AP Psych Unit 6 Test
Marvin happens to wear a red shirt when he takes a test he expects to fail. Surprisingly, he does well on the test, so he wears the red shirt every time he takes a test. Which of the following explains Marvin's superstitious behavior?
Any behavior that is accidentally reinforced is more likely to be repeated.
The psychologist most closely associated with the study of operant conditioning was
B.F. Skinner
The perception that one can strongly influence the outcome and destiny of one's own life exemplifies
C) an internal locus control
The idea that any perceivable neutral stimulus can serve as a CS was challenged by
Garcia and Koelling's findings on taste aversion in rats
Wolves that were tempted into eating sheep carcasses laced with poison develop an aversion to sheep meat. Which of the following provided the initial evidence leading to this practice?
John Garcia's studies on the importance of biological predispositions in conditioning
Which of the following is an example of biofeedback?
Milos learns to relax by being provided with information on changes in his heart rate.
Which of the following is true of negative reinforcement and punishment?
Negative reinforcers increase the rate of operant responding; punishments decrease the rate of operant responding.
Which of the following is true of positive and negative reinforcers?
Positive reinforcers increase the rate of operant responding; negative reinforcers increase the rate of operant responding.
What is the difference between a primary and a conditioned reinforcer?
Primary reinforcers are unlearned and innately satisfying; conditioned reinforcers are learned.
If a baseball player gets a hit after tapping the plate with the bat, he is more likely to repeat that behavior the next time he's up to the plate. Which of the following best explains this superstitious behavior?
Reinforced behavior, even if it is accidental, is more likely to be repeated.
In Pavlov's experiments, the taste of food triggered salivation in a dog. The food in the dog's mouth was the
a. US
As you enter the kitchen after school you can smell chocolate chip cookies baking. This scent causes you to salivate. Your salivation is best explained by
a. classical conditioning.
If the sound of an electric can opener causes a child to salivate because it has previously been associated with the presentation of food, the child's salivation to the sound of the can opener is a(n)
a. conditioned response.
In Pavlov's experiments, the dog's salivation triggered by the sound of the tone was a(n)
a. conditioned response.
Months after she was raped, Courtney's heart pounds with fear merely at the sight of the place where she was attacked. The location of her attack is most likely a(n) ________ for Courtney's anxiety.
a. conditioned stimulus
In Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, infants develop a fear of roses after roses are presented with electric shock. In this fictional example, the presentation of the roses is the
a. conditioned stimulus.
Toddlers taught to fear moving cars may also begin to fear moving trucks and motorcycles. This best illustrates
a. generalization.
Two-year-old Philip was recently clawed by the neighbor's cat. Philip's newly developed tendency to fear all small animals demonstrates the process of
a. generalization.
In classical conditioning, the
a. neutral stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus.
In Pavlov's experiments on the salivary conditioning of dogs, a CR was
a. salivation to the sound of a tone.
Resisting the temptation to eat chocolate chip cookies led research participants to subsequently give up sooner than normal on efforts to complete a tedious task. This illustrated that self-control weakens following
an exertion of energy
Corbett refuses to take reasonable precautions to protect his health because he believes good health is just a matter of luck anyway. Corbett's attitude best illustrates
an external locus of control
Julio believes that no matter how hard he works, the "system" is so biased against his ethnic group that he will be unable to achieve economic success. Julio's thinking most clearly demonstrates
an external locus of control
Laura fails to recognize any connection between her unsafe sexual practices and the likelihood of contracting a sexually transmitted infection. Laura's lack of perceptiveness best illustrates the dangers of
an external locus of control
Learned helplessness is MOST likely to be associated with
an external locus of control
Sasha believes that the questions on her biology tests are so unrelated to course work that studying is useless. Sasha's belief most clearly illustrates
an external locus of control
The perception that one's fate is determined by luck reflects
an external locus of control
Paula expects that diligent study will enable her to earn good grades on her tests. Paula's belief best illustrates
an internal locus of control
The perception that one can strongly influence the outcome and destiny of one's own life exemplifies
an internal locus of control
A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after
an unpredictable number of responses have been made
Which of the following is the best example of a conditioned reinforcer?
applause for an excellent piano recital
Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of
associative learning
The results of early research on biofeedback were surprising because they indicated that people could learn to control bodily functions regulated by the
autonomic nervous system
A real estate agent showed Gavin several pictures of lakeshore property while they were eating a delicious, mouth-watering meal. Later, when Gavin was given a tour of the property, he drooled with delight. For Gavin, the lakeshore property was a
b. CS.
An experimenter plans to condition a dog to salivate to a light by pairing the light with food. The dog will learn to salivate to the light most quickly if the experimenter presents the light
b. a half-second before the food.
According to the text, learning involves
b. a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Researchers condition a flatworm to contract its body to a light by repeatedly pairing the light with electric shock. The stage in which the flatworm's contraction response to light is established and gradually strengthened is called
b. acquisition.
If a sea slug on repeated occasions receives an electric shock just after being squirted with water, its protective withdrawal response to a squirt of water grows stronger. This best illustrates
b. associative learning.
Which of the following is an example of a respondent behavior?
b. blushing when embarrassed
Last year, Dr. Moritano cleaned Natacha's skin with rubbing alcohol prior to administering each of a series of painful rabies vaccination shots. Which of the following processes accounts for the fact that Natacha currently becomes fearful every time she smells rubbing alcohol?
b. classical conditioning
Because his football coach frequently yells at him for swearing, Antonio now becomes anxious when he's near his coach. The coach is a(n) ________ for Antonio's anxiety.
b. conditioned stimulus
In classical conditioning, an organism forms associations between
b. events that it does not control.
Because of the discomfort and embarrassment associated with his childhood bed-wetting, Andrew becomes nervous whenever he has the urge to urinate. If the sight of a urinal subsequently makes Andrew unusually anxious, this would best illustrate
b. generalization.
Compared with nonabused children, those who have experienced a history of abuse show a stronger brain-wave response to an unfamiliar but angry-looking face. This best illustrates
b. generalization.
Little Albert was conditioned by John B. Watson to fear furry white rats. After conditioning, Albert also showed fear to rabbits, dogs, and fur coats. This best illustrates
b. generalization.
An automatic response to some stimulus is called
b. respondent behavior.
Pavlov's research on classical conditioning was important because
b. so many different species of animals, including humans, can be classically conditioned.
Cats received a fish reward whenever they maneuvered themselves out of an enclosed puzzle box. With successive trials, the cats escaped from the box with increasing speed. This illustrates
b. the law of effect.
In Pavlov's experiments, the dog's salivation triggered by the taste of food was a(n)
b. unconditioned response.
Electronically recording, amplifying, and displaying information regarding subtle physiological responses is called
biofeedback
Neal Miller observed that rats decrease their heartbeat if they receive pleasurable brain stimulation when their heartbeat slows. This best illustrated that
biofeedback can facilitate control of autonomic nervous system functioning
After pigs learned to pick up and deposit wooden coins in a piggy bank, the pigs subsequently dropped the coins repeatedly and pushed them with their snouts. This best illustrates the importance of ________ in operant conditioning.
biological predispositions
Children learn to fear spiders more easily than they learn to fear flowers. This best illustrates the impact of ________ on learning.
biological predispositions
Garcia and Koelling's studies of taste aversion in rats demonstrated that classical conditioning is constrained by
biological predispositions
It is easier to train a dog to bark for food than to train it to stand on its hind legs for food. This best illustrates the importance of ________ in learning.
biological predispositions
Dr. Kingston emphasizes that learned fears reflect the interacting influences of a person's inborn emotional reactivity, family life history, and capacity to generalize from previous experiences. Dr. Kingston's emphasis best illustrates
biopsychosocial approach
To assess whether Mrs. Webster had Alzheimer's disease, researchers conditioned her to blink in response to a sound that signaled the delivery of a puff of air directed toward her face. In this application of classical conditioning, the sound was a
c. CS.
In classical conditioning, the ________ signals the impending occurrence of the ________.
c. CS; US
Who introduced the term behaviorism?
c. John B. Watson
Who would most likely agree with the following statement concerning the field of psychology? "Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods."
c. John B. Watson
Which of the following best illustrates higher-order conditioning?
c. a rat that has developed a taste aversion to a vanilla-flavored solution paired with a drug
John B. Watson considered himself to be a(n)
c. behaviorist.
An organism learns associations between events it does not control during the process of
c. classical conditioning.
By learning to associate a squirt of water with an electric shock, sea snails demonstrate the process of
c. classical conditioning.
Pets who learn that the sound of an electric can opener signals the arrival of their food illustrate
c. classical conditioning.
A dog's salivation at the sight of a food dish is a(n)
c. conditioned response.
The "psychic secretions" that interfered with Pavlov's experiments on digestion were
c. conditioned responses.
If a tone causes a dog to salivate because it has regularly been associated with the presentation of food, the tone is called a(n)
c. conditioned stimulus.
An allergy attack triggered by the sight of plastic flowers best illustrates the process of
c. generalization
Monica's psychotherapist reminds her so much of her own father that she has many of the same mixed emotional reactions to him that she has to her own dad. Her reactions to her therapist best illustrate the importance of
c. generalization.
If a tone that regularly signals food triggers a salivation response, then a light that becomes associated with that tone may also begin to trigger salivation. This best illustrates
c. higher-order conditioning.
Which of the following is an unconditioned response?
c. jerking your hand off a very hot stove
Voluntary behaviors that produce rewarding or punishing consequences are called
c. operant behaviors.
In which form of learning is behavior said to be influenced by its consequences?
c. operant conditioning
Which of the following terms best describes a respondent behavior?
c. reflexive
Which of the following provides evidence that a CR is not completely eliminated during extinction?
c. spontaneous recovery
Long after being bitten by a stray dog, Alonzo found that his fear of dogs seemed to have disappeared. To his surprise, however, when he was recently confronted by a stray dog, he experienced a sudden twinge of anxiety. This sudden anxiety best illustrates
c. spontaneous recovery.
In Pavlov's experiments on the salivary conditioning of dogs, the US was
c. the presentation of food in the dog's mouth.
A Skinner box is a(n)
chamber containing a bar or key that an animal ca manipulate to obtain a reward
A learned association between two stimuli is central to
classical conditioning
Automatically blinking to an air puff is to ________ as raising your hand to answer a question is to ________.
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Some psychologists believe that rats develop mental representations of mazes they have explored. These representations have been called
cognitive maps
After repeatedly taking alcohol spiked with a nausea-producing drug, people with alcohol dependence may fail to develop an aversive reaction to alcohol because they blame their nausea on the drug. This illustrates the importance of ________ in classical conditioning.
cognitive processes
Elijah has learned to expect that whenever he studies diligently for tests, he will receive good grades. This suggests that associative learning involves
cognitive processes
Operant response rates remain highest when individuals anticipate that their behavior will actually lead to further reinforcement. This best illustrates the importance of ________ in operant conditioning.
cognitive processes
Studies of latent learning highlight the importance of
cognitive processes
The predictability rather than the frequency of CS-US associations appears to be crucial for classical conditioning. This highlights the importance of ________ in conditioning.
cognitive processes
A stimulus that acquires reinforcing power by association with a primary reinforcer is called a ________ reinforcer.
conditioned
Four-year-old Della asks her mother for a special treat every time they go to the grocery store. At first her mother granted every request, but now she does so less consistently. Research suggests that Della will
continue to ask for a treat nearly every time she goes to the store
A trainer wants to train a chicken to peck a key to obtain food. If she wants the chicken to learn this trick quickly and the behavior to be resistant to extinction, she should use ________ reinforcement until the response is mastered and then follow with a period of ________ reinforcement.
continuous; partial
The infant Albert developed a fear of rats after a white rat was associated with a loud noise. In this example, fear of the white rat was the
d. CR
Alexis is addicted to drugs. The room in which she usually takes them is likely to become a(n) ________ for drug cravings.
d. CS
Extinction occurs when a ________ is no longer paired with a ________.
d. CS; US
The first experimental studies of associative learning were conducted by
d. Ivan Pavlov
Learning that certain events occur together is called
d. associative learning.
A geometric figure is most likely to become sexually arousing if presented shortly
d. before an appropriate US
By directly experiencing a thunderstorm, we learn that a flash of lightning signals an impending crash of thunder. This best illustrates
d. classical conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov's experiments
d. demonstrated how learning can be studied objectively.
After recovering from a serious motorcycle accident, Gina was afraid to ride a motorcycle but not a bicycle. Gina's pattern of fear best illustrates
d. discrimination.
Jacqueline is sexually aroused by the sight of her handsome boyfriend but not by the sight of her equally handsome brother. This best illustrates the value of
d. discrimination.
A patient who had long feared going into elevators was told by his therapist to force himself to enter 20 elevators a day. The therapist most likely wanted to encourage the ________ of the patient's fear.
d. extinction
After Pavlov had conditioned a dog to salivate to a tone, he repeatedly sounded the tone without presenting the food. As a result, ________ occurred.
d. extinction
Dogs conditioned to salivate to stimulation of the thigh also begin to salivate when stimulated on other body parts. This BEST illustrates
d. generalization.
The tendency for a CR to be evoked by stimuli similar to the CS is called
d. generalization.
A sea slug learns to withdraw its gill after repeatedly being squirted by water. After repeated squirting, the withdrawal response lessens. Which term would learning theorists use to describe this reaction?
d. habituation
Associating a conditioned stimulus with a new neutral stimulus can create a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. This best illustrates
d. higher-order conditioning.
John B. Watson emphasized that
d. learning should be explained without any reference to mental processes.
Watson and Rayner's study of Little Albert demonstrated how specific fears
d. may be produced through classical conditioning.
After one chimpanzee sees a second chimp open a box that contains a food reward, the first animal opens a similar box with great speed. This best illustrates
d. observational learning.
Because Saleem was spanked on several occasions for biting electric cords, he no longer does so. Saleem's behavior change best illustrates the value of
d. operant conditioning.
Children often learn to associate pushing a vending machine button with the delivery of a candy bar. This best illustrates the process underlying
d. operant conditioning.
Learning associations between one's own personal actions and resulting events is most relevant to the process of
d. operant conditioning.
Spontaneous recovery refers to the
d. reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
If a ringing bell causes a dog to salivate because the bell has been regularly associated with food in the mouth, the UR is the
d. salivation to the food in the mouth.
B. F. Skinner's work elaborated what E. L. Thorndike had called
d. the law of effect.
After he was spanked on several occasions for spilling his milk at a restaurant, Colin became afraid to go to the restaurant. In this case, spanking was a(n) ________ for Colin's fear.
d. unconditioned stimulus
Humans, unlike many other animals, can be conditioned with reinforcers not delivered until a long time after the desired behavior. What are these reinforcers called?
delayed
Dogs strapped into a harness and given repeated and unavoidable shocks
developed learned helplessness
A child who is punished for swearing at home but reinforced for swearing on the school playground is most likely to demonstrate a patterned habit of swearing that is indicative of
discrimination
A pigeon is consistently reinforced with food for pecking a key after seeing an image of a human face, but not reinforced for pecking after seeing other images. By signaling that a pecking response will be reinforced, the image of a human face is a(n)
discriminative stimulus
In shaping a dog to "shake," the command "shake" would be the ________. When the dog slightly moves its paw, this would be a(n) _
discriminative stimulus; operant behavior
The researcher most closely associated with the study of classical conditioning is
e. Ivan Pavlov.
After receiving a painful shot from a female nurse in a white uniform, 3-year-old Vaclav experiences fear of any woman wearing a white dress. Vaclav's reaction best illustrates
e. generalization
Laurie's thumbsucking has become habitual because she begins to feel less anxious whenever she sucks her thumb. This best illustrates the process of
e. operant conditioning.
Ten-year-old Karen frequently watches violent movies on television. Research cited in the text indications that this may lead her to
experience less distress at the sight of other children fighting on the school playground.
According to B. F. Skinner, human behavior is controlled primarily by
external influences
After being classically conditioned to salivate to a tone, a dog continues to hear a tone but does not receive food; as a result, salivation will decrease, then disappear. A dog owner may use operant conditioning to train a dog to "sit" by presenting a treat each time the dog sits. However, the behavior may diminish if the treats are discontinued. Both examples illustrate
extinction
The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment involves
extrinsic motivation
The most important benefit of biofeedback is its capacity to
facilitate the relaxation response.
A choppy stop-start pattern of operant responding is associated with the ________ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed interval
An executive in a computer software firm works with his office door closed. At the same time every hour he opens the door to see what his employees are doing. The employees have learned to work especially hard during the five minutes before and while the door is open. Their work pattern is typical of responses that are reinforced on a ________ schedule.
fixed interval
Glancing at the television in the next room in hopes of seeing the beginning of the evening news is likely to be reinforced on a ________ schedule.
fixed interval
Blake is a carpet installer who wants to be paid for each square foot of carpet he lays rather than with an hourly wage. Blake prefers working on a ________ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed ratio
Coffee shops that reward customers with one free cup of coffee after every ten coffee purchases are using a ________ reinforcement schedule.
fixed ratio
Neuroscientists have discovered mirror neurons in the
frontal lobe adjacent to the motor cortex
The violence-viewing effect is especially pronounced when the observed violence
goes unpunished
Mirror neurons most clearly provide us with the capacity for
imitation
Most animals are best conditioned through reinforcers delivered immediately after the desired behavior is performed. What are these reinforcers called?
immediate
Despite the painful hangovers that follow his use of alcohol, Boris continues to drink because just a couple of drinks begin to reduce his anxiety. His continued drinking most clearly illustrates the power of
immediate reinforcement
To quickly teach a dog to roll over on command, you would be best advised to use
immediate reinforcers rather than delayed reinforcers.
Caroline was halfway through writing an essay for her English class, when she couldn't think of what to say next. She decided to stop working on the essay for a while. When she returned to her desk, she suddenly realized what she should write. Caroline's experience best illustrates
insight
Professor Kohler observed chimpanzees discover a novel way to reach a banana hung out of their reach. This scenario is most likely an example of which type of learning?
insight learning
What type of learning sometimes occurs after an extended period of thinking about a problem but little or no direct, systematic interaction with the environment?
insight learning
Animals tend to revert from newly learned habits to their biologically predisposed behaviors. This is an example of
instinctive drift
Researchers trained pigs to pick up large wooden "dollars" and deposit them in a piggy bank. Instead of picking up the wooden discs, the pigs would drop them, push them with their snouts, and then pick them up to put them in the piggy bank. This behavior best illustrates
instinctive drift
Caroline loves to read and enjoys looking up the meanings of words she does not know. In school, her teacher promises a gold star to students each time they learn a new word. The teacher's behavior is most likely to undermine
intrinsic motivation
Promising people monetary rewards for doing what they already enjoy doing is most likely to undermine
intrinsic motivation
The desire to engage in an activity for the sake of its own enjoyment involves
intrinsic motivation
Using rewards to bribe people to engage in an activity they already enjoy is most likely to inhibit
intrinsic motivation
Marcy grows roses for the sheer joy of it; Jennifer grows them to sell at a profit. Marcy's behavior reflects ________, whereas Jennifer's behavior reflects ________.
intrinsic motivation; extrinsic motivation
If rats are allowed to wander through a complicated maze, they will subsequently run the maze with few errors when a food reward is placed at the end. Their good performance demonstrates
latent learning
After experiencing inescapable brutalities as a prisoner in a Nazi concentration camp, Mr. Sternberg became apathetic, stopped eating, and gave up all efforts to physically survive the ordeal. Mr. Sternberg's reaction most clearly illustrates
learned helplessness
Compared with those who perceive an external locus of control, people who perceive an internal locus of control are
likely to be academically successful
Which of the following will most likely occur in people who have developed learned helplessness?
lower morale
Christian and Maggie are concerned with teaching their children to act prosocially. Social learning psychologists would advise them to
make sure their own actions and words are consistent
The reduced imitative yawning displayed by people with autism is most directly related to their reduced levels of
mirror neuron activity
Children are helped by ________ to develop a theory of mind.
mirror neurons
Researchers discovered that the regions of the frontal lobe activated when a monkey moves peanuts to its own mouth are also activated when the monkey simply observes other monkeys move peanuts to their mouths. This discovery pointed to the significance of
mirror neurons
We find it harder to frown when viewing a smile than when viewing a frown. This can most clearly be attributed to
mirror neurons
Which of the following are most clearly activated both by picking up a spoon and by simply watching another person pick up a spoon?
mirror neurons
Like European Christians who risked their lives to rescue Jews from the Nazis, civil rights activists of the 1960s had parents who
modeled a strong moral or humanitarian concern
Bandura's experiments indicate that ________ is important in the process of learning.
modeling
Chimpanzees learn foraging and tool use by observing other chimpanzees. This best illustrates
modeling
Jeremy wears his baseball cap backward because he noticed his older brother does so. This illustrates the importance of
modeling
Skinner is to shaping as Bandura is to
modeling
To modify your own behavior using operant conditioning principles, you should
monitor and record the actual frequency of the operant behavior you wish to promote.
Compared with those who made a purchase choice from among 30 different brands of jam or chocolate, those who chose from among just 6 brands expressed
more satisfaction with their choice
A psychologist would most likely use biofeedback to provide clients with information about their
muscle tension
Escape from an aversive stimulus is a ________ reinforcer.
negative
Jacinda has a glass of wine after work because it relieves her anxiety. Her wine drinking is likely to continue because it is followed by a ________ reinforcer.
negative
Mason, a stockbroker, runs two miles every day after work because it reduces his level of stress. Mason's running habit is maintained by a(n) ________ reinforcer.
negative
Revoking the driver's license of a reckless driver is intended to serve as a
negative punishment
When 4-year-old Michael hit his sister, his Mom placed him in a time-out by having him stand in a corner for 4 minutes. A time-out is considered to be
negative punishment
Closing your bedroom door so that you won't hear the TV that is interfering with your studying is an example of
negative reinforcement
Rats easily learn to associate nausea-producing radiation treatments with
novel tastes
A dramatic increase in children's violent play immediately after they viewed a video of the Power Rangers illustrates the role of television as a source of
observational learning
Children of abusive parents often learn to be aggressive by imitating their parents. This illustrates the importance of
observational learning
Dan and Joel, both 4-year-olds, have been watching reruns of "Superman" on television. Joel's mother recently found the boys standing on the garage roof, ready to try flying. What best accounts for the boys' behavior?
observational learning
In a well-known experiment, preschool children pounded and kicked a large inflated Bobo doll that an adult had just beaten on. This experiment served to illustrate the importance of
observational learning
Mirror neurons provide a biological basis for
observational learning
Mr. Zandee has stopped smoking because he wants to model healthy behavior patterns for his children. Mr. Zandee is apparently aware of the importance of ________ in his children's development.
observational learning
Our ability to learn by witnessing the behavior of others best illustrates
observational learning
Rhesus macaque monkeys are more likely to reconcile after a fight if they grow up with forgiving older macaque monkeys. This best illustrates the impact of
observational learning
The transmission of cultural fads and fashions best illustrates the impact of
observational learning
Without any explicit training from adults, many 8-year-old children know how to turn the ignition key to start their parents' cars. This best illustrates the importance of
observational learning
A learned association between a response and a consequence is central to
operant conditioning
Compared with apartment dwellers whose landlords pay their electricity costs, those apartment dwellers who pay their own electric bills use less electricity. This most clearly illustrates that consumer electricity usage is influenced by
operant conditioning
Shaping is a(n) ________ procedure.
operant conditioning
Two years ago, the de Castellane Manufacturing Company included its employees in a profit-sharing plan in which workers receive semi-annual bonuses based on the company's profits. Since this plan was initiated, worker productivity at de Castellane has nearly doubled. This productivity increase is best explained in terms of
operant conditioning
A learned association between a response and a stimulus is to ________ as a learned association between two stimuli is to ________.
operant conditioning; classical conditioning
The way slot machines reward gamblers with money best illustrates
partial reinforcement
Shortly before the democratic revolution in the former East Germany, researchers found differences in the body language of working-class men in East and West Berlin bars. This best illustrated the impact of
personal control
B. F. Skinner's critics have claimed that he neglected the importance of the individual's
personal freedom
A young child who is spanked after running into the street learns not to repeat this behavior. In this case, the spanking is a
positive punishment
Robert was late for school, so he parked in a space reserved for teachers. Later, when he went to get his car, he noticed a yellow parking ticket under the windshield wiper. The parking ticket would be considered
positive punishment
Receiving delicious food is to escaping electric shock as ________ is to ________.
positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response is called a(n)
positive reinforcer
Because Mandisa always picked up her newborn daughter when she cried, her daughter is now a real crybaby. In this case, picking up the infant served as a(n) ________ for crying.
positive reinforcer
Every Saturday morning, Arnold quickly washes the family's breakfast dishes so that his father will allow him to wash his car. In this instance, washing the car is a(n)
positive reinforcer
Innately satisfying stimuli that fulfill biological needs are called ________ reinforcers.
primary
The removal of electric shock is to the receipt of good grades as ________ is to ________.
primary reinforcer; conditioned reinforcer
An event that decreases the behavior that precedes it is a
punishment
Myron quit gambling after he lost more than a thousand dollars betting on horse races. This best illustrates the effects of
punishment
The introduction of an unpleasant stimulus is to ________ as the withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus is to ________.
punishment and reinforcement
In a series of experiments, men found women more attractive and sexually desirable when their photos were framed in
red
The introduction of a pleasant stimulus is to ________ as the withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus is to ________.
reinforcement and punishment
For purposes of effective child-rearing, most psychologists favor the use of
reinforcement over punishment
An event that increases the frequency of the behavior that it follows is a(n)
reinforcer
The law of effect refers to the tendency to
repeat behaviors that are rewarded
You would be most likely to use operant conditioning to teach a dog to
retrieve sticks and balls
Money is to food as ________ is to ________.
secondary reinforcer; primary reinforcer
In the long run, people who practice self-regulation through physical exercise and time-managed programs experience an increase in
self-control
After expending willpower by stifling prejudice during laboratory tasks, research participants were temporarily less
sexually restrained
A psychologist would be most likely to use ________ to determine whether nonverbal organisms can perceive different colors.
shaping
A rat in a Skinner box is reinforced with a food pellet only if the rat moves close to the lever. Next, reinforcement is withheld until the rat stands on its hind legs, then until the rat touches the lever, and finally, until the rat presses the lever. This example best illustrates
shaping
Alex learned how to make 3-point basketball shots by successfully making very short shots before shooting from increasingly longer distances from the hoop. This learning strategy best illustrates the process of
shaping
Because Mr. Baron demonstrates appreciation only for very good classroom answers, his students have stopped participating in class. Mr. Baron most clearly needs to be informed of the value of
shaping
Five-year-old Trevor is emotionally disturbed and refuses to communicate with anyone. To get him to speak, his teacher initially gives him candy for any utterance, then only for a clearly spoken word, and finally only for a complete sentence. The teacher is using the method of
shaping
Golf instruction that reinforces short putts before attempting to reinforce long putts best illustrates the process of
shaping
On Monday, Johnny's mother gave him cookies and milk after he had played quietly for 10 minutes. On Tuesday, she required 20 minutes of quiet play before treat time, and on Wednesday, the cookies were given to him only after a full half hour of quiet play. Johnny was taught to play quietly for extended periods through
shaping
Skinner developed a behavioral technology that included a procedure known as
shaping
Tennis instruction that reinforces soft, short lobs over the net before attempting to reinforce hard, long, cross-court hits best illustrates the process of
shaping
The process of reinforcing successively closer approximations to a desired behavior is called
shaping
To teach an animal to perform a complex sequence of behaviors, animal trainers are most likely to use a procedure known as
shaping
B. F. Skinner believed that teaching machines could promote effective learning because they allow for both
shaping and immediate reinforcement
A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n)
specific number of responses have been made
A fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n)
specific time period has elapsed
An individual who perceives an internal locus of control would most likely show signs of a
strong ego
An animal trainer is teaching a miniature poodle to balance on a ball. Initially, he gives the poodle a treat for approaching the ball, then only for placing its front paws on the ball, and finally only for climbing on the ball. The trainer is using the method of
successive approximations
Animals most readily learn the specific associations that promote
survival
Experiments suggest that children exposed to a model who says one thing and does another will
talk in ways consistent with what the model says and act in ways consistent with what the model does
Punishment is a potentially hazardous way for teachers to control young children's behaviors because
the use of punishment could condition children to fear and avoid school.
Desensitization and imitation are two factors that contribute to
the violence-viewing effect
Classical conditioning involves a learned association between
two stimuli
After picking one of 28 flavors of ice cream, people may regret bypassing some of the remaining flavors. Their regret best illustrates a consequence of
tyranny of choice
A variable-interval schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n)
unpredictable time period has elapsed
A slow but steady rate of operant responding is associated with the ________ schedule of reinforcement.
variable interval
A small-town radio disc jockey frequently announces how much money is currently in a jackpot. Every day several randomly selected residents are called and asked to identify the amount, and thereby win it. Those who keep track of the jackpot amount are most likely to be reinforced on a ________ schedule.
variable interval
On the first day of class, Professor Wallace tells her geography students that pop quizzes will be given at unpredictable times throughout the semester. Clearly, studying for Professor Wallace's surprise quizzes will be reinforced on a ________ schedule.
variable interval
Watching the night sky for shooting stars is likely to be reinforced on a ________ schedule.
variable interval
Asking for dates is most likely to be reinforced on a ________ schedule.
variable ratio
Purchasing state lottery tickets is reinforced with monetary winnings on a ________ schedule.
variable ratio
Which of the following factors most influences whether we will imitate a model?
whether the model is rewarded or punished
Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that the power of observational learning depends on what?
whether we see the people as similar to us