AP PSYCH
day care and attachment
-Quality day care that consists of responsive adults interacting with children does not harm children's thinking and language skills. -However, some studies suggest that extensive time in day care can increase aggressiveness and defiance in children.
humanistic theory of personality
-do not believe in determinism (your actions are dictated by your past) -they believe that humans have free will (ability to choose your own destiny) -we are innately good and as long as our self-esteem and self-concept are positive we will be happy
availability heuristic
-estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory -if it comes to mind easily (maybe a vivid event) we presume it is common -people over-estimate the likelihood of getting killed by a tornado because of availability heuristic
id
-exists entirely in the unconscious (so we are never aware of it) -our hidden true animalistic wants and desires -works on the pleasure principle -avoid pain and receive instant gratification
reaction formation
-expressing the opposite of how one truly feels -cootie stage in Freud's latent development
Elizabeth Loftus
-eyewitness memory- person's episodic memory for crime or event witnessed -false memory- remember things that didn't happen -cognitive psychologist -experiments on false memory
psychoanalytic theory of personality
-fathered by Sigmund Freud -theory proposes that childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personalities -treatment techniques: seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions
Karen Horney
-feminine psychology -theory of neurotic needs -neo-Freudian psychology
Sigmund Frued
-first psychotherapy -theory of unconscious mind--> iceberg theory -psychosexual stages -psychoanalytic personality theory -defense mechanisms -dream analysis
Mary Calkins
-first woman president of APA -self-psychology-focused self -analyzed dreams
John B. Watson
-founded behaviorism -Little Albert study -child development/learning
Anna Freud
-founder of psychoanalytic child psychology -intro to child analysis -parents important in child development
iceberg theory
-freud's idea of the minds structure
morphemes
-in a language the smallest unit that carries meaning -can be a word or part of a word (prefix or suffix)
phonemes
-in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit -chug as three phonemes, ch, u, g
free association
-in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious -person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarressing
sensorimotor stage
-in the SENSORIMOTOR STAGE, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping -children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp OBJECT PERMANENCE i.e, objects that are out of sight are also out of mind
infancy and childhood
-infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. during these years, the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially
top down processing
-information process guided by higher-level mental processes -as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations -start with the forest and work your attention down to the individual tree
monocular cues
-interposition -relative size -relative clarity -texture gradient -relative height -relative motion -linear perspective -light and shadow
Muller-Lyer illusion
-is an optical illusion consisting of a stylized arrow -when viewers are asked to place a mark on the figure at the midpoint, they invariably place it more towards the "tail" end -it was devised by Franz Carl Müller-Lyer (1857-1916), a German sociologist, in 1889
defense mechanism
-the ego has a pretty important job...and that is to protect you from threatening thoughts in our unconscious -one way it protects us is through defense mechanisms -you are usually unaware that they are even occurring 1. repression 2. denial 3. displacement 4. projection 5. reaction formation 6. regression 7. rationalization 8. intellectualization 9. sublimation
Whorf's Linguistic Relativity
-the idea that language determines the way we think -the Hopi tribe has no past tense in their language, so Whorf says they rarely think of the past
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
-the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests -originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use) -now used for many other screening purposes
assimilation and accommodation
-the process of assimilation involves incorporating new experiences into our current understanding (schema) -the process of adjusting a schema and modifying it (accommodation)
parallel processing
-the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously -color -motion -form -depth
positive psychology
-the scientific study of optimal human functioning -aims to discover and promote conditions that enable individuals and communities to thrive
semantics
-the set of rules by which we derive meaning in a language -adding ed at the end of words means past tense
overconfidence
-the tendency to be more confident than correct -to overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments
adolescence
-the transition period from childhood to adulthood -Many psychologists once believed that our traits were set during childhood. -Today psychologists believe that development is a lifelong process. -Adolescence is defined as a life between childhood and adulthood.
self-actualization
-the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved -the motivation to fulfill one's potential
Gate-Control Theory
-theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain -"gate" opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers -"gate" closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
critical period hypothesis
-there is a critical period for language learning -there is no agreement about how long this sensitive period lasts -Genie- the American wild child-provided evidence that language cannot be learned after puberty
divergent thinking
-thinking outside the box -you are creative in coming up with solutions nobody else came up with
how do we solve problems?
-trial and error -algorithms -heuristics -insight
telegraphic speech
-two word sentences -ex: "go car"
Chomsky's Theory (nativist theory)
-we learn language too quickly for it to be through reinforcement and punishment -inborn universal language acquisition device
deprivation of attachment
-what happens when circumstances prevent a child from forming attachments? -In such circumstances children become: 1.Withdrawn 2.Frightened 3.Unable to develop speech
stages we learn language
1. babbling stage 2. holophrastic stage (one word) 3. telegraphic speech then overgeneralization
process of seeing
1. light entering eye triggers photochemical reaction in rods and cones at back of retina 2. chemical reaction in turn activates bipolar cells 3. bipolar cells then activate the ganglion cells the axon of which converge to form the optic nerve. this nerve transmits information to the visual cortex in the brain's occipital lobe
Erik Erikson's psychoSOCIAL stages of development
1.trust vs mistrust 2.autonomy vs shame and doubt 3.initiative vs guilt 4.industry vs inferiority 5.idenity vs role confusion 6.intimacy vs isolation 7.generativity vs stagnation 8.intrgrity vs despair
Schizophrenic Disorders
About 1 in every 100 people are diagnosed with schizophrenia. Symptoms of Schizophrenia Disorganized thinking. Disturbed Perceptions Inappropriate Emotions and Actions
old age: sensory abilities
After age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina. After 80, neural processes slow down, especially for complex tasks.
formal operational stage
Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason. Piaget called this FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING
Stimulants
Arouse the central nervous system, speeding up mental and physical responses Cocaine, Amphetamines, Methamphetamine, MDMA, Caffeine
aging and memory
As we age, we remember some things well. These include recent past events and events that happened a decade or two back. However, recalling names becomes increasingly difficult.
Narcolepsy
Characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. Lapses directly into REM sleep (usually during times of stress or joy).
Psychoactive drugs
Chemicals that affect mental processes and behavior by their effects on the nervous system
Transference
Eventually the patient opens up and reveals his or her innermost private thoughts, developing positive or negative feelings towards the therapist
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder - PTSD
Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence in one or more of the following ways: Experiencing or witnessing something severely threatening (Examples?) Learning that the traumatic event occurred to a close family member or friend (event must have been violent or accidental) Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the event (this does not apply to exposure through electronic media, tv, movies or pictures
Avoidant Personality Disorder
Fear of not being liked Fear of being liked will avoid social settings and work
Emotional Intelligence
First called social intelligence. Some studies show EQ to be a greater predictor for future success than IQ Daniel Goleman The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions. (Interpersonal and Intrapersonal)
Retrieval
Getting stuff out of your brain
Carol Gilligan
Gilligan would go on to criticize Kohlberg's work. This was based on two things. First, he only studied privileged, white men and boys. She felt that this caused a biased opinion against women. Secondly, in his stage theory of moral development, the male view of individual rights and rules was considered a higher stage than women's point of view of development in terms of its caring effect on human relationships.
Recognition
Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned as on a multiple-choice test
Episodic Memory
Memory of life's episodes like first kiss
The Dynamics of Intelligence
Mild, Moderate, Severe, Profound
middle adulthood
Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac output begin to decline after the mid-twenties. Around age 50, women go through menopause, and men experience decreased levels of hormones and fertility.
Cluster A
ODD or ECCENTRIC Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal
Logical-Mathematical
Often measured on IQ tests with analogies, math problems and logic problems
Linguistic
Often measured on IQ tests with reading comprehension and vocabulary tests
Flynn Effect
Performance on IQ scores has steadily increased over generations
Flynn Effect Environmental Factors
Reduction in malnutrition Access to schooling Technological advances
Negative Punishment
Removing something desired
Negative Reinforcement
Removing something unpleasant. (strengthens the behavior) (beeping sound before seatbelt is on)
Stage One of Sleep
This is experienced as falling to sleep and is a transition stage between wake and sleep. Not really sleep. It usually lasts between 1 and 5 minutes and occupies approximately 2-5 % of a normal night of sleep. eyes begin to roll slightly. consists mostly of theta waves (high amplitude, low frequency (slow)) (think theta = thin)
how to judge a Psychological disorder
Unjustifiable--sometimes there's a good reason Maladaptive—harmful Atypical--not enough in itself Disturbing--varies with time and culture
brain development
Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However, at adolescence, selective pruning of the neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient.
Reliability using different tests
Using different forms of the test to measure consistency between them.
Test-Retest Reliability
Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
Visual/Spatial Verbal/Linguistic Logical/Mathematical Bodily/Kinesthetic Musical/Rhythmic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Natural
Helmholtz's Place Theory
We hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane.
Mental Retardation
a condition of limited mental ability indicated by an intelligence score below 70 produces difficulty in adapting to the demands of life varies from mild to profound
fixation
a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, where conflicts were unresolved
Intelligence Test
a method of assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them to those of others, using numerical scores
Major Depressive Disorder
a mood disorder in which a person, for no apparent reason, experiences two or more weeks of depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities Two or more weeks of depressed moods. No apparent reason for depressed mood. Feelings of worthlessness. Diminished interest in activities, family, and friends. Seasonal affective disorder-recurring depression during the winter months. "Common cold" of mental illness Dysthymic disorder-low moods filling most of the day, nearly every day, for 2 years or more.
Bipolar Disorder
a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania formerly called manic-depressive disorder Messes with your thoughts Illness which affects mood, thoughts, and behavior Have extreme mood swings Manic and depression
Manic Episode
a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state
Psychological Dependence
a psychological need to use a drug for example, to relieve negative emotions
Hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
Dissociation
a split in consciousness allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that one's preconceptions
frequency theory
basilar membrane vibrates at the same frequency as the sound waves; sound waves of higher frequency cause more frequent action potentials which the brain interprets as a higher pitch. problem- we can hear pitches of frequencies higher than the membrane can move
Primacy
beginning
projection
believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held by the other person and directed at oneself
Bulimia
binging and purging Both deal with poor self image and possibly body dysmorphic disorder
with a cornea transplant after being blind what happens?
can't read or write
fovea
central point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. 3 C's- center, color, cones. no photoreceptors. most focus and brightness
middle ear
chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
Skinner Box
chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer contains devices to record responses
inattentional blindness
change of a stimulus unaware to a person
Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)
characterized by a general psychological inflexibility, rigid conformity to rules and procedures, perfectionism, and excessive orderliness. tend to stress perfectionism above all else, and feel anxious when they perceive that things aren't "right".
Mood Disorders
characterized by emotional extremes
pheromones
chemical messengers that are picked up through our sense of smell
belief perseverance
clinging to your initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
iris
color muscular portion dilates/constricts light
rationalization
coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable outcome
Practical Intelligence
common sense. Form of intelligence that helps people see new relationships among concepts; involves insight and creativity
Hierarchies
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories
self-esteem
concerned with judgment of self-worth
Savant Syndrome
condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill computation drawing
False Memory Syndrome
condition in which a person's identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
consists of 11 subtests and cues us in to strengths by using factor analysis. Most widely used intelligence test subtests. (verbal and performance) (Modern test of mental ability)
Histrionic Personality Disorder
constant attention seekers They need to be the center of attention all the time, often interrupting others in order to dominate the conversation. They may dress provocatively or exaggerate illnesses in order to gain attention. They also tend to exaggerate friendships and relationships, believing that everyone loves them
Orne & Evans (1965)
control group instructed to "pretend" unhypnotized subjects performed the same acts as the hypnotized ones
sensorineural hearing loss
damage to the hair cell receptors or associated nerves; cause by aging or prolonged exposure to loud noises
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
defined originally the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 . gIQ = ma/ca x 100). On contemporary tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100
maturation
development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence-standing before walking, babbling before talking-this is called maturation. maturation sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation
Tolerance
diminishing effect with regular use
light and shadow
dimmer objects appear farther away because they reflect less light
Withdrawal
discomfort and distress that follow discontinued use
Alfred Binet anf Theodore Simon
discovered that by discovering someone's mental age they can predict future performance
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information
Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
Anxiety Disorders
distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that cause anxiety Anxiety Disorders include Phobia (Agoraphobia) Social Anxiety Disorder Panic Attack Separation Anxiety Disorder Selective Mutism
Spacing Effect- Distributed Learning
distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice
trait theory criticism
do NOT take into account the importance of the situation
stability/change
do you early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?
Predictive Validity
does the test predict future behavior.
Content Validity
does the test sample a behavior of interest
Resistance
dont tell the therapist the truth
Activation-Synthesis Theory
dreams may be a way to make sense of random neural activity
small amplitude
dull colors, soft sounds
Semantic Encoding
encoding of meaning including meaning of words
Visual Encoding
encoding of picture images
Acoustic Encoding
encoding of sound especially sound of words
Down Syndrome
retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup
regression
returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior
schemas
schemas are mental molds into which we pour experiences
akinetopsia
selective loss of motion perception
Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information space time frequency well-learned information word meanings we can learn automatic processing reading backwards
intellectualization
undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) do things to stop something bad from happening symptoms can go away or change over time
social-cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons and their social context
relative clarity
we assume hazy objects are father away
selective attention
we can only focus awareness on a limited part of what we are sensing
Opponent-Process Theory
we cannot see certain colors together in combination (red-green, blue-yellow, and white-black). these are antagonist/opponent colors)
mental age
what a person of a particular age should know
State-dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state
subliminal
when stimuli are below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Stage Three of Sleep
"Delta" sleep or "slow wave" sleep and may last 15-30 minutes. It is called "slow wave" sleep because brain activity slows down dramatically from the "theta" rhythm of Stage 2 to a much slower rhythm called "delta" and the height or amplitude of the waves increases dramatically. Sleep walking during this stage Deepest Stage of sleep
Derealization
"Experiences of unreality or detachment with respect to surroundings (e.g., individuals or objects are experienced as unreal, dreamlike, foggy, lifeless, or visually distorted."
frequency
# of complete wavelengths that pass through point at a given time. determines the pitch of a sound
Dissociative Identity Disorder
A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities.
Stereotype Threat
A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
Dreams
A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
Night Terrors
A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified. Occur in Stage 4, not REM, and are not often remembered.
Sleep Apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings. Insomnia and Apnea are the most common sleep disorders. Can be cured with a breathing machine And/or losing weight.
Factor Analysis
A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test.
Achievement Test
A test designed to assess what a person has learned.
Aptitude Test
A test designed to predict a person's future performance. The ability for that person to learn.
REM Sleep
AKA "paradoxical sleep" This is a very active stage of sleep. Composes 20-25 % of a normal nights sleep. Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken. Vivid Dreams can occur. From REM, you go back to Stage 2 Body is essentially paralyzed during REM (sleep paralysis). Genitals become aroused. Erections and clitoral engorgement. Rapid Eye Movement
Motivated forgetting
AKA "repression" We want to forget awful things.
Cluster C
ANXIOUS OR FEARFAL Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-Compulsive
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Ability for controlled movement and coordination
Spatial
Ability to form mental images of objects and think about their relationships in space
Intrapersona
Ability to know oneself and to develop a sense of identity
Musical
Ability to perceive and create patterns of rhythms and pitches
Interpersonal
Ability to understand other people's emotions, motives and actions
developing reasoning power
According to Piaget, adolescents can handle abstract problems, i.e., they can perform formal operations. Adolescents can judge good from evil, truth and justice, and think about God in deeper terms.
Positive Reinforcement
Adding pleasant consequences
Positive Punishment
Adding something pleasant
secondary sexual characteristics
Also secondary sexual characteristics—the nonreproductive traits such as breasts and hips in girls and facial hair and deepening of voice in boys develop. Pubic hair and armpit hair grow in both sexes.
Hallucinogens
Alter perceptions of the external environment and inner awareness (also called psychedelics) Marijuana , LSD ,PCP, Cannabis
adulthood
Although adulthood begins sometime after a person's mid-twenties, defining adulthood into stages is more difficult than defining stages during childhood or adolescence.
parent and peer influence
Although teens become independent of their parents as they grow older, they nevertheless relate to their parents on a number of things, including religiosity and career choices. Peer approval and relationships are also very important.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
An anxiety disorder in which a person is continuously tense, apprehensive and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.
Panic Disorder
An anxiety disorder marked by a minutes-long episode of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking and other frightening sensations. Leads to avoidance of situations where panic attack occurred, which leads to agoraphobia.
Sternberg's Three Aspects of Intelligence (triarchic Theory)
Analytical, Creative, Practical (Gardner simplified)
B.F Skinner
(1904-1990) elaborated Thorndike's Law of Effect developed behavioral technology
Working Memory
(STM)Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute( 20 sec) without rehearsal.
Short Term Memory
(working) STM can hold unrehearsed information up to 20 seconds. STM can hold 7 items +/- 2, according to some theories.
one-word stage
-1-2 years old uses one word to communicate big meanings -beginning at or around his first birthday a child starts to speak one word at a time and is able t make family members understand him
fetus/fetus stage
-9 weeks-looks like a mistakably human -by 6th month, the stomach and other organs have formed enough to survive outside of mother -at this time the baby can hear (and recognize) sounds and respond to light
preoperational stage
-A major reason why a preoperational child does not understand conservation is that the child lacks an understanding of REVERSIBILITY, the knowledge that reversing a transformation brings about the conditions that existed before the transformation -Child's thinking also reflects CENTRATION, the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a problem at a time
criticisms of Freud
-He really only studied wealthy woman in Austria. -His results are not empirically verifiable (really hard to test). -No predictive power. -Karen Horney said he was sexist with the "penis envy" and there is an actual "womb envy".
getting into the unconscious
-Hypnosis -Dream Interpretation -Free Association (having them just randomly talk to themselves...and then interpreting the conversation). -Projective Tests (and test that delves into the unconscious). -Examples are TAT and Inkblot Tests.
AuthoritAriAn parents
-Impose rules and expect obedience. -"Why, because I said so!!!!" -What word that begins with A describes an authoritarian?
conventional morality
-Morality is based upon obeying laws to 1. Maintain social order 2. To gain social approval
Rorschach inkblot test
-The most widely used projective test -A set of ten inkblots designed to identify people's feelings when they are asked to interpret what they see in the inkblots. -not valid or reliable
syntax
-The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences. -In English, adjectives come before nouns, but not in Spanish!!
Behaviorist Theory of Personality
-The way most people think of personality is meaningless. -Personality changes according to the environment (reinforcers and punishments). -If you change environment then you change the personality.
trait theories of personality
-They believe that we can describe people's personalities by specifying their main characteristics (traits). -Traits like honestly, laziness, ambition, outgoing are thought to be stable over the course of your lives.
personality inventory
-a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors -used to assess selected personality traits
big five personality traits
1. extraversion 2. agreeableness 3. conscientiousness 4. openness to experience 5. emotional stability
Sleep Cycle
90 minutes
Flashbulb Memory
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event EX: 9/11 because of the emotion
Treating Schizophrenia
Antipsychotic drugs have been effective in the treatment Side effects - drowsiness, weight gain, jitters, movement problems and muscle contractions A possible long-term side effect of ANTIPSYCHOTICS is a condition called TARDIVE DYSKINESIA where patients will develop uncontrollable movements
old age: motor abilities
At age 70, our motor abilities also decline. A 70-year-old is no match for a 20-year-old individual. Fatal accidents also increase around this age
Forgetting
Can occur at any memory stage As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
Cluster B
DRAMATIC, EMOTIONAL OR ERRATIC Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic
Retrieval Cues
Deja Vu, Mood-congruent Memory, State-dependent Memory
Dissociative Disorders
Disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts and feelings.
Recency
End
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Experience depression during the winter months. Based not on temperature, but on amount of sunlight. Treated with light therapy.
Depersonalization
Experiences of unreality, detachment, or being an outside observer with respect to one's thoughts, feelings, sensations, body, or actions (e.g.,perceptual alterations, distorted sense of time, unreal or absent self, emotional and/or physical numbing.)"
Assessing Intelligence Verbal
General Information Similarities Arithmetic Reasoning Vocabulary Comprehension Digit Span
Encoding
Getting information in
Retrieval
Getting information out
trait perspective
Hans and Sybil Eysenck use two primary personality factors as axes for describing personality variation
Howard Gardner
He came up with the idea by studying savants. Came up with the concept of multiple intelligences. Disagreed with Howard Gardner.
Why we daydream
Help us prepare for future events Can nourish our social development Can substitute for impulsive behavior
Opiates
Highly addictive; produce a sense of well-being and have strong pain-relieving properties Morphine, Codeine, Heroin, Methadone
Hidden Observer
Hilgard's term describing a hypnotized subject's awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis
Sensory Memory
Iconic and Echoic Has large capacity, very short duration, allows quick commerce with environment memory traces fade quickly, unless we do something further with it.
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to form memories for new information
Retrograde amnesia
Inability to remember information previously stored in memory
Semantic Memory
Includes memory for: language, facts general knowledge
Procedural Memory
Includes memory for: motor skills, operant and classical conditioning
Factitious Disorder/ Munchausen Disorder
Is a condition in which a person acts as if they have an illness by deliberately producing, feigning, or exaggerating symptoms.
Storage
Keeping the info in the brain
developing morality
Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as "Should a person steal medicine to save a loved one's life?" He found stages of moral development.
Konrad Lorenz
Konrad Lorenz studied how goslings (baby geese) will IMPRINT themselves to a human if they get human exposure during a critical period
Inappropriate Emotions and Actions
Laugh at inappropriate times. Flat Effect Senseless, compulsive acts. Catatonia- motionless Waxy Flexibility
Forgetting as Interference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information
old age: life expectancy
Life expectancy at birth increased from 49% in 1950 to 67% in 2004 and to 80% in developed countries. Women outlive men and outnumber them at most ages.
developmental issues/stability and change
Lifelong development requires both stability and change. Personality gradually stabilizes as people age. However, this does not mean that our traits do not change over a lifetime. Some temperaments are more stable than others.
Mary Ainsworth secure attachment
Mary Ainsworth would have a stranger enter the room. -Children with a secure attachment would go to the mother for comfort when a stranger entered the room. -The child would cry when the mother left but was happy when the mother returned. -Most common (66%)
Wechsler Tests
More common way to give IQ tests....does not use the formula but uses the same scoring system. WAIS WISC
Chunking
Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units
Site of Working Memory (STM)
Prefrontal Cortex
Elaborative rehearsal
Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM
Maintenance rehearsal
Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory
Encoding
Putting info in the brain
aging and memory
Recognition memory does not decline with age, and material that is meaningful is recalled better than meaningless material. The same is true for prospective memory (remember to ...).
Insomnia
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. Not your once in a while (I have a big test tomorrow) having trouble getting to sleep episodes. Not defined by the number of hours you sleep every night.
self-concept
Self-concept, a sense of one's identity and personal worth, emerges gradually around 6 months. Around 15-18 months, children can recognize themselves in the mirror. By 8-10 years, their self-image is stable.
Psychoanalysis
Since psychological problems originate from childhood repressed impulses and conflicts, the aim is to bring repressed feelings into conscious awareness where the patient can deal with them. The patient lies on a couch and speaks about whatever comes to his or her mind.
Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)
Sleepwalking is a sleep disorder affecting an estimated 10 percent of all humans at least once in their lives. Sleep walking most often occurs during deep non-REM sleep (stage 3 or stage 4 sleep) early in the night.
Principles of Test Construction
Standardization Reliability Validity
Long-term Memory
Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM
Cognitive Therapy
Teaches people adaptive ways of thinking and acting based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions. changing ones mindset
Stage Two of Sleep
The "baseline" of sleep. This stage is part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep. Has "sleep spindles" - random bursts of brain activity
Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores
The Bell curve is different for Whites v. Black. Math scores are different across genders and the highest scores are for Asian males
Intelligence
The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. Is socially constructed thus... Can be culturally specific.
Genetic Influences
The most genetically similar people have the most similar scores
Law of Effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Charles Spearman
Used factor analysis to discover general intelligence
Memory Construction
We filter information and fill in missing pieces, eyewitness reconstruct memories when questioned
Decay Theory
We simply forget over time
old age: dementia
With increasing age, the risk of dementia also increases. Dementia is not a normal part of growing old.
oedipus complex
a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feeling of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
Analytical Intelligence
academic problem solving. Ability to cope with the environment; "street smarts"
Priming
activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
pupil
allows light to come in
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
optic nerve
axons connect eye ball to cortex. ganglion cells
great amplitude
bright colors, loud sounds
cochlea
coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear
Antianxiety drugs (Xanax and Ativan)
depress the central nervous system and reduce anxiety and tension by elevating the levels of the Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter.
Effects of Sleep Loss
fatigue impaired concentration depressed immune system greater vulnerability to accidents
Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)
fear/anxiety about one or more social situations in which person may be exposed to possible scrutiny by others
lens
focuses light on retina
change blindness
form of selective attention
teratogens
harmful agents to the prenatal environment
nature/nurture
how do genetic inheritance (our nature) and experience (the nurture we receive) influence our behavior?
perception
how we organize and interpret sensory information
Primary Reinforcer
innately reinforcing stimulus i.e., satisfies a biological need
ganglion cells
make up the optic nerve
Mnemonics
memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
telepathy
mind reading
optic nerve
nerve that carries neural impulses from eye to the brain
denial
not accepting the ego-threatening truth
Memory
persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information
sensory interaction
principle that one sense may influence another
conductive hearing loss
problems with the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
gravitation and movement sensation
produced by movement of 2 vestibular sacs in each ear are filled with millions of tiny crystals that bend hair cels when moved
cornea
protects eyes
repression
pushing thoughts into our unconscious
self-serving bias
readiness to perceive oneself favorably
Effortful Processing
requires attention and conscious effort
part of brain touch is interpreted
sensory cortex/parietal lobe
Hallucinations
sensory-driven incidents that involve hearing or seeing something that isn't reality based sensory experiences without sensory stimulation.
which sensation does not go through the thalamus
smell
Dissociative Fugue
suddenly and unexpectedly takes physical leave of his or her surroundings and sets off on a journey of some kind These journeys can last hours, or even several days or months.
Posthypnotic Suggestion
suggestion to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized used by some clinicians to control undesired symptoms and behaviors
Posthypnotic Amnesia
supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis induced by the hypnotist's suggestion
Ecstasy (MDMA, Serotonin)
synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen both short-term and long-term health risks
grammar
system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others
visual capture
tendency for vision to dominate your senses
Serial Position Effect
tendency to recall best the last items in a list
free association
to unravel the unconscious mind and its conflicts.
Elaboration
trying to understand it Making it meaningful to you
Operant Conditioning
type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment
cocktail party effect
type pf selective attention in which you can attend to only one voice at a time
Ebbinghaus
used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Biomedical therapy
uses drugs or other procedures that act on the patient's nervous system, curing him or her of psychological disorders.
eclectic approach
uses various forms of healing techniques depending upon the client's unique problems.
self esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth
Mary Ainsworth insecure-ambivalent/resistant (12%)
-clingy to mother; traumatized by every stage of the experiment; distrustful of their mothers -Caused by over-bearing, controlling mothers
Brain Function and Intelligence
People who can perceive the stimulus very quickly tend to score somewhat higher on intelligence tests
prenatal development
-conception begins with the drop of an egg and the release of about 200 million sperm. -the sperm seeks out the egg and attempts to penetrate the eggs surface
self-efficacy
-concerned with judgments of personal capabilities -Plays a major role in how one approaches goals, tasks, and challenges -Center of Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
what are some obstacles to problem solving?
-confirmation bias -match problem -fixation -mental set -functional fixedness
Shaping
operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal
Operant Behavior
operates (acts) on environment produces consequences
Consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environments
transduction
-conversion of one form of energy to another -why is this important? because stimulus energies to neural impulses -example- light energy to vision, chemical energy to smell and taste, sound waves to sound
personal control
our sense of controlling our environments rather than feeling helpless
language
our spoken written or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
spotlight effect
overestimating others noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders
linear perspective
parallel lines seem to converge with distance
clairvoyance
perceiving remote events
Erik Erikson
-developmental theory- humans develop throughout their lifespan -8 stages -stages from womb (birth)-tomb (death)-1st child psychoanalyst in Boston -created his own last name
ego
-develops after the id -works on the reality principle -negotiates between the Id and the environment -in our conscious and unconscious minds -it is what everyone sees as our personality
Psychoactive Drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood
superego
-develops last at about the age of 5 -it is our conscience (what we think the difference is between right and wrong) -the ego often mediates between the superego and id
Imagery
mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
Carol Gilligan
-taught alongside Erik Erikson -pioneer gender differences -contribution is her adaptation of Lawrence Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development
kinesthetic sense
-tells us where our body parts are -receptors located in our muscles and joints
belief bias
-tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning -sometimes making invalid conclusions valid or vice versa
Echoic Memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
vestibular system
monitors awareness of body balance and movement
telekinesis (psychokinesis)
moving objects with one's mind (not technically ESP)
stages of psycho-sexual development
-the childhood stages of development during which the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenus zones 1. oral 2. anal 3. phallic 4. latent 5. genital
bipolar cells
neurons activates ganglion cells
How long Sensory memory lasts
no more than 2 seconds
Respondent Behavior
occurs as an automatic response to stimulus behavior learned through classical conditioning
size constancy
perception that an object's size remain the same even as the retinal image changes
shape constancy
perception that shape of an object doesn't change just because image on the retina does
Physical Dependence
physiological need for a drug marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
blind spot
point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye creating a "blind spot" because there are no receptor cells located there
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test. Revised by Terman at Stanford University
relative height
things higher in our field of vision they look father away
authoritative parents
-Parents are both demanding and responsive. -Exert control by setting rules, but explain reasoning behind the rules. -Encourage open discussion.
relative motion
things that are closer appear to move more quickly
conscious
things we are aware of
preconscious
things we can aware of if we think of them
theory of mind
-Preschoolers, although still egocentric, develop the ability to understand another's mental state when they begin forming a THEORY OF MIND -The problem on the right probes such ability in children.
physical development
-Adolescence begins with puberty (sexual maturation). -Puberty occurs earlier in females (11 years) than males (13 years). -Thus height in females increases before males.
cognitive development
-Adolescents' ability to reason gives them a new level of social awareness. In particular, they may think about the following: 1.Their own thinking. 2.What others are thinking. 3.What others are thinking about them. 4.How ideals can be reached. They criticize society, parents, and even themselves.
social learning theory
-B.F Skinner form the Behaviorist School -baby may imitate a parent -if they are reinforced they keep saying the word -if they are punished they stop saying the word
general parenting styles
-Based on Diana Baumrind's studies -They are: 1.Permissive 2.Authoritarian 3.Authoritative
psychoanalysis today
-Couch sitting -Transference is likely to happen. -The idea is to delve into your unconscious. -Pull out Manifest Content. -Then talk about the Latent Content.
frontal cortex
-During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. -The frontal cortex lags behind the limbic system's development. -Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness
visual cliff experiment
-Eleanor Gibson -finding- depth perception is innate (to some degree) -we see depth by using two cues that researchers have put in two categories (monocular cues, binocular cues)
Neo-Freudians Psychodynamic theories
-Eric Erikson -Carl Jung and his concept of the "personal" and "collective" unconscious. -Alfred Adler and his ideas of superiority and inferiority. -Adler also talked about birth order and how it played a part in personality
social-cognitive theories on personality
-Focus on how we interact with our culture and environment -Albert Bandura is back!!! -Reciprocal Determinism (traits, environment and behavior all interact and influence each other.)
TAT test (thematic apperception test)
-Giving the subject a picture that is ambiguous (can have several meanings) and ask them what is occurring. -Their answers reveal the manifest content. -They can then discover the Latent Content.
origins of attachment
-Harlow (1971) showed that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of BODILY CONTACT and not because of nourishment. -Like bodily contact, FAMILIARITY is another factor that causes attachment. In some animals (goslings), IMPRINTING is the cause of attachment
concrete operational stage
-In concrete operational stage, given concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities. -Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a transformation, 12 - 4 = 8, is also easily doable.
social cognitive theories of personality
-Internal Locus of Control -External Locus of Control -External Locus of Control can lead to a state of learned helplessness
Kohler's Chimpanzees
-Kohler exhibited that Chimps can problem solve. -Insight Learning
post conventional morality
-Morality based on universal ethical principles. -I won't speed down Hampton b/c a society w/o laws is not good. If I feel the law is unjust then I'll try to change it.
pre conventional morality
-Morality of self- interest -Their actions are either to avoid punishment or to gain rewards.
evaluation of Piaget's theory
-Recent research has shown that rudiments of many of Piaget's key concepts (e.g., object permanence) may begin to appear at earlier stages than Piaget proposed -For example, research that involved tracking infants' eye movements has found that infants as young as 3 months continue to stare at the place where the object disappeared from sight, indicating some degree of object permanence 1. Not all people reach formal operational thought 2. The theory may be biased in favor of Western culture 3. There is no real theory of what occurs after the onset of adolescence 4. Despite refinements, recent research has indeed shown that cognitive development seems to proceed in the general sequence of stages that Piaget proposed
gestalt laws
-SPC^3 -similarity: figures similar to each other are grouped together -proximity: grouping nearby figures together -closure: fill in gaps to create whole objects and preferences for closed rather than open objects -continuity: preference for smooth contours/patterns rather than abrupt discontinuous ones -connectedness: perceived linked objects as a single item
social development
-STRANGER ANXIETY is the fear of strangers that develops at around 8 months -this is the age at which infants form schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face
transduction in the ear
-Sound waves hit the eardrum then hammer then anvil then stirrup then oval window. -Everything is just vibrating. -Then the cochlea vibrates. -The cochlea is lined with mucus called basilar membrane. In basilar membrane there are hair cells. -When hair cells vibrate they turn vibrations into neural impulses which are called organ of Corti. -Sent then to thalamus up auditory nerve.
pre operational stage
-The child's thinking becomes more symbolic and language-based, but remains egocentric and lacks the mental operations that allow logical thinking -EGOCENTRISM is the inability to distinguish one's own perceptions, thoughts, and feelings from those of others -Cannot perceive the world from another person's perspective
biological theories of personality
-What % of personality is inherited -heritability? -We are not sure BUT temperaments do seem to be stable from infants to old age.
trait
-a characteristic pattern of behavior -a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
concepts
-a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people -concepts are similar to Piaget's idea of schemas
prototypes
-a mental image or best (typical) example of a category -if a new object is similar to our prototype, we are better able to recognize it
perceptual set
-a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another -based on top down processing -we perceive by filling the gaps in what we sense -based on our experiences and schemas -if you see many old men in glasses you are more apt to process a picture of an old man (even when you may be in error)
representativeness heuristic
-a rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype -can cause us to ignore important information -judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to the prototypes the person holds in their mind -ex: thinking everyone from Nantucket is preppy or someone with glasses is nerdy or a blonde is not smart
heuristics
-a rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently -a short cut (that can be prone to errors)
insight
-a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem -no real strategy involved
mental set
-a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it has worked in the past -may or may not be a good thing
empirically derived test
-a test developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups -such as the MMPI
depth perception
-ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional -allows us to judge distance
unconscious
-according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings and memories -contemporary viewpoint- information processing of which we are unaware -deep hidden reservoir that holds the true "us". all of our desires and fears
embryo
-after two weeks, the zygote develops into an embryo -lasts about 6 weeks -heart begins to beat and the organs begin to develop -the "baby" is more vulnerable to damage at this stage than any others. don't drink or do drugs
Frequency Theory
-all hairs vibrate but at different speeds -We sense pitch by the basilar membrane vibrating at the same rate as the sound. -But this theory has trouble explaining high pitch sounds because our hairs cannot vibrate at certain speeds. -This problem can be explained using the volley principle.
two word stage
-at age 12 uses two words to communicate meanings called telegraphic speech -before 2nd year a child starts to speak in two words sentences this form of speech is called telegraphic speech because the child speaks like a telegram: "go car"
language development
-babbling stage -one-word stage -two word stage -children learn their native languages much before learning to add 2+2 -we learn on average (after age 1) 3,500 words a year, amassing 60,000 words by the time we graduate from high school
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
-begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied -then higher-level safety needs become active -then psychological needs become active
motion perception
-brain interprets shrinking objects as receding and enlarging objects as approaching -objects that are farther away appear to be moving more slowly -think of a plane in the sky or a truck in the distance
taste
-bumps on our tongue called papillae -taste buds on papillae -sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami
sublimation
-channeling one's frustration toward a different goal -sometimes a healthy defense mechanism
critical period
-limited time in which an event can occur, usually to result in some kind of transformation. -A "critical period" in developmental psychology is a time in the early stages of an organism's life during which it displays a heightened sensitivity to certain environmental stimuli, and develops in particular ways due to experiences at this time. If the organism does not receive the appropriate stimulus during this "critical period", it may be difficult, ultimately less successful, or even impossible, to develop some functions later in life the optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce proper development
basilar membrance
-membrane in cochlea covered in tiny hair cells that amplify sound waves cause a membrane at the base of the cochlea to vibrate in a certain frequency -then causes waves in fluid of the cochlea, bending hair cells on the basilar membrane, opening ion channels and sending a neural message to the thalamus via the auditory nerve -message is passed to auditory cortex in temporal lobe
difference threshold
-minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time -just noticeable difference
absolute threshold
-minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time -the wing of a bee falling on your cheek from a height of 1 cm
monocular cues vs. binocular cues
-mono-1 eye -bi- 2 eyes -fusion- brain bring two images together
convergent thinking
-more conforming but just as good -sometimes the standard way is the best
cones
-near Center of retina -fine detail and color vision -daylight or well-lit conditions -6 million -not sensitive to light -color sensitive
feature dectectors
-nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features -shape -angle -movement
Mary Ainsworth insecure-avoidant (20%)
-not distressed at mother leaving or stranger arriving; cool response when mother returns -Probably caused by distant mothers
zygote/zygote stage
-once the sperm penetrates the egg- we have a fertilized egg -first stage of prenatal development. lasts about 2 weeks and consists of rapid cell division -zygote stage-less than 1/2 of all zygotes survive first two weeks -after 10 days of conception the zygote will attach itself to the uterine wall -the outer part of zygote becomes the placenta (which filters nutrients).
rods
-peripheral retina -detect black, white and gray -twilight or low light -120 million -sensitive to light -not color sensitive
opponent processes
-phenomenon of a negative afterimage is caused by opponent processes -after staring at one object for a long time the stimulated cells use up resources and begin to get tired -once the object is removed these cells will have to fire below baseline for a bit to recover lost resources -meanwhile their opponent cells will fire at baseline- at a relatively higher rate -this causes a negative afterimage
fetal alcohol syndrome
-physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by pregnant women's heavy drinking -severe causes symptoms include facial disproportions
signal detection theory
-predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise) -assumes that there is no single absolute threshold -detection depends partly on person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue
touch
-pressure -warmth -cold -pain
Margaret Washburn
-proved mind could be observed which went against psychology teachings -wrote The Animal Mind -first woman PhD from Cornell -all mental functions lead to physical reaction -theory of consciousness -studies found middle ground between structuralism and behaviorism
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic (three-color) Theory
-realized that any color can be created by combining the light waves of three primary colors- red, green, blue -so they guessed that we have 3 different types of receptors cells in our eyes. together they can pick any combination of our 7 million color variations -most colorblind people simply lack cone receptor cells for one or more of these primary colors
displacement
-redirecting one's feelings toward another person or object -often displaced on less threatening things
types of heurisitics
-representativeness heuristic -availability heuristic
binocular cues
-retina disparity -convergence
algorithms
-rule that guarantees the right solution to a problem -usually by using a formula -the work but are sometimes impractical
vestibular sense
-sensations of body rotation and of gravitation and movement arise in the inner ear; the sense organs are the hair cells that send out signals over the auditory nerve -tells us where our body is oriented in space -our sense of balance -located in our semicircular canals in ears
babbling stage
-starting at 3-4 months the infant makes spontaneous sounds (momma dadda babba) not limited to the phonemes of the infant's household language -beginning at 4 months the infant spontaneously utter various sounds like ahh goo -babbling is not imitation of adult speech
Jean Piaget
-studied children's intelligence -stages of cognitive development
Mary Ainsworth
-studied children's' attachment styles. -She would place a mother and young child in a room. The independent variable was a "strange situation" like a stranger or have the mother leave the room. -The dependent variable was how the child would react.
Mary Ainsworth
-studied maternal attachment -other of attachment theory
B.F. Skinner
-studied reinforcement -B.F Skinner Box -operant conditioning
Abraham Maslow
-studied self-actualization processes of productive and healthy people -Maslow's hierarchy of needs
cognitive psychologists
-study these mental activities: concept formation, problem solving, decision making, judgment formation
melatonin
A hormone produced by pineal gland at night to help you sleep. Sunlight tells your body to stop producing it. Helps regulate circadian rhythms
Iconic Memory
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli EX: a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
aging and other abilities
A number of cognitive abilities decline with age. However, vocabulary and general knowledge increase with age.
Aversive Conditioning
A type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior. With this technique, temporary conditioned aversion to alcohol has been reported.
Systematic Desensitization
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli commonly used to treat phobias.
Phobias
Anxiety occurs because of a specific object, activity or situation. Irrational fear that disrupts behavior. Specific phobia: fear of situation (thunderstorm, heights) or things (insects).
Information-Processing Theory
Dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day. Evidence: REM sleep does increase after stressful events.
Freud's wish-fulfillment Theory
Dreams are access to our unconscious mind (our wishes and anxieties)
Priming
Be presented with words, you would have an easier time later identifying the words later
DSM-V updates to Mood Disorders
Contains Several New Depressive Disorders DISRUPTIVE MOOD REGULATION DISORDER New Diagnosis for Children up to age 18 who exhibit persistent irritability and frequent episodes of extreme behavioral dyscontrol. (Reason: Over diagnosis of Bipolar in children) PREMENSTRUAL DYSPHORIC DISORDER (PMDD) - Severe form of PMS (Premenstrual Syndrome)
primary sexual characteristics
During puberty primary sexual characteristics — the reproductive organs and external genitalia — develop rapidly.
Antisocial Personality Disorder
DEFININTION: "A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, occurring since age of 15." (DSM 5) WHO: Mainly men Cause: Abuse / Neglect, Erratic Parenting, Genes WARNING SIGNS AS CHILD: Setting fires, Abusing animals, Destruction of property, Theft Sexual abuse as a child LINKED WITH WHAT MAJOR DISORDER: Conduct Disorder ADHD People with this disorder are prone to criminal behavior, believing that their victims are weak and deserving of being taken advantage of. They tend to lie and steal They are often aggressive and are much more concerned with their own needs than the needs of others. they are careless with money and take action without thinking about consequences
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
DEFININTION: "A pervasive pattern of social and interpersonal deficits marked by acute discomfort with, and reduced capacity for, close relationships as well by cognitive or perceptual distortions and eccentricities of behavior." (DSM 5) WHO: Mainly men CAUSE: Genetics LINKED WITH WHAT MAJOR DISORDER: Have relatives with schizophrenia
Schizoid Personality Disorder
DEFININTION: "A pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationship and a restricted range of expression of emotions in interpersonal setting" (DSM, 5). WHO: Male CAUSE: Environment & Genes LINKED WITH WHAT MAJOR DISORDER: Schizophrenia avoid relationships and do not show much emotion
Borderline Personality Disorder
DEFININTION: "A pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affects and marked impulsivity." (DSM5) WHO: Mainly women CAUSE: Environment & Genes LINKED WITH WHAT MAJOR DISORDER: Depression Anxiety Disorder including PTSD Substance Abuse Disorders Eating Disorders characterized by mood instability and poor self-image they will take their anger out on themselves, causing themselves injury Suicidal thoughts are not uncommon
Split-half Reliability
Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.
Declarative memory
Division of LTM that stores explicit information (also known as fact memory)
Procedural memory
Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done
Encoding
Effortful Processing Rehearsal
emerging adulthood
Emerging adulthood spans ages 18-25. During this time, young adults may live with their parents and attend college or work. On average, emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties.
3 Basic Tasks of Learning
Encoding Storage Retrieval
Gordan Allport and Raymond Cattel
Gordon described three personality traits Cardinal Traits - "Ruling passions" Common Traits - Honesty Secondary Traits - Nervous Raymond Cattel - 16 pairs of "Source Traits "
4 categories of PTSD
INTRUSION: Flashbacks, nightmares, distressing memories HYPERAROUSAL: Hypervigilance, irritable or angry outbursts, exaggerated startle response, difficulties concentrating and sleeping AVOIDANCE: memories, reminders NEGATIVE ALTERATIONS IN COGNITIONS AND MOOD (associated w/event): Inability to recall aspects of event, negative beliefs, distorted cognitions, persistent negative emotions, detachment, loss of interest
Intellectual Disability
IQ - 70 or below Disability in: memory, reasoning, math, language Social skills, empathy Can not take care of themselves
REM Re-Bound Effect
If you lack REM sleep one night you get more the next night in order to compensate
forming an identity
In Western cultures, many adolescents try out different selves before settling into a consistent and comfortable identity. Having such an identity leads to forming close relationships.
Forgetting as encoding failure
Information never enters the long-term memory, can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory
aging and intelliegnce
Longitudinal studies suggest that intelligence remains relative as we age. It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability to reason speedily) declines with age, but crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills) does not.
adulthood's commitments
Love and work are defining themes in adult life. Evolutionary psychologists believe that commitment has survival value. Parents that stay together are likely to leave a viable future generation. Happiness stems from working in a job that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment.
Circadian Rhythm
Our 24 hour biological clock. Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day. It is best to take a test or study during your circadian peaks.
permissive parents
Parents submit to their children's desires, make few demands and use little punishment.
cognitive development
Piaget believed that the driving force behind intellectual development is our biological development amidst experiences with the environment. our cognitive development is shaped by the errors we make.
Assessing Intelligence Performance
Picture Completion Picture Arrangement Block Design Object Assembly Digit-Symbol Substitution
Causes of Schizophrenia
Psychological: Family communication-cause or result Stressful situation-cause or result Age-late adolescent/early adulthood-reaction to independence Brain-based: Excess dopamine-hallucinations & paranoia Decreased frontal lobe activity Enlarged fluid-filled areas/less cerebral tissue (limbic system) Pre-natal Explanation-mid-pregnancy viral infections
adulthood's ages and stages
Psychologists doubt that adults pass through an orderly sequence of age-bound stages. Mid-life crises at 40 are less likely to occur than crises triggered by major events (divorce, new marriage).
developmental issues/ continuity and stages
Researchers who view development as a slow, continuous process are generally those who emphasize experience and learning. Biologists, on the other hand, view maturation and development as a series of genetically predisposed steps or stages. These include psychologists like Piaget, Kohlberg and Erikson.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Sense of entitlement HIGH LEVELS OF SELF ESSTEEM Think they are hot shit They exaggerate their achievements, expecting others to recognize them as being superior Self-centered It has been normalized in our society They tend to be choosy about picking friends, since they believe that not just anyone is worthy of being their friend. They are generally uninterested in the feelings of others and may take advantage of them.
3 stages of memory
Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory
Atkinson Shiffrin Model Memory
Sensory, Short Term, Long-Term memory
separation anxiety
Separation anxiety peaks at 13 months of age, regardless of whether the children are home or sent to day care.
Depressants
Slow down mental and physical activity by inhibiting transmission of nerve impulses in the central nervous system Barbiturates, Valium, Alcohol, GABA
Somatic Symptom
Soma = body Physical illnesses caused by the mind ex: conversion disorder - significant loss of bodily function with no physical cause Ex: hysterical blindness - blindness after traumatic event (no physical cause)
Storage
Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention
Semantic memory
Subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including meanings of words and concepts
Episodic memory
Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories for personal events, or "episodes"
Autism Spectrum Disorder
The DSM-5 no longer differentiates between Asperger's, PDD, etc.! Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least two of the following, currently or by history 1. Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech 2. Insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns or verbal nonverbal behavior 3. Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity 4. Hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input or unusual interests in sensory aspects of the environment
Validity
The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.
Consolidation
The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories
old age: alzheimer's disease
The risk for developing Alzheimer's disease also increases with age. Individuals who are in the early stages of this disease show more MRI activity in the brain than do normal individuals of the same age.
Normal Curve
The symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes
Standardization
The test must be pre-tested to a representative sample of people Form a normal distribution or bell curve. Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested "standardization group"
Disorganized Thinking
The thinking of a person with Schizophrenia is fragmented and bizarre and distorted with false beliefs. comes from a breakdown in selective attention.- they cannot filter out information.
Behavior Therapy
Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors. To treat phobias or sexual disorders, behavior therapists do not delve deeply below the surface looking for inner causes. Don't give a shit about where the problems come from Concious awareness Try to deal with the symptoms
Sleep Stages
There are 5 identified stages of sleep. It takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through the stages. The brain's waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in. The first four stages and known as NREM sleep. The fifth stage is called REM sleep.
Dissociative Amnesia
This disorder is characterized by a blocking out of critical personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature.
well-being across the life span
Well-being and people's feelings of satisfaction are stable across the life span.
EQ
What is a better indicator of success?
Reliability
When it yields consistent results
HM
a case study Bicycle accident at age 9 After accident: intractable epilepsy Surgery in 1953: surgery at age 27 During surgery: bilateral damage to hippocampus and mediotemporal lobes Result: not able to form new memories/does not know that he has disorder/thinks it is 1953: 27 yrs. Old
Humanistic therapy
aim to boost self-fulfillment by helping people grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance. active listening
Cognitive-behavior therapy
aims to alter the way people act (behavior therapy) and alter the way they think (cognitive therapy).
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, "Who am I?"
Deja Vu
already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this before."
unconditional positive regard
an attitude of total acceptance toward another
phi phenonmeon
an illusion created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession, creating the perception of movement (lighted signs, illusions)
personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
gestalt
an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts
bottom up processing
analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information -a progression from individual elements to the whole (start small then work your way up)(start focusing on trees, then you pay attention to the forest)
Reinforcer
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Method of Loci
applying memory to your own life
competent newborn
offspring cries are important signals for parents to provide nourishment. in animals and humans such cries are quickly attended to and relieved
another name for smell
olfaction
Delusions
false beliefs thinking you are a famous actor
motor development
first, infants begin to roll over. next, they sit unsupported, crawl, and finally walk. experience has little effect on this sequence
Carl Rogers
focused on growth and fulfillment of individuals -genuineness -acceptance -empathy unconditional positive regard self-concept
Ebbinghaus
forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time
Creative Intelligence
generating novel ideas. Ability to analyze problems and find correct answers; ability measured by most IQ tests (logical reasoning)
animism
giving animal qualities to inanimate objects
individualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly
retina
has photoreceptors (rods and cones) where transduction occurs
short wavelengths
high frequencies (bluish colors, high pitched sounds)
place theory
high frequency sounds vibrate most near the opening of the cochlea whereas lower frequency sounds vibrate more at the other end. the brain interprets the pitch based on which nerves are firing
amplitude
how loud the sound is. the higher the crest of the wave is the louder the sound is. is it measured in decibels
interposition
if something is blocking our view we perceive it as closer
relative size
if we know that two objects are similar in size that one that looks smaller is father away
ames room
illusion where one side looks huge and the other side looks small
Antidepressant drugs
improve the mood by elevating levels of serotonin by inhibiting reuptake
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Long-term Potentiation
increase in synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
inner ear
innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
cognitive development in the newborn
investigators study infants becoming habituated to objects over period of time. infants pay more attention to new objects than habituated ones, which shows they are learning
Psychotherapy
involves an emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained therapist and a mental patient
Counterconditioning
is a procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors.
Paranoid Personality Disorder
is characterized by a distrust of others and a constant suspicion that people around you have sinister motives. Everyone is out to get you.
continuity/stages
is developmental a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages?
precognition
knowing things before they happen
where do neural signals from optic nerve travel to?
lateral geniculate nucleus
language and age
learning new languages gets harder with age
long wavelengths
low frequencies (reddish colors, low pitched sounds)
LSD (Serotonin)
lysergic acid diethylamide a powerful hallucinogenic drug also known as acid
Recall
measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the blank test
Relearning
memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time
cognition
mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD
show a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development: Inattention: Six or more symptoms of inattention for children up to age 16, or five or more for adolescents 17 and older and adults; symptoms of inattention have been present for at least 6 months, and they are inappropriate for developmental level: Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or with other activities. Often has trouble holding attention on tasks or play activities. Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly. Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (e.g., loses focus, side-tracked). Often has trouble organizing tasks and activities. Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to do tasks that require mental effort over a long period of time (such as schoolwork or homework). Often loses things necessary for tasks and activities (e.g. school materials, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, mobile telephones). Is often easily distracted Is often forgetful in daily activities.
Memory as Information Processing
similar to a computer write to file save to disk read from disk
candle-mounting problem
solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container
Anorexia
starving yourself
Conditioned Reinforcer
stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer secondary reinforcer
psychophysics
study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them -light-brightness -sound-volume -pressure-weight -taste-sweetness
Infantile amnesia
stuff we don't remember as babies
Mood-congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues
perceptual constancy
the ability to perceive an object is the same even as the illumination and retinal image changes
texture gradient
the coarser it looks the closer it is
wavelength
the distance from peak of one light wave to the peak of the next. the distance determines the hue (color) of the light we perceive
maturation and infant memory
the earliest age of conscious memory is around 3 1/2. a 5 year old has a sense of self and an increased long term memory, thus organization of memory different form 3-4 years
perceiving images
the first step in perceiving an image is determining the figure and ground
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
Weber's Law
the idea that, to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant percentage; not a constant amount
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors
retina
the light sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing recepetor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
THC (Dopamine)
the major active ingredient in marijuana triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
stroboscopic effect
the perception of motion produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images (animation, movies)
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate
color constancy
the perception that familiar objects have a consistent color even is changing illuminations alter the wavelength reflected
internal locus of control
the perception that one controls one's own fate
identification
the process by which children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus from the environment
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes variability depends on range of populations and environments studied
Manifest Content
the remembered storyline of a dream
body rotation sensation
the sensation of body rotation arises in the 3 semicircular canals in the inner ear. movement of fluid in the canals stimulates hair cells
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
Latent Content
the underlying meaning of a dream
framing
the way a problem is presented can drastically affect the way we view it