 20th century and the emerging global mainstream of the late 20th and early 21st century. Heavily influenced by mass media, this collection of ideas permeates the everyday lives of the society. (singspiel, Vauxhall Pleasure gardens, Grand Tour, and Naturalistic Landscape Design in Britain)

Battle of Culloden

the final confrontation of the 1745 Jacobite Rising. On 16 April 1746, the Jacobite forces of Charles Edward Stuart ("Bonnie Prince Charlie") fought loyalist troops commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland near Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. This Hanoverian victory decisively halted the Jacobite intent to overthrow the House of Hanover and restore the House of Stuart to the British throne; Charles Stuart never mounted any further attempts to challenge Hanoverian power in Great Britain. The conflict was the last pitched battle fought on British soil.

Michael Romanov

the first Russian Tsar of the house of Romanov. He was the son of Feodor Nikitich Romanov (later known as Patriarch Filaret) and Xenia (later known as "the great nun" Martha). His reign marked the end of the Time of Troubles. started namesake Russian dynasty

Siege of Vienna 1529

the first attempt by the Ottoman Empire, led by Suleiman the Magnificent, to capture the city of Vienna, Austria. The siege signalled the pinnacle of the Ottoman Empire's power and the maximum extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe. Thereafter, 150 years of bitter military tension and reciprocal attacks ensued, culminating in the Battle of Vienna of 1683, which marked the start of the 15-year long Great Turkish War.

Three Estates

the first was the clergy; the second was the nobility; the third was everyone else

Constitution of 1791

the first written constitution in France, created after the collapse of the Absolute Monarchy of the Ancien Régime. One of the basic precepts of the revolution was adopting constitutionality and establishing popular sovereignty, following the steps of the United States of America.

Continental System

the foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars. As a response to the naval blockade of the French coasts enacted by the British government on 16 May 1806, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21 November 1806, which brought into effect a large-scale embargo against British trade. This embargo ended on April 11, 1814 after Napoleon's first abdication. The Berlin Decree forbade the import of British goods into European countries allied with or dependent upon France, and installed this in Europe.

Pope Paul IV

the head of the Catholic Church from 23 May 1555 to his death in 1559. He was instrumental in setting up the Roman Inquisition, and was opposed to any dialogue with the emerging Protestant party in Europe. His anti-Spanish outlook coloured his papacy, and confronted the Papal States with serious military defeat. The appointment of Carlo Carafa as Cardinal Nephew damaged the papacy further when he was forced to remove him from office following a scandal. One of the strictest (most conservative) popes apparently

Innocent VIII

the head of the Catholic Church from 29 August 1484 to his death in 1492. Worked against witchcraft, gave Tomas de Torquemada permission to perform Spanish Inquisition, possibly facilitated one of the Italian Wars (not sure about this), and allowed slavery

Lorenzo and Cosimo de Medici

the heads of two generations of the Medici family that established the family as the head of Florence

Brandenburg-Prussia

the historiographic denomination for the Early Modern realm of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollerns between 1618 and 1701. rises under Frederick William the Great Elector

Philosophes

the intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment; were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics and social issues. They had a critical eye and looked for weaknesses and failures that needed improvement. They promoted a "republic of letters" that crossed national boundaries and allowed intellectuals to freely exchange books and ideas.

Battle of Borodino

the largest and bloodiest single-day action of the French invasion of Russia and the Napoleonic Wars, involving more than 250,000 troops and resulting in at least 70,000 casualties. The French Grande Armée under Emperor Napoleon I attacked the Imperial Russian Army of General Mikhail Kutuzov near the namesake village, west of the town of Mozhaysk, and eventually captured the main positions on the battlefield, but failed to destroy the Russian army despite heavy losses. About a third of Napoleon's soldiers were killed or wounded. Russian losses were also heavy, but casualties could be replaced since large forces of militia were already with the Russian Army and replacement depots which were close by had already been gathering and training troops. The battle itself ended with the Russian Army out of position. The state of exhaustion of the French forces and lack of information on the Russian Army's condition led Napoleon to remain on the battlefield with his army instead of the forced pursuit that had marked other campaigns that he had conducted in the past. Napoleon's Imperial Guard was completely intact and available to his disposition. In refusing to commit the Guard he lost his singular chance to destroy the Russian army. This was a pivotal point in the campaign, as it was the last offensive action fought by Napoleon in Russia. By withdrawing, the Russian army preserved its combat strength, eventually allowing it to force Napoleon out of the country.

Charles II (Spain)

the last Habsburg ruler of Spain. His realm included Southern Netherlands and Spain's overseas empire, stretching from the Americas to the Spanish East Indies. Known as "the Bewitched" (Spanish: el Hechizado), he is noted for his extensive physical, intellectual, and emotional disabilities—along with his consequent ineffectual rule. He died in 1700, childless and heirless, with all potential Habsburg successors having predeceased him. In his will, he named as his successor his 16-year old grand-nephew, Philip, Duke of Anjou grandson of Charles' half-sister Maria Theresa of Spain, the first wife of Louis XIV (and thus grandson of the reigning French king Louis XIV). Because the other European powers viewed the prospective dynastic relationship between France and Spain as disturbing the balance of power in Europe, the War of the Spanish Succession ensued.

Poussin

the leading painter of the classical French Baroque style, although he spent most of his working life in Rome. His work is characterized by clarity, logic, and order, and favors line over color. Until the 20th century he remained a major inspiration for such classically oriented artists as Jacques-Louis David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Paul Cézanne. Et in Arcadia Ego; Rape of the Sabine Women

Legislative Assembly

the legislature of France from 1 October 1791 to September 1792 during the years of the French Revolution. It provided the focus of political debate and revolutionary law-making between the periods of the National Constituent Assembly and of the National Convention. It was driven by two opposing groups. The members of the first group were primarily moderate members of the bourgeoisie (Wealthy middle class in 3rd Estate) that favored a constitutional monarchy, represented by the Feuillants, who felt that the revolution had already achieved its goal. The second group was the democratic faction, for whom the king could no longer be trusted, represented by the new members of the Jacobin club. This group claimed that more revolutionary measures were necessary. 1791 - 1792

William of Orange (The Silent)

the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648. He was born in the House of Nassau as Count of Nassau-Dillenburg. He became Prince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the branch House of Orange-Nassau and the ancestor of the monarchy of the Netherlands.

Diet of Augsburg

the meetings of the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire in the namesake German city. There were many such sessions, but the three meetings during the Reformation and the ensuing religious wars between the Roman Catholic emperor Charles V and the Protestant Schmalkaldic League in the early 16th century are especially noteworthy. Brought forth namesake confession

Neoplatonism

the modern (19th century) term for a school of mystical philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century, based on the teachings of Plato and earlier Platonists, with its earliest contributor believed to be Plotinus, and his teacher Ammonius Saccas. experienced a revival in the Renaissance

Elizabeth I

the monarch that followed the rule of Bloody Mary; turned England back Protestant; daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn

Jacobins

the most famous and influential political club in the development of the French Revolution, so-named because of the Dominican convent where they met, which had recently been located in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris. The club originated as the Club Benthorn, formed at Versailles from a group of Breton representatives attending the Estates General of 1789. There were thousands of chapters throughout France, with a membership estimated at 420,000. After the fall of Robespierre the club was closed. The club later became notorious for its implementation of the Reign of Terror.

Schleitheim Confession

the most representative statement of Anabaptist principles, endorsed unanimously by a meeting of Swiss Anabaptists in 1527

Neoclassicism

the name given to Western movements in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that draw inspiration from the "classical" art and culture of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome.

Maria Theresa

the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, the Austrian Netherlands and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress. She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, died in October 1740. Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. Upon the death of her father, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, and France all repudiated the sanction they had recognised during his lifetime. Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia, sparking a nine-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession. She would later unsuccessfully try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years' War. She and her husband, Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, had sixteen children, including Queen Marie Antoinette of France, Queen Maria Carolina of Naples, Duchess Maria Amalia of Parma and two Holy Roman Emperors, Joseph II and Leopold II.

Francis Xavier

the other founder of the Jesuits

Glorious Revolution

the overthrow of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland) by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). William's successful invasion of England with a Dutch fleet and army led to his ascending of the English throne as William III of England jointly with his wife Mary II of England. (bloodless)

Tuileries

the palace where Louis XVI and his family lived after they were removed from Versailles as a result of the Women's March a royal and imperial palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the River Seine. It was the usual Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henry IV to Napoleon III, until it was destroyed in the upheaval of the Paris Commune in 1871.

Sejm

the parliament of Poland for four centuries from the 15th until the late 18th century. It had evolved from the earlier institution of wiec. It was one of the primary elements of the democratic governance in the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a powerful political institution, and from early 16th century, the Polish king could not pass laws without the approval of that body. (I think it also made things inefficient?)

quintessence

the perfect substance that makes up the celestial realm; cannot change in properties (according to Aristotle)

Henry VII

the person who killed Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field; established Tudor line; was of the House of Lancaster in the Wars of the Roses

Pope Leo X

the pope that demands tons of indulgences; gets Luther really mad

deductive reasoning

the process of reasoning from one or more general statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion

Tories

the royalist faction (favored Charles) of Charles II's Parliament; controlled from 1681 - 1685

Anne Boleyn

the second wife of Henry VIII; later beheaded; gave birth to later queen Elizabeth I though

Dutch Revolt

the successful revolt of the northern, largely Protestant Seven Provinces of the Low Countries against the rule of the Roman Catholic King Philip II of Spain, who had inherited the region (Seventeen Provinces) from the defunct Duchy of Burgundy. (The southern Catholic provinces initially joined in the revolt, but later submitted to Spain.)

Suleiman the Magnificent

the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1520 to his death in 1566. He became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's military, political and economic power. He personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgrade, Rhodes, as well as most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed much of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and through the Persian Gulf. At the helm of an expanding empire, he personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation, and criminal law. His canonical law (or the Kanuns) fixed the form of the empire for centuries after his death.

Addison and Steele

the two editors who published The Tatler and The Spectator; periodicals; foreign and domestic news

Rationalism

the view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification."

Theory, Hypothesis, Experiment

three stages of the Scientific Method

Battle of Lepanto

took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of southern European Catholic maritime states, decisively defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire in five hours of fighting on the northern edge of the Gulf of Corinth, off western Greece. The Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto (Turkish: İnebahtı; Greek: Ναύπακτος or Έπαχτος Naupaktos or Épahtos) met the Holy League forces, which had come from Messina. The victory of the Holy League prevented the Ottoman Empire expanding further along the European side of the Mediterranean.

Metaphysics

traditional branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world that encompasses it, although the term is not easily defined. (rationalism and empiricism are included?)

Peace of Augsburg

treaty between Charles V and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the imperial city of __________, now in present-day Bavaria, Germany. It officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christendom permanent within the Holy Roman Empire. princes determined religion; Catholicism and Lutheranism allowed; not Calvinism

Ferdinand VII

twice King of Spain: in 1808 and from 1813 to 1833 - the latter period in dispute with Joseph Bonaparte. pretty much was king until Joseph Bonaparte was put on the throne for a brief period of time

Dutch East India and West India Companies

two joint stock companies created for the sole purpose of trade with the "East and West Indies" respectively...

Poland/Lithuania

two places that were united for a while during this time (?)

Pope Julius II

warrior pope; actually led troops into battle; got Michaelangelo to paint Sistine Chapel

Hapsburg-Valois Wars

wars fought between the two houses of France and the HRE; preoccupied Charles V (also referred to as Italian Wars)

Frederick II (the Great)

was King in Prussia (1740-1786) of the Hohenzollern dynasty. He is best known for his military victories, his reorganization of Prussian armies, his innovative drills and tactics, and his final success against great odds in the Seven Years' War. Enlightened Despot a proponent of enlightened absolutism. For years he was a correspondent of Voltaire, with whom the king had an intimate, if turbulent, friendship. While some authors praise him for tolerance, justice and modernization others point out his oppressive measures against Polish population he subjugated and sought to get rid off, he patronised the arts and philosophers, and wrote flute music.

taille

was a direct land tax on the French peasantry and non-nobles in Ancien Régime France. The tax was imposed on each household and based on how much land it held. some (such as Tocqueville) say it led to the French Revolution

Gunpowder Plot

was a failed assassination attempt against King James I of England and VI of Scotland by a group of provincial English Catholics. Tried to blow up Parliament as well.

Georges Danton

was a leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution and the first President of the Committee of Public Safety. His role in the onset of the Revolution has been disputed; many historians describe him as "the chief force in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the First French Republic". A moderating influence on the Jacobins, he was guillotined by the advocates of revolutionary terror after accusations of venality and leniency to the enemies of the Revolution.

First Republic

was founded on 22 September 1792, by the newly established National Convention. It lasted until the declaration of the First French Empire in 1804 under Napoleon I. This period was characterized by the fall of the monarchy, the establishment of the National Convention and the infamous Reign of Terror, the founding of the Directory and the Thermidorian Reaction, and finally, the creation of the Consulate and Napoleon's rise to power.

Constantinople

was the center and capital of the Byzantine empire until it fell to the Turks in 1453

Rome

was the city where the pope was located during the Renaissance; home to some Renaissance art as well

Catherine II (the Great)

was the most renowned and the longest-ruling female leader of Russia, reigning from 9 July 1762 until her death on 17 November 1796 at the age of sixty-seven. Her reign was called Russia's golden age. She was born in Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia as Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, and came to power following a coup d'état and the assassination of her husband, Peter III, at the end of the Seven Years' War. Russia was revitalized under her reign, growing larger and stronger than ever and becoming recognized as one of the great powers of Europe. Enlightened Despot

Laying-over

what one does when he or she takes a break in travel during a Grand Tour (?)(I honestly have no clue here)

John Locke

wrote Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises on government Believed in tabula rasa mind theory mind is a blank slate at birth we learn all through experience believed people were naturally good; had natural laws and unalienable rights

John Calvin

wrote Institutes of Christian Religion; created namesake branch of Protestant Christianity; had a much wider influence than Luther; religion focused on God and predestination; believed in angry God; also wrote Ecclesiastical Ordinances; believed in limited atonement and that everyone deserves Hell; God has already decided who will be saved

Vesalius

wrote On the Fabric of the Human Body; a Brabantian (in modern-day Belgium) anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body). He is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was professor at the University of Padua and later became Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V.

Newton

wrote Principia Mathematica; an English physicist and mathematician who is widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for most of classical mechanics; also made seminal contributions to optics and shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the invention of the infinitesimal calculus. Proposed 3 Laws of Motion and Universal Law of Gravitation. Also did work with light and sound.

Daniel Defoe

wrote Robinson Crusoe

Mary Wollstonecraft

wrote Vindication of the Rights of Woman an eighteenth-century English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. She is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.

Arminius

wrote many books and treatises on theology, and his views became the basis of namesake branch of Calvinism and the Dutch Remonstrant movement.

Bosch, Hieronymous

Arguably one of the greatest artists ever (at least in my opinion); Northern Renaissance artist; created works such as The Garden of Earthly Delights; The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things; Death and the Miser

Raphael

High Renaissance artist; School of Athens; several versions of Madonna and Child

Botticelli

Italian Renaissance artist; created works such as The Birth of Venus and Primavera (curvy figures in both works)

Leo X

Medici pope; criticized for selling indulgences

Hans Holbein (the Younger)

Northern Renaissance artist; credited with creating portraits of Thomas More and painting The Ambassadors and some people of the court of Henry VIII (including Henry VIII and some of his wives)

Jan van Eyck

Northern Renaissance painter; Arnolfini Wedding; Man in a Red Turban

Alexander VI

One of the Renaissance popes and a member of the Borgia family; he was the father of Cesare Borgia; "known for his debauchery and sensuality"; gave positions to relatives

Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni

Renaissance Humanist; author of Oration on the Dignity of Man; later becomes a follower of Savonarola and abandons previous humanist practices (?)

Michaelangelo

Renaissance painter and sculptor; giant marble statue of David; Moses; Pieta; Sistine Chapel Ceiling (Last Judgement and Creation of Adam)

Star Chamber

an English court of law that sat at the royal Palace of Westminster from the late 15th century until 1641. It was made up of Privy Councillors, as well as common-law judges and supplemented the activities of the common-law and equity courts in both civil and criminal matters. The court was set up to ensure the fair enforcement of laws against prominent people, those so powerful that ordinary courts would never convict them of their crimes. Court sessions were held in secret, with no indictments, and no witnesses. Evidence was presented in writing. Over time it evolved into a political weapon, a symbol of the misuse and abuse of power by the English monarchy and courts.

Toscanelli

an Italian mathematician, astronomer, and cosmographer. noted for his observations of comets. Among these was the comet of 1456; only named Halley's comet when Halley predicted its return in 1759. Created map that misjudged size of world, so Columbus sailed and hit America

Mantegna, Andrea

an Italian painter, a student of Roman archeology, and son in law of Jacopo Bellini. Like other artists of the time, he experimented with perspective, e.g., by lowering the horizon in order to create a sense of greater monumentality. His flinty, metallic landscapes and somewhat stony figures give evidence of a fundamentally sculptural approach to painting. He also led a workshop that was the leading producer of prints in Venice before 1500.

Sixtus IV

head of the Catholic Church from 9 August 1471 to his death in 1484. His accomplishments as Pope included the establishment of the Sistine Chapel; the group of artists that he brought together introduced the Early Renaissance into Rome with the first masterpiece of the city's new artistic age, the Vatican Archives. He also furthered the agenda of the Spanish Inquisition and annulled the decrees of the Council of Constance. He was famed for his nepotism and was personally involved in the infamous Pazzi Conspiracy.

Electors

people who elected others (?)

Aragon

place where Ferdinand II ruled; Catherine (Henry VIII's first wife) also came from here

High Renaissance (art)

refers to when the "rebirth" was at its fullest height; dominated by artists such as da Vinci, Michaelangelo, Raphael, Bellini, Titian, and Giorgione

Indulgences

remissions of temporal punishment due to sin, the guilt of which has been forgiven; paid with money; used by Leo X a lot; angered Luther

Charles V

ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I as Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II as King of Spain in 1556. He became heir to Hapsburg, Burgundian, and Spanish thrones after a series of events. He tried to quell some of the Reformation, but he eventually encountered too much resistance

Patronage system

system in which people in power give other positions of power to their friends and supporters (some people attacked the church for doing this)

Papal States

territory that belonged to the pope...

Corvinus, King Matthias

was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1458, at the age of 14 until his death. After conducting several military campaigns he became also King of Bohemia (1469-1490), and Duke of Austria (1486-1490). With his patronage Hungary became the first European country which adopted the Renaissance from Italy. As a Renaissance ruler, he established education institutions, patronized art and science, and introduced a new legal system in the Kingdom of Hungary. In the era of his kingship, he strongly endeavored to follow the model and ideas of the philosopher-king as described in Plato's Republic.