AP Lit Literary Terms

catharsis

A Catharsis is an emotional discharge through which one can achieve a state of moral or spiritual renewal or achieve a state of liberation from anxiety and stress. Catharsis is a Greek word and it means cleansing. In literature it is used for the cleansing of emotions of the characters. It can also be any other radical change that leads to emotional rejuvenation of a person. Originally, the term was used as a metaphor in Poetics by Aristotle to explain the impact of tragedy on the audiences. He believed that catharsis was the ultimate end of a tragic artistic work and it marked its quality. He further said in Poetics: "Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; . . . through pity [eleos] and fear [phobos] effecting the proper purgation [catharsis] of these emotions" (c. 350 BCE, Book 6.2). "Romeo and Juliet" by William Shakespeare "Here's to my love! [Drinks] O true apothecary! Thy drugs are quick. Thus with a kiss I die. [Falls]" In "Romeo and Juliet", Romeo commits suicide by drinking the poison that he erroneously thinks Juliet had tasted too. The audience usually finds themselves crying at this particular moment for several reasons. Primarily because losing a loved one is a feeling that all of us share. Watching or reading such a scene triggers the memories of someone we have lost (either by death or by mere separation) and because we are able to relate to it, we suddenly release the emotions that we have been repressing.

couplet

A couplet is a literary device which can be defined as having two successive rhyming lines in a verse and has the same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked by a usual rhythm, rhyme scheme and incorporation of specific utterances. It could an independent poem, and could be a part of other poems such as sonnets in Shakespearean poetry. If a couplet has the ability to stand apart from the rest of the poem, it is independent and hence it is called a closed couplet. A couplet which cannot render a proper meaning alone is called an open couplet. One of the commonly used couplet examples are these two lines from William Shakespeare's Hamlet. "The time is out of joint, O cursed spite That ever I was born to set it right!" Here are a few types of couplets: Short Couplet Split Couplet Heroic Couplet (Closed and Open Couplets) Shakespearean Couplet Alexandrine Couplet Qasida Chinese Couplet Example #1 "Look in thy glass, and tell the face thou viewest Now is the time that face should form another; Whose fresh repair if now thou not renewest, Thou dost beguile the world, unbless some mother, For where is she so fair whose unear'd womb ....... But if thou live, remember'd not to be, Die single, and thine image dies with thee." (Sonnet III by William Shakespeare) This is one of the Shakespearean sonnets that contain 14 lines and there is the couplet at the end of the poem which usually rhymes and concludes the poem. These lines generally give commentary on the theme.

aside

A term used in drama and theater, an aside happens when a character's dialogue is spoken but not heard by the other actors on the stage. Asides are useful for giving the audience special information about the other characters onstage or the action of the plot. Shakespeare, everyone's favorite drama dude, uses tons of asides. In Act I, Scene ii of Hamlet, Hamlet, in full snark mode, says to the audience about his uncle, Claudius, "A little more than kin, and less than kind." He's referring to the fact that his dear uncle has, presumably, killed Hamlet's dad, and then taken up with the guy' Normally playwrights use dialogues to express their characters, but often it becomes difficult for them to express the thinking of their characters. Hence, they use a typical dramatic device, aside, that solves this problem. It is a short comment or speech that a character delivers directly to the audience or to himself, while other actors on the stage cannot listen. Only the audience can realize that an actor has expressed speech for them. In essence, through aside, a character comments on what happens in the play. Simply, we can define aside as a short commentary that reveals private opinions and reactions of the character. However, it refers to the major conflict in a play though it may not involve his personal conflict.s wife. But, of course, he can't say this to Claudius' face. Awkward. So he says it to the audience instead.

allegory

Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and principles are described in terms of characters, figures and events. It can be employed in prose and poetry to tell a story with a purpose of teaching an idea and a principle or explaining an idea or a principle. The objective of its use is to preach some kind of a moral lesson. "Animal Farm", written by George Orwell, is an allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW I. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm for the animals is: "All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others." The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution. For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power following the revolution; "Mr. Jones" the owner of the farm represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while "Boxer" the horse, represents the laborer class etc. The use of allegory in the novel allows Orwell to make his position clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils.

alliteration

Alliteration is derived from Latin's "Latira". It means "letters of alphabet". It is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series. Consider the following examples: But a better butter makes a batter better. A big bully beats a baby boy. Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words (B) occurs close together and produces alliteration in the sentence. An important point to remember here is that alliteration does not depend on letters but on sounds. So the phrase not knotty is alliterative, but cigarette chase is not. "Up the aisle, the moans and screams merged with the sickening smell of woolen black clothes worn in summer weather and green leaves wilting over yellow flowers." Maya gives us a striking example of alliteration in the above extract with the letters "s" and "w". We notice that alliterative words are interrupted by other non-alliterative words among them but the effect of alliteration remains the same. We immediately notice alliteration in the words "screams", "sickening smell", "summer", "weather" and "wilting".

allusion

Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text. For instance, you make a literary allusion the moment you say, "I do not approve of this quixotic idea," Quixotic means stupid and impractical derived from Cervantes's "Don Quixote", a story of a foolish knight and his misadventures. Milton's "Paradise Lost" gives allusions a fair share. Look at the example from Book 6 below: "All night the dread less Angel unpursu'd Through Heav'ns wide Champain held his way, till Morn, Wak't by the circling Hours, with rosie hand Unbarr'd the gates of Light. There is a Cave Within the Mount of God, fast by his Throne" In the above lines "dread less Angel" is a reference to "Abdiel", a fearless angel. "Circling Hours" alludes to a Greek Myth "The Horae", the daughters of "Zeus" and "Themis" namely "Thallo (Spring), Auxo (Summer) and Carpo (Fall). " With rosie hand" Milton refers to Homer's illustration of the "rosy fingered dawn" (Odyssey Book 2).

analogy

An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar. Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is more extensive and elaborate than either a simile or a metaphor. Consider the following example: "Structure of an atom is like a solar system. Nucleus is the sun and electrons are the planets revolving around their sun." Here an atomic structure is compared to a solar system by using "like". Therefore, it is a simile. Metaphor is used to relate the nucleus to the sun and the electrons to the planets without using words "like" or "as'. Hence, similes and metaphors are employed to develop an analogy. These lines are taken from Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet", Act II, Scene II. "What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other word would smell as sweet. So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called," Juliet is indirectly saying that just like a rose that will always smell sweet by whichever name it is called; she will like Romeo even if he changes his name.

anapest

Anapest is a poetic device defined as a metrical foot in a line of a poem that contains three syllables wherein the first two syllables are short and unstressed followed by a third syllable that is long and stressed as given in this line "I must Finish my JOUrney aLONE." Here the anapestic foot is marked by capitalization. 'Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse; The stockings were hung by the chimney with care,... While visions of sugar plums danced in their heads... had just settled our brains for a long winter's nap.... As dry leaves that before the wild hurricane fly, when they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky... with the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too. ('Twas the Night before Christmas by Clement Clarke Moore) This poem is a perfect example of anapest, which runs throughout the poem. Most of the lines are following anapestic tetrameter. Like in the first line, there are four anapests. However, three anapests are also used in other lines.

antithesis

Antithesis, literal meaning opposite, is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or clauses, i.e. the structures of phrases and clauses are similar in order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers. For example: "Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind." The use of contrasting ideas, "a small step" and "a giant step", in the sentence above emphasizes the significance of one of the biggest landmarks of human history. The opening lines of Charles Dickens' novel " A Tale of Two Cities" provides an unforgettable antithesis example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way." The contrasting ideas, set in parallel structures, markedly highlight the conflict that existed in the time which was discussed in the novel.

aphorism

Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner. The term is often applied to philosophical, moral and literary principles. To qualify as an aphorism, it is necessary for a statement to contain a truth revealed in a terse manner. Aphoristic statements are quoted in writings as well as in our daily speech. The fact that they contain a truth gives them a universal acceptance. Scores of philosophers, politicians, writers, artists and sportsman and other individuals are remembered for their famous aphoristic statements. Aphorisms often come with a pinch of humor, which makes them more appealing to the masses. Proverbs, maxims, adages and clichés are different forms of aphoristic statements that gain prevalence from generation to generation and frequently appear in our day-to-day speech. An example of aphorism can be seen in "To kill a Mocking Bird" by Nelle Harper Lee. Atticus Finch tells her daughter: "You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view - until you climb into his skin and walk around in it." The above statement holds the truth, as we cannot claim to judge a person unless we understand the way he views the world and its affairs.

archetype

Archetype Definition In literature, an archetype is a typical character, an action or a situation that seems to represent such universal patterns of human nature. An archetype, also known as universal symbol, may be a character, a theme, a symbol or even a setting. Many literary critics are of the opinion that archetypes, which have a common and recurring representation in a particular human culture or entire human race, shape the structure and function of a literary work. Carl Jung, Swiss psychologist, argued that the root of an archetype is in the "collective unconscious" of mankind. The phrase "collective unconscious" refers to experiences shared by a race or culture. This includes love, religion, death, birth, life, struggle, survival etc. These experiences exist in the subconscious of every individual and are recreated in literary works or in other forms of art. Archetype Examples in Literature Below is the analysis of common archetypes that exist in literature. Archetypes in Characters Example #1 The Hero: He or she is a character who predominantly exhibits goodness and struggles against evil in order to restore harmony and justice to society e.g. Beowulf, Hercules, D'artagnan from "The Three Musketeers" etc. Example #2 The Mother Figure: Such a character may be represented as Fairy Mother who guides and directs a child, Mother Earth who contacts people and offers spiritual and emotional nourishment, and Stepmother who treats their stepchildren roughly. Some examples are: In Literature: Lucy and Madame Defarge from Dickens' "A Tale of Two Cities", Disely from Faulkner's "The sound and The Fury", Gladriel from "Lord of the Rings", Glinda from the "Wizard of Oz" etc. In Fairy Tales: Characters such as the stepmother in "Cinderella", fairy godmothers, Mother Goose, Little Red Riding Hood etc. In Mythology: The mythological figures of Persephone, Demeter, Hecate, Gorgon, Medusa Example #3 The Innocent Youth: He or she is inexperienced with many weaknesses and seeks safety with others but others like him/her because of the trust he or she shows in other people. Usually, the experience of coming of age comes in the later parts of the narratives such as Pip in Dickens' "Great Expectation", Nicholas in Dickens' "Nicholas Nickelby", Joseph from Fielding's "Joseph Andrews" etc. Example #4 The Mentor: His or her task is to protect the main character. It is through the wise advice and training of a mentor that the main character achieves success in the world e.g. Gandalf in "The Lords of Rings", Parson Adams in Fielding's "Joseph Andrews", and Senex in L'Engle's "A Wind in the Door" etc. Example #5 Doppelganger: It is a duplicate or shadow of a character that represents the evil side of his personality. Examples are in popular literary works such as Shakespeare's Hamlet, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, Poe's William Wilson, Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde etc. Example #6 The Scapegoat: A character that takes the blame of everything bad that happens e.g. Snowball in Orwell's "Animal Farm" etc. Example #7 The Villain: A character whose main function is to go to any extent to oppose the hero or whom the hero must annihilate in order to bring justice e.g. Shere Khan from Kipling's "The Jungle Book" stories, Long John Silver from Stevenson's "Treasure Island"" etc Archetypes in Situations Example #8 The Journey: The main character takes a journey that may be physical or emotional to understand his or her personality and the nature of the world. For example, Dante's "The Divine Comedy", Fielding's "Joseph Andrews", Swift's "Gulliver's Travel" etc. Example #9 The Initiation: The main character undergoes experiences that lead him towards maturity. We find such archetypes in novels like Fielding's "History of Tom Jones, a Foundling", Sterne's "The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman", Voltaire's "Candide" etc. Example #10 Good Versus Evil: It represents the clash of forces that represent goodness with those that represent evil. Examples of this archetype are in famous literary works like Shakespeare's "King Lear", Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" etc. Example #11 The Fall: The main character falls from grace in consequence of his or her own action e.g. Oedipus from Sophocles "Oedipus Rex", Lear from Shakespeare's "King Lear" etc. Function of Archetype The use of archetypical characters and situations gives a literary work a universal acceptance, as readers identify the characters and situations in their social and cultural context. By using common archetype, the writers attempt to impart realism to their works, as the situations and characters are drawn from the experiences of the world.

assonance

Assonance takes place when two or more words close to one another repeat the same vowel sound but start with different consonant sounds. For instance, "Men sell the wedding bells." The same vowel sound of the short vowel "-e-" repeats itself in almost all the words excluding the definite article. The words do share the same vowel sounds but start with different consonant sounds unlike alliteration that involves repetition of the same consonant sounds. Below are a few assonance examples that are more common: Assonance sets the mood of a passage in Carl Sandburg's Early Moon: "Poetry is old, ancient, goes back far. It is among the oldest of living things. So old it is that no man knows how and why the first poems came." Notice how the long vowel "o" in the above extract helps emphasize the idea of something being old and mysterious.

bildungsroman

Bildungsroman is a big, scary, German word for something that is actually pretty familiar: a coming-of-age story. A Bildungsroman charts a protagonist's development from childhood to adulthood, from innocence to experience, from being a total noob to pwning left and right. In short, a Bildungsroman is concerned with the education and progress of its main character. Famous Bildungsromans include James Joyce's The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre. You'll also find lots of coming-of-age Bildungsromans in the young adult genre, like in Avi's The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle or S.E. Hinton's The Outsiders.

blank verse

Blank verse is a literary device defined as un-rhyming verse written in iambic pentameter. In poetry and prose, it has a consistent meter with 10 syllables in each line (pentameter); where, unstressed syllables are followed by stressed ones and five of which are stressed but do not rhyme. It is also known as un-rhymed iambic pentameter. But, woe is me, you are so sick of late, So far from cheer and from your former state, That I distrust you. Yet, though I distrust, Discomfort you, my lord, it nothing must..... (Hamlet by William Shakespeare) Hamlet is a perfect example of a typical blank verse. It is written in iambic pentameter. Shakespeare employed the deliberate effort to use the syllables in a particular way. Shakespeare brought variation by using caesuras (pause) in the middle of the line, as in the third line. Shakespeare has other literary pieces that are also good sources of blank verse examples.

characterization

Characterization is a literary device that is used step by step in literature to highlight and explain the details about a character in a story. It is in the initial stage where the writer introduces the character with noticeable emergence and then following the introduction of the character, the writer often talks about his behavior; then as the story progresses, the thought-process of the character. The next stage involves the character expressing his opinions and ideas and getting into conversations with the rest of the characters. The final part shows how others in the story respond to the character's personality. Characterization as a literary tool was coined in the mid 15th century. Aristotle in his Poetics argued that "tragedy is a representation, not of men, but of action and life". Thus the assertion of the dominance of plot over characters, termed as plot-driven narrative, is unmistakable. This point of view was later on abandoned by many because, in the 19th century, the dominance of character over plot became clear through petty bourgeois novels. "The Great Gatsby" There are many examples of characterization in literature. "The Great Gatsby" is probably the best. In this particular book, the main idea revolves around the social status of the characters. The major character of the book, Mr. Gatsby, is perceptibly rich but he does not belong to the upper stratum of society. This means that he cannot have Daisy. Tom is essentially defined by his wealth and the abusive nature that he portrays every now and then, while Daisy is explained by Gatsby as having a voice full of money. Another technique to highlight the qualities of a character is to put them in certain areas that are symbolic of a social status. In the novel, Gatsby resides in the West Egg, which is considered less trendy than East Egg, where Daisy lives. This difference points out the gap between Jay's and Daisy's social statuses. Moreover, you might also notice that Tom, Jordan and Daisy live in East Egg while Gatsby and Nick reside in West Egg, which again highlights the difference in their financial background. This division is reinforced at the end of the novel when Nick supports Gatsby against the rest of the folks. Occupations have also been used very tactfully in the novel to highlight characteristics of certain protagonists. The prime example is Gatsby who, despite being so rich, is known by his profession: bootlegging. He had an illegal job that earned him a fortune but failed to get him into the upper class of New York. In contrast, Nick has a clean and fair job of a "bond man" that defines his character. The poor guy Wilson who fixes the rich people's cars befriends his wife; and then there is Jordon, who is presented as a dishonest golf pro.

climax

Climax, a Greek term meaning "ladder", is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point. Climax is a structural part of a plot and is at times referred to as a crisis. It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at which the rising action turns around into a falling action. Thus, a climax is the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its peak that calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion). In a five-act play, the climax is close to the conclusion of act 3. Later in the 19th century, the five-act plays were replaced by three-act plays and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end of the play. In William Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet", the story reaches its climax in Act 3. In the first scene of the act, Romeo challenges Tybalt to a duel after he (Tybalt) killed Mercutio: "And fire-eyed fury be my conduct now! Now, Tybalt, take the 'villain' back again That late thou gavest me; for Mercutio's soul Is but a little way above our heads," As soon as he killed Tybalt, Romeo says: "O! I am Fortune's Fool!" He realizes that he has killed his wife's cousin. This juncture in the play is a climax as the audience wonders how Romeo would get out of this terrible situation. Similarly, it qualifies as a climax because after this act all the prior conflicts start to be resolved and mysteries unfold themselves and thus the story moves toward its logical conclusion during the coming scenes.

comic relief

Comic relief is the inclusion of a humorous character, scene, or witty dialogue in an otherwise serious work, often to relieve tension. William Shakespeare deviated from the classical tradition and used comic relief in Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, The Merchant of Venice and Romeo and Juliet. The Porter scene in Macbeth,[2] the grave-digger scene in Hamlet and the gulling of Roderigo provide immense comic relief. The mockery of the fool in King Lear may also be regarded as a comic relief.

connotation

Connotation refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly. Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings in addition to their literal meanings or denotations. For instance, "Wall Street" literally means a street situated in Lower Manhattan but connotatively it refers to "wealth" and "power". Words may have positive or negative connotations that depend upon the social, cultural and personal experiences of individuals. For example, the words childish, childlike and youthful have the same denotative but different connotative meanings. Childish and childlike have a negative connotation as they refer to immature behavior of a person. Whereas, youthful implies that a person is lively and energetic. Examples: A dog connotes shamelessness or an ugly face. A dove implies peace or gentility. Home suggests family, comfort and security. Politician has a negative connotation of wickedness and insincerity while statesperson connotes sincerity. Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating. Mom and Dad when used in place of mother and father connote loving parents. Metaphors are words that connote meanings that go beyond their literal meanings. Shakespeare in his Sonnet 18 says: "Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day" Here, the phrase "a Summer's Day" implies the fairness of his beloved. Similarly, John Donne says in his poem "The Sun Rising": "She is all states, and all princes, I." This line suggests the speaker's belief that he and his beloved are wealthier than all the states, kingdoms, and rulers in the whole world because of their love.

consonance

Consonance refers to repetitive sounds produced by consonants within a sentence or phrase. This repetition often takes place in quick succession such as in pitter, patter. It is classified as a literary term used in both poetry as well as prose. For instance, the words chuckle, fickle, and kick are consonant with one and other due to the existence of common interior consonant sounds (/ck/). The literary device of consonance is inherently different from assonance which involves the repetition of similar vowel sounds within a word, sentence, or phrase. Another distinction to be appreciated is that of between consonance and rhyme. In the case of rhyme, consonant sounds can be present at the beginning, middle, or end of several successive words, rather than merely at the ends of words. Further, the device of consonance needs to be distinguished from alliteration. In contrast to alliteration, consonance involves repetition of consonant sounds only. William Harmon his book A Handbook on Literature notes that "most so-called eye rhymes (such as 'word' and 'lord,' or 'blood,' 'food,' and 'good') are the most common examples. Examples: The ship has sailed to the far off shores. She ate seven sandwiches on a sunny Sunday last year. Shelley sells shells by the seashore. 1. The following lines from a song also show how consonant sounds have been used repeatedly. "Rap rejects my tape deck, ejects projectile Whether Jew or gentile, I rank top percentile Many styles, more powerful than gamma rays My grammar pays, like Carlos Santana plays." (The lines have been taken from the song 'Zealots 'by Fugees.) 2. Just like the poem "T was later when the summer went" by Emily Dickson: 'T was later when the summer went Than when the cricket came, And yet we knew that gentle clock Meant nought but going home. 'T was sooner when the cricket went Than when the winter came, Yet that pathetic pendulum Keeps esoteric time. It can be seen from the lines that Emily Dickinson has made use of the consonant "m" frequently in the italicized words.

dactyl

Dactyl is a metrical foot, or a beat in a line, containing three syllables in which first one is accented followed by second and third unaccented syllables (accented/unaccented/unaccented) in quantitative meter such as in the word "humanly." In dactyl, we put stress on first syllable and do not stress on second and third syllables, try to say it loud-"HU-man-ly." Dactyl originates from a Greek word dáktylos, which means finger, because it is like bones of human fingers, beginning from central long knuckle, which is followed by two short bones. Opposite to Anapest Dactyl is opposite to anapestic meter, as dactyl in a quantitative meter consists of first stressed syllable and then two unstressed syllables (stressed/unstressed/unstressed), such as a dactyl from Longfellow's poem Evangeline, "Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring ocean." However, anapest in a quantitative meter contains first unstressed syllable followed by two stressed syllables (unstressed/stressed/stressed) such as William Cowper's anapestic line from his poem Verses Supposed to be Written by Alexander Selkirk, "I must finish my journey alone." Example 1 Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!" he said. Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. (The Charge of the Light Brigade by Alfred Lord Tennyson) In this poem, Tennyson has used dactylic meter perfectly. Notice this dactylic pattern as one accented syllable is followed by two unaccented syllables. Dactylic syllables give rhythm and pause while reading, thus lays emphasis on certain words. Example 2 THIS is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pre Dikes, that the hands of the farmers had raised with labor incessant,... Leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman? Darkened by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of heaven?... List to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of the forest; (Evangeline by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) This is a very popular example of dactylic meter appears in combination with spondaic meter. Look at the words shown in bold with stress pattern of one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables. Example 3 Just for a handful of silver he left us, Just for a riband to stick in his coat— Found the one gift of which fortune bereft us, Lost all the others she lets us devote; They, with the gold to give, doled him out silver, So much was theirs who so little allowed: How all our copper had gone for his service! (The Lost Leader by Robert Browning) Browning has used dactylic meter to create a great rhythmic effect. Most of the lines of the above verses contain four dactyls. Example 4 Out of the cradle, endlessly rocking Out of the mockingbird's throat, the musical shuttle Out of the Ninth-month midnight, (Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking by Walt Whitman) Whitman is using dactyl in phrase, "out of the..." as a pulse riding throughout this poem, which is generating a starting point for each new line.

enjambment

Definition of Enjambment Enjambment, derived from a French word enjambment, means to step over or put legs across. In poetry it means moving over from one line to another without a terminating punctuation mark. It can be defined as a thought or sense, phrase or clause in a line of poetry that does not come to an end at the line break but moves over to the next line. In simple words, it is the running on of a sense from one couplet or line to the next without a major pause or syntactical break. Features of an Enjambment Enjambment lines usually do not have a punctuation mark at the end. It is a running on of a thought from one line to another without final punctuation. It is used in poetry to trick a reader. Poets lead their readers to think of an idea then, on the next line, give an idea that conflicts it. Poets can achieve a fast pace or rhythm by using enjambment. Multiple ideas can be expressed without using semi-colons, periods and commas. It helps reinforce the main idea that might seem to be confusing with pauses. It can be seen in different songs and poems. It helps readers to continue thinking about the idea which is expressed in one line and which continues through to the next. Examples of Enjambment from Literature Example #1 It is a beauteous Evening, calm and free; The holy time is quiet as a Nun Breathless with adoration; the broad sun Is sinking down in its tranquility; The gentleness of heaven is on the Sea; Listen! The mighty Being is awake And doth with his eternal motion make A sound like thunder―everlastinly. Thou liest in Abraham's bosom all the year; And worshipp'st at the Temple's inner shrine, God being with thee when we know it not. (It is a Beauteous Evening by William Wordsworth) This poem is one of the perfect examples of enjambment. In this poem, every line is running over to the next while the sense is not finished at the end of lines without pause or break. Each line does not make sense and stand on its own without the next line. Example #2 "A thing of beauty is a joy forever: Its loveliness increases; it will never Pass into nothingness but still will keep A bower quiet for us, and asleep Full of sweet dreams, and health, and quiet breathing." (Endymion by John Keats) Endymion is a famous example of enjambment. The first and last lines in the given poem of John Keats have ends, while the middle lines are enjambed. There is a flow of thought from one line to the next. Example #3 "I am not prone to weeping, as our sex Commonly are; the want of which vain dew Perchance shall dry your pities; but I have That honorable grief lodged here which burns Worse than tears drown...." (The Winter's Tale by William Shakespeare) Shakespeare frequently used enjambment in his plays. This extract is filled with the heavy use of enjambment. In each line, the linguistic unit finishes mid-line with acaesura. The meaning flows from one line to next, and readers are forced to read the subsequent lines. Example #4 "April is the cruelest month, breeding Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing Memory and desire, stirring Dull roots with spring rain. Winter kept us warm, covering Earth in forgetful snow, feeding A little life with dried tubers." (The Waste Land by T.S Eliot) In this extract, only two lines (4 and 7) are end-stopped. The rest of the lines are enjambed. Each line is expanded unexpectedly by enjambment. The thought and sense flow into the next lines. Functions of Enjambment Enjambment can be used to surprise the readers by delaying the meaning of a line until the following line is read. Some writers use this technique to bring humorous effects to their work. It is good to use in verse in order to create a sense of natural motion. In poetry, the role of enjambment is normally to let an idea carry on beyond the restrictions of a single line. Another purpose of enjambment is to continue a rhythm that is stronger than a permanent end-stopping wherein complicated ideas are expressed in multiple lines.

epic

Definition of Epic The word epic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective, "epikos", which means a poetic story. In literature, an epic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related to heroic deeds of a person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery. In order to depict this bravery and courage, the epic uses grandiose style. The hero is usually the representative of the values of a certain culture, race, nation or a religious group on whose victor of failure the destiny of the whole nation or group depends. Therefore, certain supernatural forces, deus ex machina, help the hero, who comes out victor at the end. An epic usually starts with an invocation to muse, but then picks up the threads of the story from the middle and moves on to the end. Difference Between an Epic and a Ballad A ballad and an epic both are poems, which narrate stories. However, a ballad is shorter in length than an epic, while it is composed to be sung on some occasions, and not narrated. They are also known as folk ballads as well as popular ballads. Most of the ballads have unknown origin and source and usually pass on orally from generations to generations. On the other hand, an epic poem tells a story, but about the heroic ideals of a specific society. The actual difference between the two is the length and the fact that one is usually meant to be sung, while the other is to be narrated. Both differ in style where a ballad is composed in a simple language, while an epic demonstrates mastery in style such as Paradise Lost. Examples of Epic from Literature The Epic of Gilgamesh (~2000 BCE) Perhaps, the Epic of Gilgamesh is the first example of an epic. It tells the story of the life of an Assyrian king, Gilgamesh. Like all other epics, the narrative of this epic revolves around the themes related to gods, human beings, mortality, legacy and seduction. Like other epics, it is also composed in a grand style. Gilgamesh is a young arrogant king due to his being half-god and half-human. His strength and masculine beauty becomes a constant source of trouble for others. Therefore, gods grow sick of Gilgamesh's arrogant and troublesome attitude and decide to teach him a lesson. He is made to fight his antagonist, Enkidu, and then go on a long journey to bring the plant of life — a journey on which he learns the lessons of life. Although the epic is written nearly 4,000 years ago, critics are unanimous that it is a human work. The Iliad (800 BCE) Iliad is another example of an epic. It was written by the popular Greek poet, Homer. It relates the story of the Trojan wars, involving themes of courage, boldness, love for one's country and nostalgia of family. However, it describes many legends related to the siege of Troy, the events took place before the siege, the gathering of the warriors prior to the siege and the causes of the war. Later, the epic foretold the looming death of Achilles and the destruction of Troy. The style of narration is grand, and suits an epic poem — the reason that it is still one the most celebrated work of antiquity. Paradise Lost (1667) Written on the same traditions but on a different subject, Paradise Lost, is an English epic by yet another blind poet of English origin, John Milton. It also is known colloquially as the Protestant Epic. In this epic, Milton argues Satan's fall from the heaven as well as Adam and Eve's fall from the Garden of Eden. Despite his blindness, Milton did not stop from explaining "the ways of God to men." He has depicted Satan as a highly complex character, who is at war with God. Despite his different subject, Milton has used several epic devices introduced by Homer such as invocation to the muse, extended similes and grand style. Function of Epic As the epic poem is the earliest form of poetry, it is the earliest form of entertainment as well. Epics were written to commemorate the struggles and adventures of kings and warriors. The main function of epic poetry was to elevate the status of the hero among the audiences to inspire them to be ready to perform heroic actions. Epic obtained most of its themes from the exploits performed by legendary characters and their illustrious ancestors. That is why these exploits became examples for others to follow, and still lived in books. It is through epics, models of ideal heroic behavior were supplied to the common people. Moreover, epics also were collections of historical events not recorded in common history books — the reason that they are read today to be enjoyed and be informed regarding the past.

denotation

Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings. Let us try to understand this term with the help of an example. If you search for meaning of the word "dove" in a dictionary, you will see that its meaning is "a type of pigeon, a wild and domesticated bird having a heavy body and short legs." In literature, however, you frequently see "dove" referred to as a symbol of peace. Denotation and Connotation In literary works, we find it a common practice with writers to deviate from the dictionary meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images. Such deviations from the literal meanings are called the use of figurative language or literary devices e.g. metaphors, similes, personifications, hyperboles, understatements, paradoxes, and puns etc. Even in our daily conversation, we diverge from the dictionary meanings of words and prefer connotative or associated meanings of words in order to accurately convey our message. Below is a list of some common deviations from denotative meanings of words that we experience in our day to day life: A dog is used to suggest shamelessness or an ugly face. A dove is used to suggest peace or gentility. Home is used to suggest family, comfort and security. Politician has a negative connotation of wicked and insincere person Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating. Mom and Dad when used instead of mother and father suggest loving parents. 1. An example of denotation literary term can be found in the poetic work of Robert Frost's "Mending Wall": "And on a day we meet to walk the line And set the wall between us once again. We keep the wall between us as we go. To each the boulders that have fallen to each." In the above lines, the word "wall" is used to suggest a physical boundary which is its denotative meaning but it also implies the idea of "emotional barrier". 2. William Wordsworth in his poem "A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal" says: "A slumber did my spirit seal; I had no human fears- She seemed a thing that could not feel The touch of earthly years. No motion has she now, no force; She neither hears nor sees; Roll'd round in earth's diurnal course With rocks, and stones, and trees." Wordsworth makes a contrast between a living girl and a dead girl in the first and second stanza respectively. We are familiar to the meanings of the words used in the last line of the second stanza; rock, stone and tree but the poet uses them connotatively where rock and stone imply cold and inanimate object and the tree suggests dirt and thus the burial of that dead girl. 3. Look at the following lines from Shakespeare's play "As you Like It": "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts," Shakespeare moves away from the denotative meanings of words in the above lines in order to give a symbolic sense to a few words. "a stage" symbolizes the world, "players" suggests human beings and "parts" implies different stages of their lives. 4. Sara Teasdale in her poem "Wild Asters" develops a number of striking symbols by deviating from the denotative meanings of the words: "In the spring, I asked the daisies If his words were true, And the clever, clear-eyed daisies Always knew. Now the fields are brown and barren, Bitter autumn blows, And of all the stupid asters Not one knows." In the above lines, "spring" and "daisies" are symbol of youth. "Brown and barren" are a symbol of transition from the youth to the old age. Moreover, "Bitter Autumn" symbolizes death.

denouement

Denouement is derived from a French word called "denoue" that means "to untie". The denouement is a literary device which can be defined as the resolution of the issue of a complicated plot in fiction. Majority of the examples of denouement show the resolution in the final part or chapter that is often an epilogue. Denouement is usually driven by the climax. In mystery novels, however, the climax and denouement might occur simultaneously. In most of the other forms of literature, it is merely the end of the story. Example #1 Capulet:O brother Montague, give me thy hand. This is my daughter's jointure, for no more Can I demand... Montague: But I can give thee more, For I will raise her statue in pure gold, That whiles Verona by that name is known,... As that of true and faithful Juliet... Capulet: As rich shall Romeo's by his lady's lie, Poor sacrifices of our enmity..... Prince: A glooming peace this morning with it brings. The sun, for sorrow, will not show his head.... (Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare) The denouement occurs in the play when Capulets and Montagues see their beloved children committing suicide at the tomb. The heads of the family realized that their bitter rivalry must end. Lord Capulet and Lord Montague agreed to end their dispute to avoid further tragedy in the future. Example #2 "They're a rotten crowd," I shouted across the lawn. "You're worth the whole damn bunch put together....." (The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald) The denouement in The Great Gatsby happens when Nick decides to go back to Minnesota to get away from the rich people who are engaged in all those things which Nick thinks are part of the moral worthlessness in Gatsby's life. All the people in Gatsby's circle were unfaithful. Example #3 ".....That's all I'm going to tell about. I could probably tell you what I did after I went home, and how I got sick and all, and what school I'm supposed to go to next fall, after I get out of here, but I don't feel like it. I really don't. That stuff doesn't interest me too much right now..... I mean how do you know what you're going to do till you do it? The answer is, you don't. I think I am, but how do I know? I swear it's a stupid question....." (The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger) The denouement in this novel occurs in the last part of the novel. Here, the character Holden is living in a rest house that provides the psychiatric facility where he is recounting the story. He gives details to readers that after the merry-go-round ride of Phoebe, he would go home to attend school and face his parents. Example #4 Gentleman: One that gives out himself Prince Florizel/ Son of Polixenes, with his princess, she/ The fairest I have yet beheld, desires access... Leontes: What with him? he comes not/ Like to his father's greatness: his approach,... Florizel: Most royal sir, from thence; from him, whose daughter His tears proclaim'd his, parting with her: thence/ A prosperous south-wind friendly, we have cross'd... Leontes: My lord, Is this the daughter of a king? ... His tears proclaim'd his, parting with her: thence... Leontes: My lord, Is this the daughter of a king..." (The Winter's Tale by William Shakespeare) In this extract from The Winter's Tale, the denouement occurs when Polixenes chases Florizel and Perdita to Sicily. After the true identity of Paulina is discovered, Polixenes and Leontes make up and both families become happy. Leontes also reunites with the family and finds Hermoin alive.

diction

Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing determined by the choice of words by a speaker or a writer. Diction or choice of words separates good writing from bad writing. It depends on a number of factors. Firstly, the word has to be right and accurate. Secondly, words should be appropriate to the context in which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words should be such that the listener or readers understand easily. Besides, proper diction or proper choice of words is important to get the message across. On the contrary, the wrong choice of words can easily divert listeners or readers which results in misinterpretation of the message intended to be conveyed. Individuals vary their diction depending on different contexts and settings. Therefore, we come across various types of diction. It may be "formal" where formal words are used in formal situations e.g. press conferences, presentations etc. Similarly, we use "informal" diction in informal situations like writing or talking to our friends. Moreover, a "colloquial" diction uses words common in everyday speech. "Slang" is the use of words that are impolite or newly coined. Example #1 Keats in his "Ode to the Grecian Urn" uses formal diction to achieve a certain effect. He goes: "Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes, play on" Notice the use of formal "ye" instead of informal "you". The formality here is due to the respect the urn inspires in Keats. In the same poem he says: "Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed Your leaves, nor ever bid the spring adieu." It is more formal to use "adieu" than to say "goodbye". Example #2 In sharp contrast to Keats, John Donne uses colloquialism in his poem "The Sun Rising": "Busy old fool, unruly Sun, Why dost thou thus, Through windows, and through curtains, call on us? Must to thy motions lovers' seasons run? Saucy pedantic wretch," Treating the sun as a real human being, the poet speaks to the sun in an informal way using colloquial expressions. He rebukes the sun because the sun has appeared to spoil the good time he is having with his beloved. Further, he orders the "saucy pedantic sun" to go away. Example #3 Writers' skillfully choose words to develop a certain tone and atmosphere in their works. Read the following excerpt from a short story "The School" by Donald Barthelme: "And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don't know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn't the best. We complained about it. So we've got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we've got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing." The use of the words "died", "dead", "brown sticks" and "depressing" gives a gloomy tone to the passage. Example #4 Sometimes writers repeat their chosen words or phrases to achieve an artistic effect. Read the following example from " A Tale of Two Cities" by Charles Dickens: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." By repeating the phrase "It was..." throughout the passage, the writer ensures that the readers will give more consideration to characteristic of the "age" they are going to read about in the novel.

doppelganger

Doppelganger, German word meaning "look-alike" or "double walker", originally meant a ghost or shadow of a person but nowadays it simply refers to a person that is a look-alike of another person. Types of Doppelganger In literature, doppelganger is usually shaped as a twin, shadow or a mirror image of a protagonist. It refers to a character who physically resembles the protagonist and may have the same name as well. Several types of doppelganger can be spotted in world literature. It may take the form of an "evil twin", not known to the actual person, who confuses people related to that original person. Besides, it may be figured as one person existing in two different places at the same time. Sometimes, a doppelganger is a person's past or future self. In some cases, it may simply be a person's look alike. Doppelganger in Folklore In traditional folklore, doppelganger is a malicious and evil character having no shadow or reflection. It troubles and harms its counterpart by putting bad thoughts and ideas in his or her head. In some cultures, seeing one's doppelganger is bad luck and is often a sign of serious illness or approaching death. Doppelganger Examples in Literature Let us see some Doppelganger examples and their role in literature: Example #1 The ghost of Hamlet's father in Shakespeare's "Hamlet" is an example of Doppelganger. The idea of getting revenge is put in Hamlet's mind by the apparition of his father who tells him that he was murdered. The use of a doppelganger helps Shakespeare to set up the plot of his play that revolves around the theme of revenge. Example #2 "William Wilson", a short story by Edgar Allan Poe follows the theme of doppelganger. William, the protagonist, meets another boy in school who had the same name and looked surprisingly like him. He dressed and even walked like him. The only difference between them was that the doppelganger of William could only talk in a whisper. The doppelganger haunts William all his life. Worn out by interference from his double in his affairs, William stabs him only to find in the mirror that he has stabbed himself: "In me didst thou exist—and, in my death, see by this image, which is thine own, how utterly thou hast murdered thyself." He hears the voice of his rival as if it was his own. Example #3 Joseph Conrad uses a doppelganger theme in his short story "The Secret Sharer". In the story, "Laggatt", ex-skipper of a ship, acts as a doppelganger of "The Captain". "The Captain" discovers "Laggatt" swimming in the sea naked. He helps him come on board and gives him his clothes to wear. Both have similarities as well as dissimilarities. "Laggatt" who is full of calmness and self-confidence helps "The Captain" to get rid of his uncertainty and undue apprehensions. In fact, "Laggatt" is other self of "The Captain" that he has failed to discover until then. Example #4 Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of doppelganger in his novel "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde". Hyde is an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll. Jekyll creates Hyde by scientific experiments to prove his statement: "man is not truly one, but truly two." He means that the human soul is a mixture of evil and good and Hyde is the manifestation of the evil that existed in Dr. Jekyll. As a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll can never fulfill the evil desires existing in him. Therefore, he separates his "evil-self" and gave him a separate identity. Function of Doppelganger in Literature A survey of Doppelganger examples leads one to conclude that this literary device serves a variety of purposes in literature. It may be used to show the "other self" of a character that he or she has not discovered yet. This "other self" could be the darker side of the character that troubles or the brighter side that motivates. Hence, it helps writers to portray complex characters. Moreover, doppelganger gives rise to a conflict in a story. The doppelganger acts in a way that promises dire consequences for the main character that puts in efforts to undo the actions of his double. Sometimes, the conflict is an inner one where a character tries to understand himself by understanding his doppelganger.

elegy

Elegy Definition Elegy is a form of literature which can be defined as a poem or song in the form of elegiac couplets, written in honor of someone deceased. It typically laments or mourns the death of the individual. Elegy is derived from the Greek work "elegus", which means a song of bereavement sung along with a flute. The forms of elegies we see today were introduced in the 16th century. "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" by Thomas Gray and "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" by Walt Whitman are the two most popular examples of elegy. Features of Elegy Usually, elegies are identified by several characteristics of genre: Just like a classical epic, an elegy typically starts with the invocation of the muse and then proceeds by referencing to the traditional mythology. It often involves a poet who knows how to phrase the thoughts imaginatively in the first person. Questions are raised by the poet about destiny, justice and fate. The poet associates the events of the deceased with events in his own life by drawing a subtle comparison. This kind of digression gives the poet space to go beyond the main or crude subject to a deeper level where the connotations might be metaphorical. Towards the end the poet generally tries to provide comfort to ease the pain of the situation. The Christian elegies usually proceed from sorrow and misery to hope and happiness because they say that death is just a hindrance in the way of passing from the mortal state into the eternal state. An elegy is not always based on a plot. Elegy Examples Example #1 "With the farming of a verse Make a vineyard of the curse, Sing of human unsuccess In a rapture of distress; In the deserts of the heart Let the healing fountain start, In the prison of his days Teach the free man how to praise." (In Memory of W. B. Yeats, by W. H. Auden) Example #2 "O CAPTAIN! My Captain! our fearful trip is done; The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought is won; The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring: But O heart! Heart! Heart! O the bleeding drops of red, Where on the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead.O Captain! My Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up-for you the flag is flung-for you the bugle trills; 10 For you bouquets and ribbon'd wreaths-for you the shores a-crowding; For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning; Here Captain! Dear father! This arm beneath your head; It is some dream that on the deck, You've fallen cold and dead. My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still; My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will; The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done; From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won; 20 Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells! But I, with mournful tread, Walk the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead." (O Captain! My Captain!, by Walt Whitman) Whitman wrote this elegy for Abraham Lincoln (16th president of the United States). Function of Elegy Elegy is one of the richest literary forms because it has the capacity to hold emotions that deeply influence people. The strongest of the tools elegy uses is its reliance on memories of those who are no more. Most of the poets who wrote elegies were evidently awed by the frailty of human beings and how the world completely forgets about the deceased at some point. However, the function of elegy is not as limited as it is thought. Whenever we take a look at elegy examples, what come to mind are feelings like sorrow, grief and lamentation; but, a study of the Latin elegy tells us otherwise. A great deal of genre created in western literature was inspired by Latin elegy, which was not always so somber. The most famous elegiac poets in Latin literature such as Catullus, Ovid and Propertius, used humor, irony, even slotted narratives into a poem and still called them elegy.

caesura

Everyone speaks, and everyone breathes too. While speaking, everyone breathes. For instance, when you say, "Maria has taken breaks," you take breath before further saying that, "But Adam did not," then again you take a little breath and say, "He fell on his ankle." Such pauses come from natural rhythm of your speech. Poetry also uses pauses in the lines. One of such pauses is known as caesura, which is a rhythmical pause in a poetic line or a sentence. It often occurs in the middle of a line, or sometimes at the beginning and the end. At times, it occurs with punctuation; however, at other times it does not. Poets indicate it with a parallel symbol thus: ||. Caesura can be medial (occurring in the middle of line), initial (occurring at the beginning of poetic line), or terminal (occurring at the end of a poetic line). I'm nobody! ||Who are you? Are you nobody, too? Then there's a pair of us|| — don't tell! They'd banish ||- you know! (From "I'M Nobody! Who Are You?" by Emily Dickinson) Dickinson has used masculine caesural pause in the middle of verses. These breaks create a staccato effect an uneven rhythm in the flow of sound and conveying the depth of an idea.

cacophony

If we speak literally, cacophony points to a situation where there is a mixture of harsh and inharmonious sounds. In literature, however, the term refers to the use of words with sharp, harsh, hissing and unmelodious sounds primarily those of consonants to achieve desired results. Abundant use of cacophonic words could be noticed in Lewis Carroll's nonsense poem "Jabberwocky" in his novel "Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There": 'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; All mimsy were the borogoves,an And the mome raths outgrabe. "Beware the Jabberwock, my son! The jaws that bite, the claws that catch! Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun The frumious Bandersnatch!" In the excerpt, we see a collection of nonsense words which are at the same time unmelodious. After reading the poem, "Alice", the main character of the novel, gives her impression that reflects clearly the purpose of the poem. She says: "Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don't exactly know what they are! However, somebody killed something: that's clear, at any rate".

conflict

In literature, a conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle between two opposing forces usually a protagonist and an antagonist. Hamlet's internal conflict is the main conflict in William Shakespeare's play "Hamlet". This internal conflict decides his tragic downfall. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the play: "To be, or not to be-that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep..." The conflict here is that he wants to kill his father's murderer Claudius but he also looks for proof to justify his action, ultimately ruining his life and the lives of his loved ones. Due to his internal conflict, he spoils his relationship with his mother and sends Ophelia (Hamlet's love interest) into such a state of despair that she commits suicide. Hamlet's internal conflict, which is regarded as indecisiveness, almost got everyone killed at the end of the play. The resolution to the conflict came when he killed Claudius by assuming fake madness so that he would not be asked for any justification. In the same play, we find Hamlet engaged in an external conflict with his uncle Claudius.

apostrophe

In literature, apostrophe is a figure of speech sometimes represented by exclamation "O". A writer or a speaker, using an apostrophe, detaches himself from the reality and addresses an imaginary character in his speech. It is important not to confuse the apostrophe which is a figure of speech and the apostrophe which is a punctuation mark ('). It shows possession or a mark to indicate omission of one or more letters (contractions) while apostrophe used in literature is an arrangement of words addressing a non-existent person or an abstract idea in such a way as if it were present and capable of understanding feelings. Look at how Mary Shelly uses apostrophe in her novel "Frankenstein": "Oh! Stars and clouds and winds, ye are all about to mock me; if ye really pity me, crush sensation and memory; let me become as nought; but if not, depart, depart, and leave me in darkness." Talking to stars, clouds and winds is an apostrophe.