AP Lang Confusing Terms

Litotes

(pronounced almost like "little tee") - a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: "Not a bad idea," "Not many," "It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain" (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).

Rhetorical Modes

4 types of rhetorical modes 1. Exposition- to explain an analyze info. by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. 2. Argumentation- prove the validity of an idea by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader 3. Description- recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture it. 4. Narration- to tell a story or event. Frequently used in descriptive writing.

Aphorism

A brief, cleverly worded statement that makes a wise observation about life.(applies to literary moral and philosophical principles)

Analogy

A comparison of two different things that are similar in some way

Personification

A device with presents or describes concepts, animals, or objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions.

Onomatopoeia

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.

Metonymy

A figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to the government.) The suits were at meeting. (The suits stand for business people.)

Metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

Oxymoron

A figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.

Extended Metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently throughout a work the tool serves to project the comparison intensely in the reader's mind, than is the case when simple metaphors or similes are used. Ex. comparing Juliet to the sun in the balcony scene.

Allusion

A reference to another work of literature, person, or event

Paradox

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times....") The witches in Macbeth, "Fair is foul, and foul is fair"

Loose sentence/non-periodic sentence

A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic sentence. Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays. Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.

Paraody

A work that closely imitates the style of content of another with the specific aim of comic effect or ridicule Well written parody offers enlightenment of original but poorly written parody offers only imitation. Usually an author must grasp the allusion.

Satire

A work that targets human vices or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule.

Pedantic

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic or bookish Often "show-offy" Using big words for the sake of using big words

euphimism

An agreeable, or less offensive word for a generally unpleasant word or concept. This may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" instead of "corpse"

understaement

An understatement is a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is. An understatement is a tool that helps to develop other figures of speech such as irony and sarcasm by deliberately decreasing the severity of a situation when an intense response is expected by the listeners or the readers. "Deserts are sometimes hot, dry and sandy" while describing deserts of the world. "He is not too thin" while describing an obese person. "It rained a bit more than usual" while describing an area being flooded after heavy rainfall.

Connotation/Denotation

Connotation: non-literal meaning of a word. It is the implied or suggested meaning (ideas, emotions, or attitudes. Denotation: The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color A knife: connotation: fear, violence Denotation: utensil used to cut

Subordinate Clause

Contains both a subject and a verb, but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause) to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses. For example: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how and that. Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is known for its geysers. underlined phrase = subordinate clause

Conceit

Develops an unlikely comparison but is imaginative. Turns into a conceit when writer tries to make us admit a similarity between two things of whose unlikeness we are strongly conscious. Allows readers to look at things in a new way. Similes and metaphors may explain things vibrantly but become boring because of their predictable nature. Conceits surprise and shock the readers by making farfetched comparisons. Develops interest in readers. "My life is like a free online game, people seem to be playing with it.

Didactic

Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles. George Orwell's "Animal Farm" is an allegory or a moral and didactic tale that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsars, Nicholas-II and exposes the evil of the Communist Revolution of Russia before WWII. The word didactic is frequently used for those literary texts which are overloaded with informative or realistic matter and are marked by the omission of graceful and pleasing details. Didactic, therefore, becomes a derogatory term referring to the forms of literature that are ostentatiously dull and erudite. However, some literary texts are entertaining as well as didactic.

Clause

Independent clause: sentence that can stand alone: "I drive a bus." "I am a doctor and my wife is a lawyer." Dependent clause: must be accompanied by an independent clause: "Bob enjoyed the movie more than I did "

Semantics

Interpretation and meaning of the words, sentence structure and symbols, while determining the reading comprehension of the readers how they understand others and their interpretations. Semantics construct a relation between words and clarifies the sense of a sentence whether the meanings of words are literal or figurative. (connotative or denotative) Semantics propose exact meanings of the words and phrases and remove confusion, which might lead the readers to believe a word has many possible meanings.

Prose

One of the major divisions of genre, prose refer to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms.

Parallelism

Refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities is an example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, ...") The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm. anaphora - A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous "I Have a Dream" speech (1963).

Diction

Relates to style Refers to the writer's word choices You could describe the author's diction (formal, informal, plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. This can help create an author's style

Synecdoche

Synecdoche examples can be misidentified as metonymy. Synecdoche refers to the whole of a thing by the name of any one of its parts. For example, calling a car "wheels" is a synecdoche because a part of a car "wheels" stands for the whole car. However, in metonymy, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not necessarily a part of it. For example, "crown" that refers to power or authority is a metonymy used to replace the word "king" or "queen".

Syntax

Syntax is a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought. Syntax and diction are closely related. Diction refers to the choice of words in a particular situation while syntax determines how the chosen words are used to form a sentence. Most often than not, adopting a complex diction means a complex syntactic structure of sentences and vice versa. In combination, syntax and diction help writers develop tone, mood and atmosphere in a text along with evoking interest of the readers.

Irony

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. often used to create poignancy or humor. There are three major types of irony: (1) verbal irony - when the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) meaning (2) situational irony - when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen (3) dramatic irony - when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

atmosphere

The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described.

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.

colloquail

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, Colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

Subject Compliment

The word or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate adjective). These are defined below: (1) the predicate nominative - a noun, or group of nouns that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star. movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts (2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject. Example: Warren remained optimistic. optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren

antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.

Generic Conventions

These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.

Inference/infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation - negative or positive - of the choices.

Tricolon

Tricolon consists of three parallel clauses, phrases or words, which happen to come in quick succession without any interruption. These three parallel words, phrases or clauses have almost the same length though this condition is not strictly followed. It also refers to a collection of three lines, paragraphs, chapters, or stanzas. For instance, William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar uses it in his famous speech in ascending order as, "Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, [and] I conquered.") The purpose of tricolon is to give a greater sense of roundness, completeness and wholeness, whereas the third part brings in a surprising effect in the sentence.

Trope

Trope is a figure of speech through which speakers or writers intend to express meanings of words differently than their literal meanings. Some of its types include: irony, hyperbole, metaphor, allegory, litotes, pun, personification, simile, metonymy,

Zeugma

Usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas. "John lost his coat and his temper", the verb "lost" applies to both noun "coat" and "temper". Losing a coat and losing temper are logically and grammatically different ideas that are brought together. May create confusing or dangling sentences, however, if used correctly, it adds flavor to literary texts as it helps produce a dramatic effect, which could be shocking.

Ambiguity

Words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion which result in unintentional humor

Apostrophe

Writer see apostrophe, detached himself from the reality and addresses an imaginary character in his speech

Syllogism

a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a reference to something general and from this it draws conclusion about something more specific. Syllogism can contribute to add wit to the statements or create nonsensical information "All dogs are canine. Tommy is a dog. Therefore, Tommy is a canine." Syllogism fallacy: "All crows are black and the bird in my cage is black. So, the bird in my cage is a crow."

Chairoscuro

a sort of writing in which opposite emotions are mingled. Happy and sad

Allegory

a story, poem, or picture that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, typically a moral or political one.

invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. The tool of invective can be used in a variety of ways to highlight the depth of the writer's emotions for the cause at hand. High invective involves formal language and creative expression which creates a different impact than low invective, which concerns with the value of stock words and images. The speaker conveys heartfelt bitter emotions Invective is not a powerful tool of persuasion but is a device employed to get a sort of reaction from the interlocutor.

caricature

an exaggerated portrayal of one's features

Hyperbole

figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. By using hyperbole, a writer or a poet makes common human feelings remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain ordinary. Hyperbole develops contrasts. When one thing is described with an over-statement and the other thing is presented normally, a striking contrast is developed. This technique is employed to catch the reader's attention.

Synesthesia

refers to a technique adopted by writers to present ideas, characters or places in such a manner that they appeal to more than one senses like hearing, seeing, smell etc. at a given time. phrases like "cool dress" , "cool colors" or "you are looking cool" wherein the visual sensation is blended with the sense of touch. Moreover, we commonly hear phrases like "loud colors", "frozen silence" and "warm colors", "bitter cold" etc. Writers employ this device to be creative in communicating their ideas to the readers. It makes their ideas more vivid and adds more layers of meaning to a text for the readers' pleasure.

Homily

term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

Antithesis

the direct opposite, a sharp contrast