ap psychology- chapter 14 and 15 test

Mood disorders (affective disorders)

a category of mental disorders in which significant and persistent disruptions in mood or emotions cause impaired cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning

Dissociative Disorders

a category of psychological disorders in which extreme and frequent disruptions of awareness, memory, and personal identity impair the ability to function.

agoraphobia

a fear of having a panic attack in a place from which escape would be difficult or impossible

Cognitive therapies

a group of psychotherapies based on the assumption that psychological problems are due to faulty thinking; treatment techniques focus on recognizing and altering these unhealthy thinking patterns.

psychological disorder (mental illness)

a pattern of behavioral and psychological symptoms that causes significant personal distress, impairs the ability to function in one or more important areas of daily life, or both

Phobia

a strong or irrational fear of something, usually a specific object or situation, that does not necessarily interfere with the ability to function in daily life (if mild). If true diagnosis, it will interfere

Panic Attack

a sudden episode of extreme anxiety that rapidly escalates in intensity

Prevalence of Psychological Disorders

I-n 2005, findings were provided by the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS-R) -46% of adults surveyed had experienced the symptoms of a psychological disorder at some point in their lifetime. -59% of those with the symptoms of a psychological disorder in the previous year had NOT sought any type of treatment

Panic Disorder

an anxiety disorder in which the person experiences frequent and unexpected panic attacks

Anxiety

an unpleasant emotional state characterized by physical arousal and feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry

Antipsychotic medications (neuroleptics)

are prescription drugs that are used to reduce psychotic symptoms.

Family therapy

based on the assumption that the family is a system and it treats the family as a unit. Every family has certain unspoken "rules" of interaction and communication. As interaction issues are explored, unhealthy patterns of family interaction can be identified and replaced with new "rules" that promote the psychological health of the family.

integrative psychology

blending multiple approaches.

Word Salad

mix up words that are intended to say in sentence; word are jumbled.

Persistent Depressive Disorder

moderate or mild depression; involves chronic, low-grade feelings of depression that produce subjective discomfort but do not seriously impair the ability to function.

Major Depressive Disorder

mood disorder characterized by extreme and persistent feelings of despondency, worthlessness, and hopelessness, causing impaired emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning. -Depression is often accompanied by the physical symptoms of anxiety. Suicide is always a potential risk. Abnormal sleep patterns are another hallmark of major depression. People must display most of the symptoms for 2+ weeks to be diagnosed. -Often called "the common cold" of all psychological disorders, major depression is the most common of all the psychological disorders. -Left untreated, depression may recur and become progressively more severe.

Three features distinguish normal anxiety from pathological anxiety.

pathological anxiety is (1)irrational, (2) uncontrollable, and (3) disruptive.

Flat affect

person will have diminished emotional expression

Obsessions

repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or mental images that cause extreme anxiety and distress

Compulsions

repetitive behaviors or mental acts that are performed to prevent or reduce anxiety. Many people with OCD have the irrational belief that failure to perform the ritual action(s) will lead to catastrophic results or disaster

Clang Association

start rhyming words/sounds while speaking.

DSM-5

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.

In Anxiety Disorders

the anxiety is maladaptive, disrupting everyday activities, moods, and thought processes

Avolition

the inability to initiate or persist in even simple forms of goal-directed behaviors.

eclecticism

the pragmatic and integrated use of techniques from different psychotherapies.

Psychopathology

the scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders

Psychotherapy

the treatment of emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal problems through the use of psychological techniques designed to encourage understanding of problems and modify troubling feelings, behaviors, or relationships

Hallucinations

false or distorted perceptions that seem vividly real to the person experiencing them. The most common is auditory, followed by visual, then tactile, and smell and taste.

Behavior therapy

-(behavior modification) is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on directly changing maladaptive behavior patterns by using basic learning principles and techniques. -Behavior therapists assume that maladaptive behaviors are learned just as adaptive behaviors are.

Techniques based on Operant Conditioning

-Behavior therapists have developed several treatments derived from B. F. Skinner's operant conditioning model of learning. - Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior - Positive and negative reinforcement are used to increase the incidence of desired behaviors - Extinction, or the absence of reinforcement, is used to reduce the occurrence of undesired behaviors.

Anorexia Nervosa

(1) the person will be 15% below normal body weight and have a BMI that will drop to 12 or lower; (2) an extreme fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, despite being dangerously underweight; (3) a distorted perception about one's body size; (4) a denial of how serious one's weight loss is. -Anorexia disrupts body chemistry in ways similar to those caused by starvation.

Although researchers are far from a full understanding of the causes of OCD, biological factors seem to be involved...

- A deficiency in the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin. - Dysfunction in specific brain areas, such as the frontal lobes and the caudate nucleus (which is involved in regulating movements)

Risk factors associated with suicidal behavior:

- Feeling hopeless and social isolation - Recent relationship problems or a lack of significant relationships - Poor coping and problemsolving skills - Poor impulse control and impaired judgment - Rigid thinking or irrational beliefs - A major psychological disorder, especially depression, bipolar, or schizophrenia - Alcohol or other substance abuse - Childhood physical or sexual abuse - Prior self-destructive behavior - Family history of suicide - Presence of a firearm in the house - Exposure to bullying, including cyberbullying

Explaining Schizophrenia:

- Genetic factors - Paternal age - Immune system - Abnormal brain structure - Dopamine hypothesis

causes of eating disorders

-decreased activity of the neurotransmitter serotonin -disruption of chemical signals that normally regulate eating behavior -family interaction patterns -contemporary attitudes exalting thinness and dieting

Culture and Human Behavior

-Culture-Bound Syndromes are psychological disorders that are found only in a single culture. -Culture-bound syndromes are also found among western culture.Anorexia Nervosa is one example of culturally-specific psychological disorders found within westernized cultures.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Psychotherapy

-Decades of research demonstrate that psychotherapy is effective in helping people with psychological disorders. Some people eventually improve simply with the passage of time, a phenomenon called spontaneous remission. -Researchers use a statistical technique called meta-analysis to combine and interpret the results of large numbers of studies. Comparing people who receive psychotherapy treatment with no treatment controls, researchers consistently find that psychotherapy is significantly more effective than no treatment.

Psych for Your Life: Understanding and Helping to Prevent Suicide

-Each year, 500,000 people require emergency room treatment as a result of attempted suicide. Women outnumber men by 3-1 in the number of suicide attempts, but men outnumber women by better than 4-1 in suicide deaths. -Although the suicide rate in young people has increased by almost 300% over the last four decades, the highest suicide rate consistently occurs in those aged 75 and above. -Some people feel that suicide is the only option to escape the pain of a chronic illness or the slow, agonizing death of a terminal disease. Others die by suicide because of feelings of hopelessness, depression, guilt, rejection, failure, humiliation, or shame,

Drawbacks of Antipsychotics Drugs:

-Early antipsychotics did not cure schizophrenia; psychotic symptoms often returned if a person stopped taking the medication. They were not effective in eliminating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, such as apathy, lack of emotional expression, and social withdrawal. They often produced unwanted side effects. -They globally altered brain levels of dopamine, sometimes producing motor-related side effects. Long-term use could cause a potentially irreversible motor disorder called tardive dyskinesia (Thorazine Shuffle).

Explaining Depressive Disorders and Bipolar

-Family, twin, and adoption studies suggest that some people inherit a genetic predisposition for developing mood disorders.* -Disruption of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin has been implicated in the development of major depression. Antidepressants lift the symptoms of depression by increasing the availability of these neurotransmitters. -Abnormal levels of glutamate may be involved in bipolar disorder. Lithium effectively eliminates symptoms of both mania and depression. -Major depression is often triggered by traumatic and stressful events

The First Antipsychotic Drugs:

-For more than 2,000 years, medical practitioners in India used the snakeroot plant to diminish psychotic symptoms. -In the 1950s, French scientists found that chlorpromazine (Thorazine) diminished psychotic symptoms but had fewer side effects than reserpine. These first antipsychotic medications effectively reduced the positive symptoms of schizophrenia by reducing dopamine levels.

Psychological Factors in schizophrenia

-Individuals who are genetically predisposed to develop schizophrenia may be more vulnerable to the effects of disturbed family environments.

Focus on Neuroscience: schizophrenia

-Neuroscientists have mapped brain structure changes in normal adolescents and adolescents with early-onset schizophrenia. -Over the 5-year study, gray matter loss ranged from about 1% in normal teens to more than 5% in the schizophrenia teens. -Psychotic symptoms increased most in those who lost the greatest quantity of gray matter. -The pattern of loss mirrored the progression of neurological and cognitive deficits: loss in the temporal lobes was associated with more severe positive symptoms, and loss in the frontal lobes with more severe negative symptoms.

Critical Thinking: Mentally Ill and Violence

-One study indicated that, overall, former mental patients did NOT have a higher rate of violence than a matched comparison group (control group). -People with severe mental disorders who are experiencing bizarre delusional ideas and hallucinated voices do have a slightly higher level of violent and illegal behavior than do "normal" people. -Psychologists Stephen Hinshaw and Andrea Stier emphasize, "empirical data reveal that people with mental illness are far more likely to be victims of violent crime than are other individuals, and far more likely to be victims than to be perpetrators of violence."

Critical Thinking - mental illness

-People with mental illnesses are nearly twice as likely to smoke cigarettes as people with no mental illness. -One possible explanation is that people with a mental illness smoke as a form of self-medication. -Another explanation suggests that smoking triggers the onset of symptoms in people who are probably already vulnerable to the development of a mental disorder, especially major depression.

Cultural factors seem to affect the outcome of schizophrenia...

-Research has found that those with schizophrenia often have a better outcome in the developing world than in the developed world. -Research (Haro) suggests that people with schizophrenia living in developing world tend to exercise a greater decline in their symptoms over time than those with schizophrenia in the developed world.

Culture and Human Behavior: Culture Values and Psychotherapy

-The goals and techniques of established psychotherapy approaches reflect European and North American cultural values and may clash with the values of clients from other cultures -.A focus on the individual - in many collectivistic cultures, the needs of the individual are much more strongly identified with the needs of the group. -Recognizing the need for psychotherapists to become more culturally sensitive, the American Psychological Association has recommended formal training in multicultural awareness for all psychologists.

Psych For Your Life: What to Expect in Psychotherapy

-The therapist-client relationship is characterized by intimacy and the disclosure of very private, personal experiences. -Some guidelines for developing realistic expectations for therapy are as follows:1. Find a competent, qualified psychotherapist.2. Strengthen your commitment to change.3. Realize that therapy is a collaborative effort between you and the therapist.4. Do not confuse catharsis with change.5. Do not confuse insight with change.6. Do not expect your therapist to make decisions for you.7. Expect therapy to challenge how you think and act.8. Realized that your therapist is not a substitute friend.9. Be aware that therapeutic intimacy does not include sexual intimacy; it is NEVER ethical or appropriate for a therapist to have any form of sexual contact with a client. 10. Do not expect change to happen overnight.

Explaining Panic Disorder

-The triple vulnerabilities model of panic states that a (1) biological predisposition toward anxiety, (2) a low sense of control over potentially life-threatening events, and (3) an oversensitivity to physical sensations combine to make a person vulnerable to panic. -According to the catastrophic cognitions theory, people with panic disorder are not only oversensitive to physical sensations, they also tend to catastrophize the meaning of their experience. After such occurrences, the person may become even more attuned (or sensitive) to the onset of another frightening attack.

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

-a biomedical therapy used primarily in the treatment of depression that involves electrically inducing a brief brain seizure. -Some patients experience a temporary or permanent memory loss for the events leading up to the treatment. -To treat major depression, the patient typically receives 2-3 treatments per week for two to seven weeks. In the short term, ECT is a very effective treatment for severe depression - about 80% of depressed patients improve. -Potential dangers include serious cognitive impairments. However, ECT's biggest drawback is that its antidepressive effects can be short-lived; about half of all patients relapse within 6 months.

dissociative experience

-a break or disruption in consciousness during which awareness, memory, and personal identity become separated or divided. - Mild dissociative experiences are quite common and completely normal.

Hikkomori

-a culture-bound syndrome found in Japan. This syndrome involves a pattern of extreme social withdrawal. People suffering from hikkomori become virtual recluses, often confining themselves to a single room in their parent's home, sometimes for years. -Hikkomori are mostly young males, but also affects women and middle-aged adults. -Rates of hikkomori have increased over the last 20 years and it is estimated that 1 million or more young Japanese are affected.

Schizophrenia

-a disorder in which the ability to function is impaired by severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes. -Difference between positive symptoms and negative symptoms... -Symptoms can vary across cultures... The themes for individual's delusional beliefs are significantly correlated with their culture. -The onset of schizophrenia typically occurs during young adulthood. Worldwide, about 1% of the population will experience at least one episode of schizophrenia at some point in their lifetime.

Delusion

-a falsely held belief that persists in spite of compelling contradictory evidence. -Four common themes reflected in schizophrenic delusions: Delusions of reference Delusions of grandeur Delusions of persecution Delusions of being controlled

Group therapy

-a form of psychotherapy that involves one or more therapists working simultaneously with a small group of clients. Groups may be as small as 3 or 4 people or as large as 10 or more people and any approach can be used in group therapy. -There are several advantages to group therapy over individual psychotherapy... -Group therapy is typically conducted by a mental health professional. Self-help groupsand support groups are typically conducted by nonprofessionals. -The use of technology to help people with psychological issues can be seen with eHealth. This approach involves psychotherapy delivered via Internet technology, such as Skype. Research suggest that this method of treatment is about as effective as face-to-face psychotherapy.

Lithium

-a naturally occurring substance that is used effectively in the treatment of bipolar disorder. It stops acute manic episodes over a period of a week or two and can help to prevent relapses into either mania or depression in the long-term. -Lithium stabilizes the availability of the neurotransmitter glutamate within a narrow, normal rage, preventing both abnormal highs and abnormal lows.

Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)

-a particularly influential short-term psychodynamic therapy, focuses on current relationships and social interactions and is highly structured. Although originally conceived to be brief, it now may also be long term. -The therapist helps the person identify and understand his particular interpersonal problem and develop strategies to resolve it. -In the IPT therapy model, there are four categories of personal problems: unresolved grief, role disputes, role transitions, and interpersonal deficits. -IPT is used to treat depression, eating disorders, and substance abuse. In addition, it is used to help people deal with interpersonal problems, such as marital conflict, parenting issues, and conflicts at work. -Although traditional long-term psychoanalysis is uncommon today, Freud's basic assumptions and techniques remain influential.

Antianxiety Medications:

-are prescription drugs that are used to alleviate the symptoms of pathological anxiety. The best-known antianxiety drugs are benzodiazepines, which include the trade-name drugs Valium and Xanax. -In general, the benzo's produce their effects by increasing the level of GABA, a neurotransmitter that inhibits the transmission of nerve impulses in the brain and slows brain activity -.A newer antianxiety drug with the trade name Buspar has fewer side effects. It is believed to affect the brain's dopamine and serotonin levels. Buspar relieves anxiety while maintaining normal alertness; it does not cause the drowsiness, sedation, and cognitive impairment that is associated with the benzodiazepines.

Atypical antipsychotic medications

-block dopamine receptors in brain regions associated with psychotic symptoms rather than more globally throughout the brain, resulting in fewer side effects. They also affect the brain levels of serotonin. -They are less likely to cause movement-related side effects. They still cause some of the same side effects as first-generation antipsychotics, such as weight gain and cardiac problems. They also sharply increase the risk of developing diabetes. -Large-scale studies show these newer treatments are no more effective than their older counterparts.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

-characterized by excessive, global, and persistent symptoms of anxiety; it is sometimes referred to as free-floating anxiety. -Environmental, psychological, and genetic, as well as other biological factors, are probably involved in GAD. Signs of problematic anxiety can be evident from a very early age.

cyclothymic disorder

-characterized by moderate but frequent mood swings for 2 years (or longer) that are not severe enough to qualify as bipolar disorder. -In the vast majority of cases, bipolar disorder is a recurring mental disorder; a small percentage of people with the disorder display rapid cycling, experiencing four or more manic or depressive episodes in a year.

Psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck

-developed cognitive therapy (CT), which focuses on changing the client's unrealistic beliefs. He created this theory after discovering that depressed patients had developed a negative cognitive bias, consistently distorting their experiences in a negative way. -Although CT has much in common with REBT, Beck, unlike Ellis, believes that depression and other psychological problems are caused by distorted thinking and unrealistic beliefs. -The CT therapist encourages the client to empirically test the accuracy of his/her assumptions and beliefs. -The CT therapist strives to create a therapeutic climate of collaboration that encourages the client to contribute to the evaluation of the logic and accuracy of automatic thoughts.

Psychologist Albert Ellis

-developed rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), which focuses on changing the client's patterns of irrational thinking. REBT proposes that people's difficulties are caused by their faulty expectations and irrational beliefs -In REBT, psychological problems are explained by the "ABC" model: When an Activating event (A) occurs, it is the person's Beliefs (B) about the event that cause emotional Consequences (C). -From the client's perspective, rational-emotive behavior therapy requires considerable effort... the person must admit her irrational beliefs and accept the fact that those beliefs are irrational and unhealthy. The client must also be willing to radically change her way of interpreting and responding to stressful events.

Binge-Eating Disorder

-engage in binging behaviors. They do not engage in purging or other behaviors that rid their bodies of the excess food. -People with binge-eating disorder experience the same feelings of distress, lack of control, and shame that people with bulimia experience.

Focus on Neuroscience: The Paradox of Prozac

-fMRI scans were conducted on people with and without major depressive disorder. People in the depressed group showed increased activity in the amygdala, whereas people in the non-depressed group did not. -Studies show that depressive symptoms improved with either an antidepressant orinterpersonal therapy, and PET scans showed similar changes in brain functioning. -These findings emphasize that psychotherapy, not just antidepressant medication, affects brain chemistry and functioning.

Bulimia Nervosa

-fear of gaining weight and are intensely preoccupied and unhappy with their bodies (like anorexics); they are of normal body weight range or may even be slightly overweight; they also typically know they have an eating disorder. -People with bulimia experience extreme episodes of binge eating, which typically occur twice a week and are typically in secret.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

-formerly known as multiple personality disorder,involves extensive memory disruptions along with the presence of two or more distinct identities, or "personalities." -Alternate personalities, called alters or alter egos, may be of widely varying ages and different genders. Each alter will have its own name, self-image, preferences, morals, interests, mannerisms, habits, etc. -When one alter is out, there is typically a gap in memory for the other alters. The person with DID may report "losing time." Typically, the primary personality is notaware of alternate personalities. -Data shows that up to 90% of people with DID were abused as children (often extreme physical or sexual). Some believe that DID is a way of dealing with childhood memories. The pain isn't as great when it's shared amongst all the alters! -For treatment you integrate or combine aspects of the separate "identities" into one healthy personality. Therapist must meet all identities and get to know the personality and when it developed. -The person also needs to confront the past trauma they experienced. Memories will be fused, and the experiences, feelings, and skills of each alter will be combined into the original host. *This process takes a long time! Have to build trust with each alter and some have had a lot of past "hurts."

The Finnish Adoptive Family Study of Schizophrenia

-found that children whose biological mother had schizophrenia had a much higher rate of schizophrenia than did the control group when they were raised in a psychologically disturbed adoptive family. -When raised in a psychologically healthy adoptive family, they were no more likely than the control group to develop schizophrenia. -The conclusion from this study is that a psychologically healthy environment may counteract a person's inherited vulnerability for schizophrenia, but a psychologically unhealthy family environment can act as a catalyst for the onset of schizophrenia.

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

-increase the availability of serotonin in the brain and cause fewer side effects than earlier antidepressants. -The first SSRI released was fluoxetine (trade name Prozac); its chemical cousins, Zoloft and Paxil, quickly followed. Among Prozac's potential side effects are headaches, nervousness, difficulty sleeping, loss of appetite, and sexual dysfunction. -New antidepressants have been developed, including Serzone, Remeron, and Celexa. Called dual-action antidepressants, they also affect serotonin levels but by a different mechanism and have different side effects. -Effexor and Cymbalta, dual-reuptake inhibitors, affect levels of both serotonin and norepinephrine. Effexor seems to be more effective than SSRIs in alleviating the symptoms of depression. -Currently, medications are typically prescribed on a "trial-and-error" basis. The new field of pharmacogenetics may help overcome the trial-and-error method.

Borderline Personality Disorder

-instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, and impulsivity. -it is the most commonly diagnosed personality disorder, and is often considered the most serious and disabling personality disorder. Other characteristics include a pervasive feeling of emptiness, a desperate fear of abandonment, and self-destructiveness. -Many borderline patients have experienced physical, sexual, or emotional abuse in childhood or a disruption in attachment relationships in early childhood.

Mindfulness-based interventions

-involve the use of mindfulness meditation techniques. They target both thoughts and behaviors but do not seek to challenge, test, or replace the content of thoughts. Rather, clients are taught to observe and change their relationship to maladaptive thoughts and emotions. -One important technique is called decentering. Individuals are taught to notice, label, and relate to their thoughts and emotions as "just passing events" rather than to identify with them and allow them to shape experience.By increasing mindful awareness of thoughts, impulses, cravings, and emotions, clients are less likely to act on them or be ruled by them.

Generally, the objects or situations that produce specific phobias tend to fall into four categories:

1. Fear of particular situations 2. Fear of features of the natural environment 3. Fear of injury or blood 4. Fear of animals and insects

Biomedical therapies

-involve the use of psychotropic medications, electroconvulsive therapy, or other medical treatments to treat the symptoms associated with psychological disorders. -Biomedical therapies were developed to treat the symptoms of mental disorders effectively beginning in the 20th century. Today, the most common biomedical therapy is the use of psychotropic medications.

Dissociative Fugue

-involves sudden and unexpected travel away from home, extensive amnesia, and identity confusion. Memory and identity loss could last days, weeks, months, or even years. -Person will wander to a new city or country and adapt a new identity. They begin new life minus information about past.

Dissociative Amnesia

-involves the partial or total inability to recall important personal information. The memory loss is "selective" towards personal events and information, and not general knowledge or skills. This loss is in response to an extreme stress, trauma, or situation. -It is NOT due to a medical condition, or illness or injury or drug!

Short-Term Dynamic Therapies

-many different forms of short-term dynamic therapies based on traditional psychoanalytic ideas are now available. -These short-term therapies have several features in common: 1. Therapeutic contact lasts for no more than a few months. 2. The patient's problems are quickly assessed at the beginning of therapy. 3. Therapists and patient agree on specific, concrete, and attainable goals. 4. In actual sessions, most therapists are more directive than traditional psychoanalysts. 5. The therapist uses interpretations to help the patient recognize hidden feelings and transference that may be occurring in important relationships in her life.

Paranoid Personality Disorder

-persistent (and general) distrust and suspiciousness of others. The person is always on guard and will be quite reluctant to confide in others. -They may express inappropriate outbursts of anger, hostile reactions, and pathological jealousy in relationships. They are equally as distrustful of those they have known their entire life as they are of a stranger or someone they have just met.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

-pervasive pattern of disregarding and violating the rights of others; such individuals are often referred to as psychopaths or sociopaths. -Evidence of this personality pattern is often seen in childhood or early adolescence when a child has repeated run-ins with the law or school authorities. Such behaviors is typically diagnosed as conduct disorder. -Deceiving and manipulating others for one's own personal gain, lack of remorse, tendency to blame the victim for his or her gullibility, are other hallmarks of antisocial personality disorder. By middle to late adulthood, the tendencies of the disorder weaken.

Mary Cover Jones

-pioneered the use of behavioral techniques in therapy by exploring ways of reversing conditioned fears. (Counterconditioning and Peter) - Systematic desensitization - Virtual Reality Therapy (VR) - Aversive Conditioning

Antidepressant medications

-prescription drugs that are used to reduce the symptoms associated with depression. -The first generation of antidepressants consists of two classes of drugs called tricyclicsand MAO inhibitors, which affect multiple neurotransmitter pathways in the brain and work by increasing the availability of norepinephrine and serotonin. -The second generation antidepressants include trazodone and bupropion. They are no more effective than earlier antidepressants and have many of the same side effects.

Psychoanalysis

-psychotherapy originated in the early 1900s by Sigmund Freud in which free association, dream interpretation, and analysis of resistance and transference are used to explore repressed or unconscious impulses, anxieties, and internal conflicts.- Free Association - Resistance- Dream Interpretation - Interpretation - Transference -All these psychoanalytic techniques are designed to help the patient achieve insight into how past conflicts influence their current behavior and relationships, and then replace maladaptive behavior patterns with adaptive ones. -On average, the traditional psychoanalyst sees the patient three times a week or more, often for years!

Manic episode

-sudden, rapidly escalating emotional state characterized by extreme euphoria, excitement, physical energy, and rapid thoughts and speech. -For most people with bipolar, a manic episode immediately precedes or follows a bout with major depression. -During a manic episode, people sleep very little and display boundless energy; wildly inflated self-esteem; grandiose ideas, all of which may represent delusions; and flight of ideas. Because the ability to function during a manic episode is severely impaired, hospitalization is usually required.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - (OCD

-the symptoms of anxiety are triggered by intrusive, repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and urges to perform certain actions (compulsions) -People may experience obsessions OR compulsions, but more commonly they experience BOTH

token economy

-the therapeutic environment is structured to reward desired behaviors with tokens or points that may eventually be exchanged for tangible rewards. - Contingency management involves carefully specified behaviors, a target group of clients or patients, and the use of vouchers or other conditioned reinforcers that can be exchanged for prizes, cash, or other rewards.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

-therapy that integrates cognitive and behavioral techniques and that is based on the assumption that thoughts, moods, and behaviors are interrelated. -CB therapists challenge maladaptive beliefs and substitute more adaptive cognitions, and they use behavior modification, shaping, reinforcement, and modeling to teach problem solving and change unhealthy behavior patterns.

Client-centered therapy

-was developed by Carl Rogers. -He believed that the therapist should be nondirective and reflective. The client directs the focus of each session.Rogers believed that three qualities of the therapist are necessary, and when these three therapeutic conditions are met, the client moves in the direction of self-actualization. (1) Genuineness (2) Unconditional positive regard and (3) Empathic understanding

Ten distinct personality disorders are categorized into three basic clusters:

1) Cluster A - the odd, eccentric cluster 2) Cluster B - the dramatic, emotional, erratic cluster 3) Cluster C - the anxious, fearful cluster

How can you help?

1. Activity listen as the person talks and vents feelings. 2. Don't deny or minimize the person's suicidal intentions. 3. Identify other potential solutions. 4. Ask the person to delay the decision. 5. Encourage the person to seek professional help.

Four core symptoms are present with PTSD

1. Frequent, intrusive recall of the event 2. Avoidance of stimuli or situations that tend to trigger memories of the experience and a general numbing of emotional responsiveness. 3. May experience negative thinking, moods, and emotions, alienate or blame self or others, feel guilt, fear, anger. 4. Increased physical arousal associated with anxiety.

What Factors Contribute to Effective Psychotherapy?

1. Quality of the therapeutic relationship 2. Therapist characteristics 3. Client characteristics 4. External circumstances 5. Sensitivity to cultural difference

Specific phobia

characterized by an extreme and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity that interferes with the ability to function in daily life.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

chronic and persistent symptoms of anxiety develop in response to an extreme physical or psychological trauma, such as military combat, natural disasters, physical or sexual assault, random shooting sprees, or terrorist attacks

Explaining Phobias

classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning, biologically prepared

Motivational Interviewing:

designed to help clients overcome their mixed feelings of reluctance about committing to change

Seasonal Affective Disorder

episodes of depression typically occur during the autumn and winter and then decrease during the spring and summer.

Alogia

greatly reduced production of speech.

Personality Disorders

inflexible, maladaptive patterns of thoughts, emotions, behavior, and interpersonal functioning across a broad range of situations.

Eating disorders

involve serious and maladaptive disturbances in eating behavior

Bipolar Disorder

involves periods of incapacitating depression alternating with periods of extreme euphoria and excitement; formerly called manic depression

Social Anxiety Disorder

involves the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations