AP Euro Test Review 12 - The Enlightenment

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

*18th century's most influential advocate of laissez-faire.* Wrote *The Wealth of Nations.* Attacked mercantilist practice and argued that a nation's wealth was based upon the *production of goods by farmers, artisans, and factory workers.* Because protectionist mercantilist regulations interfered with production, it restricted the expansion of a nation's wealth. People should be free to pursue their own economic self-interest, which in a free economy would promote the prosperity of an entire society.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Born in Geneva. Rebelled against restrictions imposed by the Calvinist traditions of the city. Urged for reforms in education and government. Rousseau argued that *people living a state of nature had once been virtuous, free, equal and happy and had been corrupted by civilization. They needed a *natural education, free of the corruption and artificiality of society.* Ideas for education can be found in his book, *Emile,* which is part treatise and part novel. Emile learned by direct experience rather than from books. *The Social Contract* was Rousseau's treatise on politics. In it he stated, "All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains." He did feel that government was a necessary evil but if government and individual liberty could be reconciled, it could be better. He advocated for a radical form of the contract theory of government. He *rejected extreme individualism* and stressed the role of the individual *as part of a society.* In his social contract, *members of society agreed to be ruled by the general will.* All members of society would participate in the formulation of the general will, which would then be executed by a small group. Obedience to this general will was then an act of freedom. While Rousseau did not believe in democracy, his ideas helped promote the idea of democratic ideology.

Baron de Montequieu (1689-1755)

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu was a French attorney and philosopher. *Did not believe that there was only one ideal political system.* Believed different systems was appropriate for different people, depending on the size of the area, its population, its economic system, and its religious and social traditions. He did admire the British system and argued for a constitutional monarchy in France. In his book *The Spirit of the Laws* he set forth the concept of *the separation of powers between the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government.* The checks and balances in this type of system would place effective limits on the power of the executive branch and thus protect the rights of individual citizens. *His ideas influenced the writers of the American Constitution as well as the French Constitution of 1791.*

Law and Justice

Critical of out of date and unjust laws and systems of justice, especially capital punishment (death sentence) and the use of torture. In *Essay on Crimes and Punishments, Cesare Beccaria* argued for bringing laws and justice into agreement with the rational laws of nature. He argued that harsh punishments did not deter crime and that the certainty of punishment was more effective to discourage crime than the severity of the punishment. Justice should be *swift and focus on rehabilitation of the criminal.*

The Encyclopedia

Most of the French philosophes (including Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu) contributed to the *Encyclopedia*, which was edited by *Denis Diderot* (1713-1784) and *Jean le Rond d'Alembert* (1717-1783). The Encyclopedia was not only a collection of knowledge but *also a means to spread the radical ideas of the philosophes* on government, economics, religion, and philosophy.* There was opposition by the state and church authorities to their publication.

Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)

Philosophes believed in the progress of human beings and society *toward a perfect condition.* View that human beings were basically good but had been *corrupted by society.* If societal institutions were reformed, then human goodness would prevail. This doctrine of progress was set forth most strongly by the Marquis de Condorcet in the *Progress of the Human Mind.* He traced the development of human history through 9 eras, arguing that in the 10th era, peace, virtue, and justice would prevail.

François-Marie Arouet = Voltaire (1694-1778)

Witty critic of the Old Regime who produced many essays, letters, stories, plays, and histories that helped popularize the ideas of the Enlightenment. One of his most famous works was the satirical tale *Candide*, attacked superstition, religious persecution, war and and an uncritical optimism about the human condition. Voltaire was a proponent of *enlightened despotism* and corresponded with Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia. This idea was that an *absolute ruler would use his authority to promote reform* Some *monarchs in fact did this in an effort to make their governments more efficient but none really enacted any reforms to undermine his (or her) authority.* Following the outbreak of the *French Revolution,* rulers in other countries became adamant (firm) in their opposition to even moderate reforms in *fear that revolution would spread to their countries.* With regard to religion, Voltaire was an advocate of *deism,* which many thinkers believed was a more rational and natural approach to religion that the supernatural and mystical teachings of Christianity. *Diests believed in a God who created the universe and set it in motion to operate in accordance with natural laws but once set in motion, God did not interfere with the operation of his creation.* He did not respond to prayer. Many believed that in life after death, *God would reward and punish individuals according to their moral conduct during their lives.* Despite these beliefs, they rejected the fundamental doctrines of Christian Faith. Voltaire was imprisoned for some of his ideas. He then left France and lived in England for a few years. He *admired England's spirit of tolerance in both politics and religion.* He published *Letters on the English* expressing admiration for England's constitutional government and criticizing French absolutism.

Economic Thought

*Laissez-faire.* This term is derived from "Laissez faire, laissez passer," meaning "Let do, let pass." The economy should be free to regulate itself by its own natural laws. Repudiated mercantilism (the economic theory that trade generates wealth and is stimulated by the accumulation of profitable balances, which a government should encourage by means of protectionism), which was the doctrine at the time.

The Philosophes

Many of the leading thinkers of the Enlightenment movement were French. Thus, they were know by the French word for philosophers, *philosophes.* However, they were *not philosophers* in the traditional sense. Rather they were *critics of the Old Regime, who developed new ideas about economics, religion and government.* They also *proposed improvements for the human condition and the reform of society.* The philosophes shared the Enlightenment's faith in the *supremacy of human reason,* believing that people, through the use of their reason, could find answers to their questions and solutions to their problems. *Reason could be used to reveal the natural laws that regulated human affairs.* Once these natural laws were discovered, then institutions of society could be reformed to bring them into accordance with the natural order.

John Locke (1632-1704) -

Most of the most widely read political philosophers during the Enlightenment. In his written works, he provided a defense of England's Glorious Revolution of 1688, which had resulted in the overthrow of King James II. In his *Essay Concerning Human Understanding,* Lock argued in favor of his theory *tabula rasa.* He argued that at birth every person's mind is a blank slate and that all knowledge comes from experience. He argued against the view that Humans were born with a tendency to submit to authority. In his next book, *Second Treatise of Government,* he discussed the *social-contract theory.* In his view, people had come together in a social contract. By *mutual consent* they had created a *government to protect their natural rights of life, liberty, and property.* Thus, the *government's authority is derived from the consent of the governed.* Thus, when the government fails to protect the people's rights and instead tries to rule them absolutely, the people have the *right to rebel* as they did in the Glorious Revolution. He supported the creation of a *constitutional government that placed limits on the ruler's authority.* Thinkers in the Enlightenment accepted Locke's doctrine of the natural rights and his views on constitutional government. He influenced others, such as Thomas Jefferson who included the words about the right to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," in the Declaration of Independence.

François Quesnay (1694-1774)

Quesnay believed in *Physiocracy (from the Greek for "Government of Nature") an economic theory developed by a group of 18th century enlightened French economists who believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of "land agriculture" or "land development" and that agricultural products should be highly priced.* Trade should remain free of control and there should be only one tax, on income derived from land.

The Enlightenment - Overview and Themes

The Enlightenment is known as the Age of Reason. It was the dominant intellectual movement of the 18th century. The achievements of the Scientific Revolution had revealed the ability of the human mind to penetrate the secrets of the physical universe. While the scientists of the Scientific Revolution had used their intellectual powers to discover the natural laws of the physical universe, the thinkers of the Enlightenment sought through reasoning to discover the natural laws that governed humans and society. The Enlightenment thinkers criticized the existing institutions of the church and the absolute monarchy, as well as issues in society. They also proposed reforms to eliminate abuses and to promote individual freedoms. While they tended to oversimplify human nature and exaggerate the reason as the major force in human affairs, the did offer honest and sometimes brave criticisms of the Old Regime. Their ideas had powerful impact on the thought and action of the movers behind the American and French revolutions and the advocates of reform generally in the Western World.