AP World Ch. 37

Egypt and Arab Nationalism & Suez Crisis

- Gamal Abdel Nasser directed the egyptian military leaders who were committed to opposing israel and taking command of the arab world. they started reform through militarization and in july 1952 they staged a bloudless coup that ended the monarchy of egyptian king Farouk. nasser became prime minister and took control of the government. nasser developed a policy of neutralism and condemned states that joined with foreign powers in military alliances. he also dedicated himself to ridding egypt of imperial interference. he abolish british military rights to the suez canal in 1954. - suez crisis erupts in 1956 when nasser decided to nationalize the suez canal and use the money from it to finance construction of a dam in the nile river. he would not allow multinational control of the canal and this angered the british, french, and israelis. the US condemned the attack of these powers since they did not consult with the US before attacking. from this crisis, nasser got prestige and egypt became a leader of opposition against imperial powers. the suez crisis further divided the united states and its allies in western europe.

Freedom and Conflict & Ghana

- Ghana was the first sub-Saharan colony to gain independence from colonial rule. - Ghana became part of the british empire in 1874 and was an important center for growing and exporting cacao. it achieved freedom from british rule in 1957 and under the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah, political parties and a real state began to emerge. - Ghana inspired other African nationalist movements. Nkrumah was a leader of the first sub-Saharan nation to gain independence from colonial rule and therefore he was a spokesperson for pan-African unity.

Anticolonial Rebellion in Kenya & Internal Colonialism in South Africa

- Kenyan independence got ugly since there was a violent clash between powerful white settlers and nationalists (especially the Kikuyu which was one of kenya's largest ethnic groups). the kikuyu embarked on a violent campaign against Europeans and Africans who allegedly were traitors. the Nairobi government said the kikuyu were radicals. - the kikuyu resented the british because of british treatment in the 1930s and 1940s when white settlers pushed them off the most fertile farm areas and reduced them to the status of slaves. in early 1940s resistance came in the form of labor strikes but in 1950s tension escalated and british established a state of emergency to crush anticolonial guerilla movement and the british suppressed all nationalist movements and jailed Kenya nationalist leaders such as Jomo Kenyatta. by 1956 the british had effectively crushed all military resistance but kikuyu fighters gained increasing recognition from other African nations and in 1959 the british lifted the state of emergency, political parties formed, and by December 1963 kenya negotiated its independence. - situation was different in south Africa where a large number of white settlers delayed the arrival of black freedom. rebellion in south Africa was an internal struggle against an oppressive white regime that denied basic rights to south Africans.

Liberation - Dependency Theory

- Nicaraguan women established the Association of Women Concerned about National Crisis in 1977 in order to get rid of Somoza. then they renamed themselves the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan Women (AMNLAE). they forwarded womens rights in the political and public spheres. Paraguay was the last latin American nation to grant womens suffrage rights. - economic problems happened in latin America because the landowning elites gained power during the colonial era and wanted to maintain their dominance. BUT during the mid 20th century many latin American nations took advantage of world market needs and pursued greater industrial development. - Raul Prebisch was an argentine economist who crafted the dependency theory of economic development in which industrial nations dominated the international economy and profited at the expense of less developed and industrialized nations burdened with unbalanced economies that resulted from colonialism. he thought that to break this unequal relationship, developing nations needed to protect and diversify domestic trade.

Black African Nationalism and Independence

- african intellectuals (especially in west africa) established a movement to promote "negritude" (blackness). a new urban african elite emerged and created associations needed for demonstrations. workers strikes were the most widespread form of demonstration and some independent christian churches also allowed for anticolonial agitation. african poets after world war ll used their association with negritude to express and encourage africans to turn away from european culture. - imperial powers, however, saw black africans as incapable of self-government and hoped for a slow transition to independence. the process was also difficult because of the abundance of white settlers in these african colonies. (cold war politics allowed imperial powers to justify oppressive actions int he justification that they were rooting out a subversive communist presence).

Struggles in Vietnam - Geneva Conference

- after world war ll the Vietnamese started a war against the French to free themselves. Ho Chi Minh was the nationalist communist leader. - Ho helped get rid of the Japanese from Vietnam and then issued the Vietnamese Declaration of Independence BUT the French were upset about their defeat by the germans and wanted to reclaim their worldpower status through getting imperial possessions so they recaptured Saignon in 1945 and were met with resistance from the Viet Minh (northern nationalist communists). Ho Chi Minh and General Vo Nguyen Giap took to the countryside and mounted a campaign of guerilla warfare against the French (much like they did against the americans later on). in 1949 the Chinese sent aid to viet minh and the viet minh defeated the French fortress in Dienbienphu in 1954 and so French sued for peace. - peace conference was held in Geneva in 1954 and determined that Vietnam would be divided at the 17th parallel (north Vietnam under communist ho chi minh and south Vietnam under noncommunists). *in violation of Geneva conference, US backed the south Vietnamese leaders when they avoided free elections and built a government to stop the spread of communism. Ngo Dinh Diem was the first president of the Republic of South Vietnam and in 1960 Vietnamese nationalists formed the National Liberation Front to fight for freedom from south Vietnamese rule. they also received aid and weapons from the north.

War in Algeria & Frantz Fanon

- algerian war of liberation began in 1954 under command of the Front de Liberation Nationale who relied on mountainous areas and resorting to guerilla warfare. once the FLN moved to urban areas, the war got ugly and algerian civilians got trapped in brutalities of war. war ended in 1962 with algerians gaining independence from france. - Frantz Fanon gained fame as an algerian revolutionary and influential proponent of nationali liberation for colonial peoples through violent revolution. he lead a psychiatric department in an algerian hospital. he wrote "The Wretched of the Earth" in which he urged the use of violence against colonial oppressors to overcome racist degradation experienced by peoples in colonial nations. his ideas influenced other independence struggles in africa.

Arab National States - Palestine

- arab states had little difficulty freeing themselves from colonial powers. egypt had almost complete autonomy from british rule which was limited only by british military control of the strategic suez canal and oil-rich persian gulf. - superpowers interfered in the arab region because of the vast reserves of oil. great britain was the mandate power in palestine after the great war and with the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the british committed themselves to support a homeland for jews in palestine. the british were compelled to allow jewish migration to the area under their mandate because of allied support, balfour declaration, and the zionist movement. BUT british feared what the palestinian arabs would think so they DID limit migration to protect arab rights. - after world war ll, pan-arab nationalism was sparked by support for fellow arabs in palestine and opposed a jewish state there. but the holocaust intensified the need for a jewish state.

Creation of Israel

- arabs insisted on complete independence under arab rule and in 1945 the jews started violently resisting the british in order to have a jewish state and open immigration with no limits. in 1947 the british withdrew and passed over the problem to the United Nations who decided to divide Palestine into two states (one for arabs, one for jews). BUT both arabs and jews found this solution unacceptable and civil war breaks out in 1947. in may 1948 the jews in palestine proclaimed the creation of the independent state of israel. - this proclamation creates a series of military conflicts between arabs and jews. bc of the wars Israel increased the size of its territory beyond what was granted by the UN and a permanent peace agreement was never reached. in 1987 a popular mass movement known as 'intifada' initiated a series of demonstrations and strikes against israeli rule int he gaza strip.

Argentina - Evita

- argentina's economy was based on cattle raising and agriculture and had a growing middle class and the starting of an industrial base. argentina became a leader of the latin american struggle against US and european powers. the landowning elite influenced a shift to free election and shared political power but the military also played a big role in Argentine politics and during world war ll, nationalistic military leaders gained power and established a government controlled by the army. Juan Peron became president in 1946 and his militaristic regime was popular because he appealed to poor Argentinians and promoted industrialization, nationalistic populism, and support working class. - his wife, Eva Peron was loved by the people as well. She grew up in a poor environment but became a beautiful political leader and pushed for reforms for the poor and created the Eva Peron Foundation to institutionalize charitable endeavors. she died of cancer at 33 and the nation mourned her as "Santa Evita". however, some people saw her husband as a political opportunist and did not like her (but this was minority). - military rule got bad in 1970s and 1980s when dictators approved the creation of death squads and many people disappeared during this time (they were suspected of opposing the governemnt, traitors, etc.) and after this "dirty war" there was a push for democratic policies.

Colonial Legaices

- decolonization was frequently followed by civil wars and border disputes that resisted revolution. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was created in 1963 and attempted to prevent conflicts that could lead to intervention by colonial powers. OAU also promoted pan-african unity in order to resist domination by foreign powers. - life in poverty of many africans increased tension. however, africa is rich in mineral resources, raw materials, and agricultural products but because many new african nations lacked the technology and markets to use this natural wealth, they had to work alongside old colonial powers to make any kind of economic development. leaders of african nations were among the strongest supporters for the New International Economic Order that called for a coalition of developing nations to guarantee prices and commodities for markets.

Islamic Resurgence and Islamism

- geographic convergence of muslim and arab worlds inspires arab nationalism. Egypt's gamal abdel Nasser provided leadership for arab nationalism BUT divisions within the arab world existed. religious divisions occurred because of sunni and shia muslims who had different policies. -in 1970s muslims started seeking revival of Islamic values in political and social sphere. some Islamic thinkers advocated for the enforcement of the sharia and urged for pan-Islamic unity. *many muslims thought that the muslim world was declining because of the abandonment of Islamic traditions and many muslims were skeptical about European and American models of economy and politics so they (the muslims) started encouraging revival of this. Islamic extremists took the concept of jihad (jihad is the right and duty to defend islam and the Islamic community from unjust attack) to rationalize and legitimize terrorism and revolution.

Vietnam's 'American War' & Vietnamese Victory

- in 1965 lyndon b johnson ordered a bombing campaign against north vietnam and sent US ground troops. BUT the north vietnamese created a stalemate and the war only got more difficult for US. Richard Nixon pledged in 1968 to end the vietnam war and after his election he implemented a policy of Vietnamization (strategy of turning the war over to the south vietnamese). but nixon ended up extending the war into cambodia and resumed heavy bombing of north vietnam. US troops gradually withdrew from the conflict and in january 1973 the "american war" (what the vietnamese called it) ended with the Paris Peace Accords. BUT war did not end bc the north vietnam forces and National liberation Front continued to fight to conquer south vietnam and unite the nation but south vietnam lost in 1975. the nation was reunified in 1976.

Cultural Revolution - Tiananmen Square

- in 1966 mao began the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution which was meant to get rid of the revisionism in Chinese life but it ended up subjecting millions of people to humiliation, persecution, and death. many of the Chinese elite were targets and the Red Guards encouraged the "cleansing" of Chinese society of opponents to mao. - mao died in 1976 and Deng Xiaoping succeeded him. Deng suffered during the cultural revolution even labored in a tractor-repair factory. once mao died, it was hard for the radical faction to maintain the revolution so china began to recover and deng came to power in 1981 (the 1980s are referred to as the years of "deng's revolution"). deng allowed for china to enter into the international financial and trading system and relations with the US got better. - deng also sent many Chinese students to study in universities around the world to create a people that could work in modern development. when the students came back to china they had been exposed to western ideals like democracy and they staged demonstrations in Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989 but deng crushed the movement. *Chinese increase in global power became especially visible during the 2008 summer Olympics in Beijing.

Indian Democracy

- india maintained its political stability and democratic system after gaining independence in 1947. india remained committed to free elections and a critical press. the first prime minister was Jawaharlal Nehru. his daughter, Indira Gandhi (no relation to mohands Gandhi) became leader of the congress party and she also served as prime minister. under her leadership, india undergoes a "green revolution" in which there were new agricultural policies to get more yields BUT these policies only aided wealthy farmers and peasants got poorer. - besides poor peasants, there was also overpopulation and sectarian violence. soooo Indira Gandhi declared a national emergency that suspended the democratic process and used her powers to put a birth control reform in motion. the government had involuntary sterilization and there were riots and when Indira finally allowed for elections again in 1977 the Indians voted against her for getting rid of democratic principles and her birth control policies. in the 1980s there was a sikh movement (Sikhs wanted greater autonomy in the Punjab region) and Sikhs had a history of militarism and self-rule. Indira Gandhi (who came to power again....somehow) ordered that the army attack the Golden Temple which was where sikh extremists gathered. in retaliation of this order, 2 of her sikh bodyguards assassinated her in 1984. - then her son, Rajiv Gandhi ruled india in 1985 but was assassinated by a terrorist in 1991 BUT Nehru's heirs did maintain democracy and the legacy on Gandhi lived on.

Decolonization in Africa - France in Africa

- internal divisions in african societies complicated the decolonization process since these divisions undermined attempts to forge national or pan-african identities. because there were so many different ethnic, religious, and tribal differences in africa there was no united front that worked together. - french war in algeria began in 1954. even though it allowed its other territories in africa to gain independence, france specifically focused on maintaining algeria. france granted many other colonies (like morocco and tunisia) independence in 1960 which became known as "the year of Africa". - french citizens were not super excited about the algerian war but the french settlers in algeria demanded that the government in paris defend their cause. after world war ll there was a nationalist movement in algeria that pushed for independence from france and freedom of domination by white settlers. in may 1945 french colonial police in Setif fired shots into a peaceful demonstration in support of algerian independence and this started the war.

Guatemala and Nicaragua

- latin America became the site of 40% of US foreign investments and cold war sentiment shaped US policy in lain America (especially in Nicaragua and Guatemala). - Jacobo Arbenz Guzman was the president of Guatemala in 1951 and in 1953 he announced a seizure of land owned by the United Fruit Company which was a foreign company that dominated Guatemala's economy. basically, arbenz was trying to assert Guatemala's control over its economy and lands but US saw his actions as communist. Eisenhower urged CIA to overthrow Arbenz and so US sent arms to Nicaragua and Honduras to create a stronger defense against Guatemala. Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas trained men to attack and weaken the arbenz government and arbenz fell in 1954 and Armas created a military government in 1957 and there was civil war in Guatemala. - anastacio somoza Garcia was president of Nicaragua in 1954 and he outlawed the communist party in Nicaragua. somoza also murdered sandino who was a nationalist that led a movement aimed at ending US interference in Nicaragua. somoza allowed the US to use Nicaragua as a staging place during the bay of pigs attack on cuba in 1961. BUT then some Nicaraguans created the Sandinista Front for National Liberation in honor of Sandino and they launched guerilla operations to overthrow Somoza and his family. When Reagan was president he thought that the sandinistas were helping communist rebels so he offered support to the Contras which was a CIA trained group dedicated to overthrowing the sandinistas. -(read last two paragraphs of this section)

Politics and Economics & Mexico

- latin american had to deal with neocolonialism (definition: the economic and political policies by which a great power indirectly maintains or extends its influence over other areas or people). they had to deal with this since the US not only intervened militarily but also influenced economies through investment and full or partial ownership. - President Lazaro Cardenas applied the reforms to Mexicans by the constitution of 1917 and brought land reform and redistribution to an all-time high and got control of the oil industry from foreign investors. His nationalization of the oil industry created the Petroleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) which was a national oil company. the revenues from this company contributed to "El Milagro Mexicano" (a.k.a. the Mexican economic miracle) which was a period of prosperity (golden age) for Mexico. - the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) sometimes acted harshly and came under attack in 1990s as peasants were protesting political oppression so Cuauhtemoc Cardenas (son of lazaro) took on leadership of an opposing party called the Democratic Revolutionary Party and allowed for multiparty elections and democratic politics.

Partition and Violence & Nonalignment

- partition of india violated what both Gandhi and president Nehru wanted. Gandhi avoided celebrations on august 15 1947 of indian independence because it also celebrated independence for Pakistan which Gandhi opposed. after independence, muslims and hindus migrated to either india or Pakistan and hostility between the groups occurred. - independence in india and Pakistan encouraged nationalists around the globe to lead movements for self-rule. indian independence also set a pattern for dealing with decolonization through Nehru's promotion of a nonalignment strategy. - leaders of new African and Asian countries first discussed nonalignment at the Bandung conference in april 1955 where they tried to find a "third path" or an alternative to choosing either the US or the USSR in the cold war. bandung conference also stressed struggle against colonialism and racism. a Nonaligned Movement also occurred after the conference in which members held meetings about their interests about thoughts of US and USSR. *the movement's primary goal was to maintain formal neutrality BUT the movement suffered from weak unity among the members and members ended up choosing either cold war power.

India's Independence

- separate muslim and hindu states in india were calling for independence. Winston Churchill despised Gandhi and would not allow for indian self-rule and india was forced to support the war effort. - as independence in india became more probable, the muslims started to fear their minority status in india would be dominated by hindus. Muhammad ali jinnah was leader of the muslim league and expressed these concerns. in august 1946 the musilm league called for a Day of Direct Action and 6,000 people died in this killing (great Calcutta killing) which resulted in further communal feeling and added to Jinnah's idea that the only solution to india's problem would be creating Pakistan.

Iranian Revolution & Iran-Iraq War

- the CIA helped get Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi to power in Iran in 1953 and the money from iran's oil industry helped fund industrialization and the US gave Iran military equipment to help stop spread of communism BUT there was opposition to the shah in 1970s. you see, shia muslims did not like the shah's secular regime and the influence of US corporations so the shah left the coutnry in 1979 and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini got power. iranian leaders started shutting US military bases and confiscating US owned economic ventures. but you need to remember that Iranian Islam was a minority sect of Shia Islam and Iraq (Iran's neighbor) saw the revolution as an opportunity to invade Iran. - Iraq had become wealthy from oil and efforts of Saddam Hussein who wanted to become the new leader of pan-Arab nationalism. hussein launched an attack on iran in 1980 and it became a war that did not end until 1988. - young people show signs of discontent because of the war and islamism has reemerged in iran and caused US concern. both Ayatollah Khomeini and the next president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, are strong conservatives and Ahmadinejad supported a strong nuclear program. 2 years after the war Hussein invaded Kuwait and started the Gulf War (1991) which resulted in defeat for Iraq against a coalition led by US.

Apartheid & the End of Apartheid

- the south African economy was the strongest economy on the continent. 2 reasons for this: extraction of minerals and industrial development. in 1948 the Afrikaner National Party came to power and it was dedicated to stopping any kind of black independence. under this party, harsh laws were placed that controlled the black population and created a system known as apartheid "separateness". - the government set aside about 87% of territory for white residents and nonwhites were divided into different ethnic identities like Indians, mixed-race, or even Bantu. they divided the different colored people to avoid the rise of unified liberation movements. - the African National Congress was formed in 1912 (nelson mandela was a leader of this) and it inspired action against apartheid. in 1955 the ANC published its Freedom Charter which proclaimed the idea of multiracial democratic rule in South Africa. but this only increased government opposition and in 1960 white police gunned down black demonstrators in Sharpeville. the white regime ended up outlawing black organizations like ANC. - other African nations called for UN sanctions against south Africa and in 1961 south Africa declared itself to be a republic and drew out of the british commonwealth and in 1963 the government captured leaders of ANC like mandela. protests continued into 1970s and 1980s and the protests and boycotts eventually led to reform. - when F.W. de Klerk becomes president of south Africa in 1989 he starts to get rid of the apartheid system and released mandela from jail. elections in 1994 resulted in ANC winning and mandela becoming the first black president. he proclaimed his nation to be "free at last".

Communism in Asia & Mao's China

- under mao Zedong, china served as a guide for nations seeking a means of political development different from the ways of their colonial masters. - mao reunified china for the first time since the end of the qing dynasty. in 1949 he started transforming china through rapid industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture (making ownership collective, not individual). Chinese even had a five-year plan like the soviets. there was also a series of agrarian laws that promoted an unprecedented transfer of wealth among the population and eliminated economic inequality at the village level. Chinese even introduced marriage laws that eliminated forced marriages and foot binding started to become something of the past. - the Great Leap Forward in 1958-1961 was mao's way of trying to collectivize all land and manage all business and industrial enterprise. some people called it the "giant leap backward" because agricultural production was terrible during this time and mao blamed the sparrows for the bad harvests (he thought they ate too much grain) so mao ordered peasants to kill the sparrows. many Chinese died of starvation and malnutrition.