APAH CA3

63. Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel,

Form: A brick chapel decorated entirely with frescoes on the wall Trompe l'oeil- fake marble pattern in between frescoes, gives the appearance of stone, but actually all paintings Three registers that go downwards that tells narrative biblical story (explained in content) Also used lapis lazuli pigments for the bright blues (this was done with seco fresco, or dry fresco, so it did not stay as well) well done. Function: This was a private chapel of devotion for the Scrovegni family It was commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni, a banker, who wanted to atone for he and his father's sin of usury (charging interest on loans), so he believed that by building a chapel, he could go to Heaven spot on. Content: The frescoes are designed in three registers that tell a biblical story (39 scenes) The top begins with the life of Christ's grandparents (Yoakim and Anna) and the life of Mary, then the middle row is about the life of Christ (including His childhood and the Ministry of Christ), and finally the bottom depicts the Passion- the final part of Jesus's life, ending in the Pentecost Some of the images are not directly in the Bible but rather filled in with the information from a book called The Golden Legend that is a narrative form Jesus is usually depicted moving left to right (narrative) and in profile which was considered the most honorable way to depict someone (from Roman coinage) Unlike the classic Byzantium style of the 2-dimension, Giotto begins to create a sense of depth in his paintings YES! One of the most famous frescoes is the Lamentation- it is a picture of Jesus after he was cut down from the cross and he is surrounded by a variety of individuals including his mother Mary (holding him), Mary Magdalene (at his feet- she anointed them), St. John (arms out in despair), and the disciples. There are also angels flying in the air, representing his divinity The expressions of the people there are of mourning and despair, very human emotions- each figure is grieving in their own way The tree in the background is barren but will also grow leaves again- symbol of Jesus coming back to life On the ceiling is a starry blue sky with images of Christ and Mary's faces Below the three registers are personifications of the 7 virtues and vices (desperation, envy, infidelity, injustice, wrath, inconstancy, foolishness, then hope, charity, faith, justice, temperance, fortitude, and prudence) On the west wall is the scene of the Last Judgement In the center is the largest figure Christ who is the judge, around him are the Elect (people going to Heaven) and there is also a scene of Hell, above him is Heaven There is an image of Enrico Scrovegni giving the chapel to the Virgin Mary, represents him atoning for his sins Another famous scene is the Kiss of Judas Depicts when Judas came to Jesus and turned him in to the Roman authorities, the faces of Jesus and Judas are very close together, shows intimacy The scene is chaotic and violent, the Romans attacking the disciples Context: Next to old Roman Arena, so called Arena Chapel, Scrovegni from the family who commissioned it Was built in order to atone for his sins of usury These frescoes represent a transition from medieval period where the figures were divine (lots of gold, little emotion and contact with each other) to the Renaissance period (emotion in the grief, figures holding and kissing each other, depth to the paintings) YES!

78. Entombment of Christ. Jacopo da Pontormo. 1525-1528 C.E. Oil on wood.

Form: Altar painting in a personal chapel room inside of a church Painted oil on wood Lacks linear or atmospheric perspective Anatomically incorrect, Christ torso huge The people do not seem to be weighed down normally, gives elegance to the painting Utilizes mannerist style as it moves away from Renaissance tendencies Elaborate distortion of bodies instead of then being anatomically correct Renaissance paintings accentuates nature/naturalism, while this painting seems self focused Theatrical lighting 123 inches tall, 76 inches wide The subject is disputed among art historians, as to whether this is Christ coming down from the Cross or going into the tomb Christ is held limply by two men, one on left thought to be Saint John the Evangelist All other mourners are women draped in swirling blue and pink cloth, including Mary Magdalen Function: Patron was Girolamo Vittrice, wanted it by Pontormo for his family Chapel within church in Florence Acts as main altarpiece Summons grief over Christ's sacrifice, but also encourages the magnitude of the moment Piece challenges naturalism of Renaissance works Some historians believe the work was connected to the Chapel itself; meant to show Christ being laid to rest in Capponi Chapel Contrasts religious iconography with human suffering at the supposed moment of Christ's death Content: Mary displays "Swooning Virgin" expression Circular composition, no where for one's eyes to really stop and test on Could be implying endless grief Center of piece is a woman's handkerchief and Christ's hand being held up by others Hands could be symbolizing the sacrifice Christ's death was thought to be, gifting humanity the ability to ask God for forgiveness with his death Constant movement of the individuals also plays to the restlessness of the piece, eye cannot rest Exclusion of context clues, like tomb/slab or cross/ladder leaves the actual moment up to interpretation Debated topic of what stage of Christ's sacrifice this was Context: Protestant Reformation in Northern Europe began, Martin Luther popularizing the questioning of transubstantiation, good works, indulgences (1517) The Florentine Republic shaken but reinstated, eventually ends as Medici family takes control and becomes Dukes of Florence Associated with rise of Mannerism and artistic fading of Renaissance naturalism Artificially emphasized, art becomes its on source of meaning and extravagance instead of nature More ambiguous depictions of already created scenes Emotion takes over rationality, exaggerated to the point of contrivance

49. Santa Sabina. Rome, Italy. c. 422-432 C.E. Brick and stone, wooden roof.

CONTEXT Rome, Italy atop a hill Late Antique Europe, 422-432 CE On site of Saint Sabina (300s in Rome,) who was stoned to death for converting to Christianity The building was originally a classical Roman administrative building Ordered interior served to manage large numbers of visitors and to impose the government's authority Thick columns and classical decor create structural stability Example of an ancient Constantinian basilica A pilgrim who visited a Constantinian basilica in the 300s said this about the effect of the space: "The decorations are too marvelous for words. All you can see is gold, jewels and silk...You simply cannot imagine the number and sheer weight of the candles, tapers, lamps and everything else they use for the services." Constantinian architects were the first Roman Christians; they chose the ancient Roman basilica to serve as the basis of their new churches Spolia: recycling old buildings or architectural materials for another purpose The architects reinvented a formerly governmental space into a religious one Manipulated the light from the windows so that the space became well-lit Added mosaics on the walls FORM Massive, spacious longitudinal nave Faces the altar Illuminated by natural light from windows Creates a feeling of transcendence Light from the windows was manipulated by the architect to create a spiritual effect Would've illuminated the mosaics on the nave walls (that no longer exist) Light = Christ, heaven Nave; looking at the side aisle Imagine the walls glimmering with mosaics Over the columns: wine cups and bread: first symbolization of Eucharist CONTENT Windows made of celenite, not glass Wooden coffered ceiling Recalls the (domed) coffered ceiling of the Pantheon in Rome, circa 125 CE. Original paneled, wooden doors are still on the church Depict Biblical scenes, possibly the first Crucifixion depiction in the upper left panel Colonnade with a side aisle on each side Corinthian columns Like the Pantheon: walls are broken up into entablatures Columns and pilasters create verticals that tie the horizontal entablatures together Visualizes the building's weight and solidity Nave wall has little visual weight Simple architecture underlies a strong, empowered foundation Clerestory windows line the upper entablatures of the nave Walls don't have traditional classical orders Instead of organized columns and entablatures, they were covered in mosaics Walls show a shift from a focus on Man's architecture to religious imagery FUNCTION Early Christian church To respect Sabina, who supposedly died on the location Roman Emperor from the 300s and Christian convert Martyr for Christianity To impress the viewer and inspire them to follow Christianity

53. Merovingian looped fibulae. Early medieval Europe. Mid-sixth century C.E.Silver gilt worked in filigree, with inlays of garnets and other stones.

Content: General of Fibulae: -consist of a body, a pin, and a catch -Usually with elaborate designs Specific (Merovingian): -Material: silver gilt-worked in filigree with inlaid garnet and other stones -decorated with garnets, amethyst, and colored glass -a great example of barbarian metalwork and cloisonné -cloisonné: technique is inlaid semi-precious stones (popular in barbarian art) -Ends of fibulae: the shape of Eagle heads -Garnets: used to decorate the eyes of the eagles -the main body of the brooch: little fish -Gems and semi-precious stones: used to decorate the rest of the fibulae -Pendants could have been hung from the small loops on the bottom on each fibulae Context: General of Fibulae: -Fibulae: are brooches (safety pins) that were made popular by Roman military campaigns -Cultural exchanges occurred after antiquity and both groups (barbarians and Romans) copied and shared similar works -Barbarian: non-Roman, nomadic, and illiterate groups traveling throughout Europe during the middle ages -Became very popular in the early Middle Ages and commonly found in barbarian grave sites -Gives the cultural information about barbarians (little-written documents) -Found through many different ethnics groups and with trade/ expose had influences of the styles of one another -All serve the same function purpose: because of different cultures/ time periods decorated differently -Similar cultures tend to have similar artist designs while diverse cultures didn't -Shows that distinct cultures living within larger empires and kingdoms (very common during the Middle Ages) Specific (Merovingian): - a popular motif in barbarian art of the middle ages: EAGLES (found on the work) -Eagles (originally pagan symbol of the sun) used by Imperial Rome and an emblem to Saint John -the way these were made: solder wires onto a metal base and fill the areas those wires created with stone Function: -a brooch or a pin for fastening clothing (safety pin) -expensive objects to the commission: the owners wanted these objects to resonate with their identity -buried with the dead: showed their status and who they were as people Byzantine Fibula (430) Most popular style: crossbow fibula because of its resemblance to the weapon Pierced openwork: The detailed incising on the body Christian cross amongst a circular leaf motif Simple design (Byzantine/ Roman) context Lombardic Fibula (mid-6th century) -stylized variation of the crossbow fibula (remember diverse ethics groups all had their own spin to their fibulas!) -Material: gilded and inlaid with niello = a black metal alloy -Lombardic fibulae: incisions are hatched lines (popular decoration technique) -Historical Context: Although they conquered Byzantine land, they were overthrown by Charlemagne (king of the Franks) Therefore with this context over the centuries, they assimilated into Roman Culture and adopted Catholicism -Shows the adoption of crossbow fibula style (Roman) with their own twist (so even though they left off a lot their own culture behind/ legal producers still have some part of their roots)

64. Golden Haggadah (The Plagues of Egypt, Scenes of Liberation, and Preparation for Passover). Latemedieval Spain. c. 1320 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (pigments and gold leaf on vellum).

Content: First page: Preparation for passover Upper right panel filled with several women celebrating the coming of Passover with musical instruments Miriam, Moses's sister, holding tambourine with islamic decoration, Islamic motifs like this thought to represent the language and beauty of life through its geometric presentation Women wearing long, pale colored gowns/dresses Upper right panel features children dressed in same colors of the women's dresses eagerly receiving matzah and haroset their master of the house is giving out Bottom right panel has a group of people preparing the house for Passover; women clean while men inspect the progress of matzah bread Bottom left panel features sheep being butchered for the festival Second page: The plagues of europe Upper right panel features Egyptians and their animals becoming overrun with boils God believed to have instructed Moses to toss soot in the air, which resulted in this epidemic where Egyptians became victim to boils and ulcers Lower left panel features Egyptians' domesticated animals succumb to disease while wild ones begin to take their place Upper right panel features frogs swarming Egypt, specifically a high official's room, most likely the Pharaoh Lower right panel features wild animals frightening the Pharaoh, a phase of the 10 plagues often disputed to include either wild beasts or swarms of flies Third page: Scenes of Liberation Upper right panel features scenes of the most devastating phase of the 10 Plagues, the killing the of the first born (3 parts): a mother weeping over her newborn's death, an angel (some experts believing to be the Angel of Death God sends in some interpretations) hitting an ill man in front of a somber women, and a funeral procession for one of the firstborn killed Upper left panel features the Pharaoh forcing Israelites out of Egypt, the latter doing so with dough in hand and their hands raised Lower left panel features Egyptian knights taking after the Israelites following their exile from Egypt Lower right panel features the aftermath of the belief God responded to Moses's call for assistance while evading the Egyptians in pursuit by parting the Red Sea for the Israelites but letting it crash down on their pursuers, with depiction of the soldiers drowning behind the Israelites Form: As an illuminated manuscript, these pages of the Golden Haggadah are 2 dimensional, with a lack of background depth in the illustrations creating very flat images Pages made from vellum Pages reflect influence of Gothic art, with gold leaf backgrounds and dark red decorative frames illuminating the panels The people have long flowing bodies with pale white skin Not much emphasis for architecture in background of panels, not too proper/realistic scale as homes just behind main figures have second story windows and towers just above their heads Creates little negative space, subjects all appear very close Function: Illustrates the story of Passover from the Book of Exodus, which focuses on the Israelites escape from slavery and oppresion in Eygpt It is read, celebrated, and studied during Seder, a meal marking the beginning of Passover by families This Haggadah would have been used at a private home The Golden Haggadah's decorative nature and fine condition implies its belonging to a wealthy family Judaism condemns "graven images", an idea originating from the second commandment Moses believed to have received from God, but the Golden Haggadah is considered a tool of education Thus its illustrations are allowed, meant to be didactic and help Jewish people better understand the developments of the Book of Exodus Context: The Golden Haggadah was created during the Gothic period Gothic art developed out of Romanesque art, further pushing both sculpture and painting from stiff depictions of people to those more lively and flowing Also characterized by prevalence of curved lines in painting, refined decoration in its features, and more detail given to the faces of individuals such as those in illuminated manuscripts 1300s Spain was multicultural, with Christianity, Islam, and Judasim all having points of influences in aspects of life such as art Islamic geometric pattern seen in Golden Haggadah Sephardic Jews were located on the Iberian Peninsula during this time period, although experiences phases of oppression in Spain Jewish families could rise to wealth through various merchant practices and thus the Golden Haggadah is believed to have belonged to rich Jewish family

84. Mosque of Selim II. Edirne, Turkey. Sinan (architect). 1568-1575 C.E. Brick and stone.

Content: The mosque, with two madrasas on its southeast and southwest, is located within a courtyard (190 m x 130 m) Mosque:measures 190 x 130 meterstwo symmetrical square madrasas (served as a college for studying traditions of Muhammad)Square prayer hall: approached through porticoed courtyardApproach to north facade of mosque is overwhelming— aligned gates of outer precinct wall, focus eye towards dome which can be seen from a distanceThe ethereal dome: weightless and floating in prayer hall, architectural features are inferior to the grand domeThe grand dome rests on eight muqarnas-corbelled squinches supported by eight large piersMuquarnas are faceted decorative forms, protrude and recess- they bridge a point of transitionThey allow the round base of the dome to join the octagon formed by the piers.Buttresses support the east and west piers— hold up the weight of the massive domeButtresses are artfully hidden among exterior porticos and galleries (those that fill the spaces in between walls and piers)The Qibla: wall that faces Mecca, projects outward emphasizing openness of interior spaceMuzzin's platform (leader of prayers to chant congregation): placement under the center of the dome is not traditional— reflects Sinan's interest in surpassing Christian architecture— position of platform also creates a vertical alignment of octagon, square, circleInterior decoration: repainted, polychrome, Iznik tiles, Ottoman decoration, motifs iconography saz leaves and Chinese cloudsMuquarnas: ornamented vaulting, geometric subdivision of a squinch.Squinches: Construction filling in upper angles of a square room, to form a base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome.Pier: upright support for a structure or superstructure such as an arch, sections of structural walls between openings can function as piers. Additions: Shops (arasta) and recitation school to the west of courtyard— added by David Aga Summarized Information: Thin soaring minarets Abundant window space for well lit interior Decorative display of mosaic and tile work Centrally planned building Open airy interior contrasts with conventional mosques Includes a hospital, school, library Sinan was chief court architect for Suleyman the Magnificent Transitions from square ground plan to round dome achieved by inserting smaller domes in corners Huge piers support the dome Context: Completed in Edirne, rather than capital Istanbul Edirne was where Selim was stationed as a prince when his father campaigned in Persia in 1548 Edirne located in the Balkans, had historical and geographical significant for its history as a capital of the Ottoman Empire before Istanbul and was the second city of the Empire Edirne was first major city that traveling Europeans would pass in the Ottoman Empire. Selim built this mosque there to exemplify Ottoman Empire's greatness. Mosque also was able to dominate the domestic landscape of Edirne, making it the defining place of the city. Son of Suleyman the Magnificent Form: Stone, brick, marble Function: An example of Ottoman Empire's wealth and greatness, along with its power and vastness (along a popular tourist passing through place, showed tourists of its dominance) Mosque— displays differences between Islam and Christianity The mosque represents Islam's triumph. It also was an attempt to surpass the Hagia Sophia and the Byzantine Basilica in Istanbul.

76. School of Athens. Raphael. 1509-1511 C.E. Fresco.

Content: This mural is not an actual school, but instead a place where great philosophers and scientists of the ancient world congregated Raphael wanted to display the people sharing ideas, especially since it was during the time of the Renaissance Plato and Aristotle are the central figures in this piece. They are very important to Western thinking and in different ways, their philosophies impacted Christianity Plato, who is a lot older and was actually Aristotle's teacher, is seen pointing up because in his philosophy. He believed the constantly hanging world that we live in is just a shadow of a higher, truer reality that is unchanging and eternal. For Plato, this other reality seats all truths, beauty, justice, and wisdom. There is a realm based on mathematics and pure ideas that is more true than the everyday world we see. The book Plato holds is his own called the Timaeus The colors each of these philosophers wear also contrast: Plato is wearing red and purple- the purple refers to the ether (air), red to fire- neither of which have weight; Aristotle wears blue and brown that are the colors of water and earth, which have gravity, which has weight Aristotle on the other hand, holds his palm down because his philosophy supports that the only reality in this world is the one that we can physically see and experience by sight and touch. The book he is holding called Aristotle's Ethics emphasizes the justice, friendship, relationships, and government of the human world and the thought that people need to study this The division continues in this artwork- on the side of Plato there are philosophers who are concerned with the issues of the ideal. For example, Pythagoras, a great ancient mathematician, who is seen on the lower left, who discovered laws of harmony in music, in mathematics. He taught others that each of the planets produce a music note as it moved based on the distance it was from the Earth. As these planets moved they created a perfect harmony called "the harmony of the spheres" On the other hand, Euclid, who is seen on the lower right, is drawing a geometric diagram for students. He is interested in measuring and the idea of the practical. There are representations of classical sculptures in the niches on the left and the right. On the platonic side- there is Apollo, the God of the Sun, Music, Poetry- ideas that support his philosophies. On the other side, Athena, the God of War and Wisdom, who is presumably involved in the more real, practical affair of a person Form: Euclid is actually reincarnated as a friend of Raphel's and that's Bramante- the architect asked by Pope Julius II to provide a new model for a new Saint Peter's. Bramante's design for St. Peters was based on a perfect geometry of circles and squares. This carries over to the School of Athens. It is very Bramatian, but also very ancient Rome Coffered barrel vaults, Pilasters- praises the figures it contains Raphael has parted both groups to the left and right, so that the middle foreground is fairly empty- there is linear perspective at the bottom of the painting to balance the strong details at the top of the painting Illusion of space- the decoration of the Greek meander looks as if it goes back in space Rapheal overall uses Greek models for calculating the proportions, although being surrounded by Roman architecture like the Baths of Caracalla and the Basilica of Manutius and Costantine. Context: In Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican in Rome The same time Raphael was painting this fresco, Michelangelo, a big influence on some of Raphel's pieces of art, is painting the Sistine Chapel's ceiling a few doors away This room was originally a library part of the papal apartments, the apartments where the Pope lived There are four other walls that Raphael painted representing the four branches of human knowledge. School of Athens represented philosophy; on the opposite wall was theology having to do with issues relating to God; on the two other walls is poetry and justice Theology is overall represented by showing the prophets, sybils, and allegorical figures, which is huge for the High Renaissance due to Pope Julius II Function: This fresco overall represents the change of only getting knowledge from authority and that one had to accept it- New image of sharing knowledge and the history of the accumulation of knowledge. It demonstrated the Renaissance influence Also a tribute to the wisdom of the great philosophers of this time The four frescos Rapahel painted were arranged for the holy Pope. Raphael has hope that his frescos will give Pope Julies II and the other artists and citizens of Italy some knowledge of the other ancient philosophers

60. Chartres Cathedral. Chartres, France.

Context legend says that the church was built on the site of a Druidic temple--whether or not this is true, we do know that it was built on the site of a Roman temple long history of use as a Christian space: used for Christian worship since around 200 CE by 1000 CE there was a substantial church in the site Chartres has always been associated with the worship of the Virgin Mary 9th century: the church received a relic* from Constantinople: the tunic of Mary (or the Sancta Camisia) this relic made the church a hugely popular pilgrimage site (which also made the church very rich) the Romanesque church on the original site burned down in 1194--but the tunic was found three days later, unharmed! the people of the town took this as a divine message that they should rebuild the church so that it would be as grand and beautiful as possible, deserving to be the worship place of Mary work on the reconstruction of the cathedral started around 1220 Form the formal plan of the Church is a Latin cross with three aisles, a short transept, and an ambulatory the high nave is supported by double flying buttresses three part elevation of nave arcade, triforium, and clerestory the absence of a gallery, which would have usually been present as a four-part elevation, was a conscious choice made by the architect in order to increase the amount of space for stained glass windows uses pointed arches and ribbed vaults inside the body of the church, which is very typically Gothic everything was meant to move the eye upward the radiating chapels, which in a Romanesque church would have been separate spaces of their own behind the altar, were integrated into the larger area of the church, which allowed for light to permeate all parts of the church Gothic unified space based on a cruciform basilica plan, with a transept intersecting the nave being added after the fire transept provided an extra entrance/exit, which was good for the flow of people in total, Chartres has nine portals (aka doors) the nave is the widest in France and is 121 feet high Content everything about the church was chosen by architects in the effort to create "heaven on Earth" one of the best examples of Gothic cathedrals new focuses on more airy, open spaces; thinner walls, and geometry people used the perfect proportions of geometry to try to simulate and bring to mind the balance, harmony, and beauty of the world that God had created part of the old Romanesque cathedral remains intact on the west-facing facade--it is easy to tell which part because the walls are much thicker, with small windows, and is organized according to the golden ratio jamb figures the relief figures that are carved into either side of the portals/doorways kings and queens of the Old Testament each is attached to a column carved in Gothic style representations of spiritual beings--not naturalistic in any way they seem to levitate, with no real weight to their bodies stretched out vertically their drapery obscures their bodies meant to represent gatekeepers: they "watch" the people in a kindly and calm way as they enter the church, reminding people of the ever-present eyes of God huge Gothic emphasis on stained glass large windows were made possible by the use of flying buttresses, which supported the weight of the walls and allowed them to be much thinner and taller flying buttresses took the outward thrust of heavy ceilings and directed it out and down; allowing for the structural design of the church to be taken out of the church itself "floating planes of light" were meant to make people feel completely surrounded by light; inundated by the spiritual presence light was seen as a divine symbol because it was beautiful and immaterial, so people saw it as the closest thing that they could get to the divine realm light entered the stained glass windows and cast colored patterns on the walls and pews of the church; moving during the day according to the movement of the sun vivid, rich colors used in the glass large rose window in the north transept bordered on the bottom by additional lancet windows that form almost an entire wall of stained glass the rose window images correspond with the structural program found surrounding the portals of the church; in the middle is he Virgin Mary with her son, Jesus, then above her four thrones with angels and the Kings of Judea, who were Mary's ancestors, and finally several minor prophets surrounding the rest of the program and the lancets below her shows how God foretold all of the events of Christianity from the start: it was his divine plan to have a son born on Earth to Mary who would go on to save mankind from their sin north transept portal has intricate jamb figures some are from pre-fire and some are from post-fire, so there is a marked difference in the Romanesque v. Gothic sculptural style relief archivolt sculptures protrude many feet from the side of the church, almost forming their own chapel Romanesque: shows God speaking the Word, then the Word becoming material (ie Genesis, with the creation of water/earth, Adam/Eve, etc.)--all devoted to the time before Christ an emphasis on Mary, who is being crowned in the tympanum additionally shows Mary as a baby, Mary holding Jesus, and Mary ascending to heaven Gothic: much more elongated, proportional, with a larger intricacy of drapery and greater emotional expression Abraham, Isaac, Moses, Samuel, David, Isaiah... a bunch of different Old Testament prophets, who foresaw the coming of Christ how they relate to each other aids in their didactic purpose; for example, Abraham looks up to the angel that will stop him from slaying his son, Isaac the chancel screen (aka a screen separating the area around the altar from the larger nave) once sported an astrological clock that told the day of the week, the month of the year, the time of sunrise and sunset, the phase of the moon and the current zodiac sign (unfortunately it was destroyed in the 18th century) Function was a hugely popular pilgrimage site the dimensions of the church were constructed in order to facilitate the easy flow of large numbers of people aisles surrounding the nave and behind the altar meant that people could walk all the way around the church, see the relic, and exit, without ever having to walk in front of the altar people in the Middle Ages embarked on pilgrimages in order to gain health, divine goodwill, or to ensure their place in heaven during the afterlife many components, such as the guardian jamb-figures and the stories told in the stained glass, were constructed to aid in the pilgrims' journey; the jamb figures reminded the pilgrims of the ever-present merciful (yet nonetheless judging) eyes of God and the angels, and the stories in the stained glass were didactic, telling scenes from the Old and New Testament--helpful, for many at the time were illiterate Chartres was a breakthrough for Gothic architecture because it was the first cathedral in which the flying buttresses determined the overall exterior aesthetic plan of the building--previously, architects attempted to conceal or camouflage the flying buttresses into the larger walls of the cathedrals, by the flying buttresses of Chartres had to be so extensive in order to support the extraordinarily tall nave that this just wasn't an option *

54. Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George. Early Byzantine Europe. Sixth or early seventh century C.E. Encaustic on wood.

Context: a transitional piece Classical Antiquity →→→ the height of Byzantine Christianity An amalgam of the Greek/Roman aesthetic and the emerging Byzantine aesthetic Greek/Roman Traits: Modeling (especially in the faces of each of the subjects!) Shadows (particularly in the shadow of the throne on the floor) Naturalistic features (drapery that falls as it would in real life, veins in the neck of the angels) Movement The Virgin is turned slightly at her hips a trace of dynamism a pose representative of a body that can move but is currently at rest The angel have their necks arched upwards Created in the era in which Constantinople was restoring and creating dozens of churches (AKAa time of artistic flourishment) As art become more of a part of daily life, icons and private devotional items became more popular and thus, pieces like Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George were created. Byzantine Traits: Compressed plane Very flat (with little attempt to create depth) Simple body positions (limited realism) Emotionless faces Front-facing figures (the saints) Huge, gold halos (to indicate divinity) Form: Size: 2' 3" x 1' 7 3/8" An encaustic icon painting "icon" = image, painting (in Greek) encaustic = a painting technique that uses wax as a medium to carry the color (definition from Khan Academy) Uses gold leaf Content: Subjects = the Virgin, the Christ child, Saint Theodore, Saint George, two angels, God The Saints: St. Theodore = on the left & St. George = on the right flank the Virgin on either side positioned at the front of the frame (closest to our world of all the subjects) they stare directly at the viewer emotionless and erect their feet are lifted slightly off the ground (this is their only mark of divinity) they're ready to receive veneration from a viewer The Virgin: in the center of the icon seated on a throne -- elevated (removed from our world) does not make eye contact with the viewer highlighted by Heaven's light (connected to God) The Christ child: in the Virgin's lap hard to tell exactly where he's looking (but he's not making eye contact with the viewer, like his mother) The Angels: above and between the Virgin and the soldier saints (one on either side) looking directly upwards to the hand of God dressed in all white & have slightly transparent halos (both of these characteristics makes their holiness more tangible) highest in the frame and the furthest back (the most removed from our earthly realm) God: represented by the hand emerging from the center of the top of the icon his power/guidance is seen through the light emanating from the hand this light mostly lands upon the Virgin "Hierarchy of Bodies" Saints → Virgin+Christ → Angels → God this organization leads us to move our eyes upwards (and inwards), from "zone" to "zone" altogether, the positioning of these figures represents the path of holiness between the humans and God each individual "zone" of subjects is symbolic of a different level of relative closeness to God The architecture at the top of the painting helps close off and protect the holy scene makes use of spatial ambiguity to make the piece feel otherworldly and divine Function: A private devotional object (used to inspire the pious and help them express their veneration for God and enhance their spirituality)

97. Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo. Juan Rodríguez Juárez. c. 1715 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

98. The Tête à Tête, from Marriage à la Mode. William Hogarth. c. 1743 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

66. Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece). Robert Campin. 1427-1432 C.E. Oil on wood.

Form: Overall (open): 25 3/8 x 46 3/8 in. Central panel: 25 1/4 x 24 7/8 in. Each wing: 25 3/8 x 10 3/4 in. Central scene looks like a living room of someone living in Northern Europe A lot of detail-- pay attention to everything Like shiny nails, shadows, rust Shows age of doors Even in background (can see men on horseback and a town etc.) Interest in light-- using oil paint so they can paint texture (unlike Italian Renaissance) A lot of realism, yet expressed differently Space of the room doesn't make sense because perspective hadn't really been put into place yet Not mathematically accurate The table is a double perspective Creates a telescoping that brings the viewer in-- makes the room available Function: Can be folded up and carried Made to maintain an interest-- physical objects to spiritual ideas To aid in private devotion Content: Center Scene-- Mary and Gabriel Modern context Not meant to secularize the scene-- but to make them closer to us and make prayer more intimate Gabriel just appeared to Mary to tell her she will give birth to Christ The drapery has sharp folds-- falls on the floor and obscures bodies The shiny pot represents Mary's purity Many things in the room (many have to do with the incarnation) Small figure holding a cross coming through the window heading towards Mary (the holy spirit) Unusual because it is usually a dove, but this is one of the first time that God takes human form Donors are on the left The Patrons-- man and his wife Kneeling-- can recognize them as donors In a walled garden (hortus conclusus)-- refers to Mary's virginity Joseph is on the right He is making tools in a workshop-- he is a carpenter Reminds us of how handmade the painting is (it is on wood) Can see prosperous city through window Mousetrap for sale outside window Context: Campin was a very successful painter with apprentices and assistants Newfound prosperity in Northern Europe-- so commissions are increasing Annunciation was painted first, then the left side donors were added This painting would have been seen over and over again

69. David. Donatello. c. 1440-1460 C.E. Bronze.

FORM Donatello's "David" is a 5 ft. bronze sculpture The bronze surface is highly polished and the blue/black shine over David's body stands out The finished texture emphasizes smooth skin and provides contrast with his curly hair, and rough boots The figure has a realistic form because of its nakedness and the obvious muscle. The choice of bronze, the nudity, and the pose all put this work in the context of this classicalantique. antiquity FUNCTION Patronage is a factor, this sculpture was made to represent David as a symbol for the Republic of Florence, Italy (which like the Old Testament youth stood up to its rivals) and also a great role model for independence. Specifically, Florence had been set upon Milan and other rivals and withstood, similar to David overcoming Goliath the larger adversary. This figure is important because it's Donatello's most famous work, it was the first major work of Renaissance sculpture, and it is the first freestanding nude sculpture (since the ancient times) for about a thousand years. The people during this time started to celebrate body and humanism. Their mindsets were,"God made it so we should show it off." CONTENT This sculpture represents the story of David and Goliath. David was a shepherd boy who herded the sheep and was favored by God. He was challenged to fight Goliath, and David ended up being victorious, because he is seen casually resting his foot on Goliath's head with a sword in his right hand. David's pose can easily be represented as effortless, and feminine. Since David is not entirely naked, the main focus is drawn to his hat and boots. The hat adds to David's beauty by the adolescent body, and the flower detail on the hat represents a "homosexual subculture" during fifteenth-century Florence. And the boots are represented as the "manly" features for David, because he's standing on Goliath's head. A useful interpretation has been to place the statue in the context of fifteenth century notions of male identity. There is a separation between David's graceful pose and the beauty of his facial expression and the gruesomeness of the decapitated head of Goliath below his feet. For the viewer, it's hard to imagine this young man, who had been engaged in mortal combat and cut off the head of Goliath. CONTEXT The time period of this artwork is sometime during the 1430s - 1460s Italy, in the fifteenth century, (Florence) above all is the seat of an artistic, humanistic, technological, and scientific time period known as the Renaissance.

71. Madonna and Child with Two Angels. Fra Filippo Lippi. c. 1465 C.E. Tempera on wood.

FORM One of Fra Fillippo Lippi's most famous works is, Madonna and Child with Two Angels, which is a tempera on wood painting. Madonna is the main focus, due to her size difference in contrast to the two angels. The two angels look like they are farther back and not as much in the light of the painting compared to Madonna. This style used in this painting has a very humanistic look to it, by the use of soft and earthy tones to emphasize the humanism of the characters. This painting stands out because compared to other Madonna and Child paintings, this one is the most realistic, depicting Mary as a real looking woman. Lippi chose to make his characters in this painting look very realistic and he meant to make godly people seem relatable, this is why the angels look like children, and Mary's halo was painted very faintly in a thin white line, and is only visible after examining the painting much more closely. The landscape in the background adds onto the natural aesthetic of the painting itself, which helps to reflect the renaissance humanism that people at this time craved, (they wanted to celebrate body and humanism). FUNCTION Patronage is a factor, Lippi produced this artwork for the Medici family. They wanted a piece to show a religious background, along with constantly being reminded of Jesus Christ every time they would look at this painting. So in order to accommodate these requests, Mary has her hands together to represent prayer, and the two angels have wings. Lippi wanted a humanist representation of Mary to show the audience a more authentic look on such angelic people. This artworks function is to remind the viewer of the story behind the virgin Mary, and Christ. CONTENT Fra Fillippo Lippi's wife was used as a model for Mary in this painting, and she is represented as a very beautiful woman with delicate features. The angels look very playful, one of the angels is posed smiling at the viewer. The other is in the background with one side of his face showing, the other is blocked by Jesus. Both angels are seen supporting baby Jesus with their hands. Every figure in this artwork has blonde hair symbolizing youth and innocence. The frame of the picture behind Mary aligns to the painting itself, and helps to add onto the realistic aspect of what Lippi was trying to portray. CONTEXT The time period of this artwork is sometime during 1460 - 1465 Lippi was a painter, in Florence, during the second generation of Renaissance artists, when he painted this artwork.

56. Great Mosque. Córdoba, Spain. Umayyad. c. 785-786 C.E. Stone masonry.

Form Mosque - place of Islamic worship ~ 620x460 feet Cross cultural comparisons: architectural plans Sullivan, Carson Pirie Scott building Chartres Cathedral Temple of Amun-Re Function To demonstrate the presence & permanence of the transplanted Umayyads in Cordoba built this mosque in cordoba on the site of a christian church [built by the visigoths] This appropriation of a christian site made a statement about the existence of Islam in the region & the power of the new rulers Place of worship Followers pray towards the mihrab (which faces mecca) Represents a fusion of cultures & religions Exemplifies Islamic design of tesserae & variety of color on mosaics Content Comprised of... large hypostyle prayer hall hypostyle = filled w/ columns "full of seemingly endless rows of identical [two-tiered] columns and [double-flying] arches made from alternating red and white voussoirs" (Gateways, 148) voussoirs = "stone wedges that make up the arch" Interior space seems magnified by its repeated geometry Sense of awe & monumentality mihrab The wall that indicates the direction of Mecca for Muslims' daily prayer time Mecca = birthplace of islam (in modern-day saudi arabia) Golden tesserae form bands of calligraphy Focal point in the prayer hall Famous horseshoe arched prayer niche Particularly in this mosque Framed by an exquisitely decorated arch >> the famous horseshoe arch Common in the architecture of the visigoths Visigoths = the people that ruled this area after the roman empire collapsed & before the umayyads arrived An easily identified characteristic of western islamic architecture Ribbed dome Above the mihrab / central bay A metaphor for the celestial canopy Intricate composition of criss-crossing arches demonstrates the mathematical & architectural accomplishments of the Islamic civilization ^also exemplifies the use of geometry as a source of artistic inspiration all lavishly covered with gold mosaic in a radial pattern Anticipates later gothic rib vaulting (though on a more modest scale) a courtyard with a fountain in the middle an orange grove a covered walkway circling the courtyard a minaret (now encased in a square, tapered bell tower) minaret = tower used to call the faithful to prayer Minbar Used to stand by the mihrab as the place for the prayer leader & a symbol of authority Repeating elements (columns, arches, voussoirs) - establishes a steady rhythm within the structure This structural repetition suggests the same kind of repetition in prayer (as seen in Muslim worship: recitation of the Shahada [one's profession of faith] five times per day) Repetition - alludes to the "permanence of [the] architecture" as it is "combined with the timelessness of prayer" (148) Mosaics, inscriptions from the Quran, and brilliant colors line interior Intricate patterns/designs formed by the tesserae (tiles within a mosaic) Context Demonstration of multi-cultural influence on their art Ancient roman columns in hypostyle prayer hall were recycled from the original christian church on site Interior uses spolia Reused columns of slightly varying heights Horseshoe arches of the roman & visigoth architectural style Came to be characteristic of islamic architecture The building was expanded over 200 years (even after becoming a mosque) Began as a roman temple Temple was converted to a church by visigoths - who seized cordoba in 572 CE Umayyad conquerors converted church to a mosque Completely rebuilt by the descendants of the exiled Umayyads Umayyads First Islamic dynasty who had originally ruled from their capital, Damascus (in present-day syria), from 661 to 750 7th & 8th centuries ^^period of vastly increasing wealth Rulers built mosques & palaces through the islamic empire to demonstrate dynasty authority & the increasing power of the islamic faith Yet this economic prosperity resulted in significant financial corruption among caliphs Provincial rulers fled the control of tyrannical caliphs to establish independent dynasties Post the overthrow of his family (the Umayyads) in Damascus by incoming Abbasids, Prince Abd al-Rahman I escaped to southern Spain Established himself as Emir there (w/ the support of muslim settlers) and centered his emirate in Cordoba Attempted to recreate the grandeur of Damascus in Cordoba He sponsored building programs, promoted agriculture, imported fruit trees / other plants from damascus ^^orange trees still stand in the courtyard of the mosque in Cordoba Site was practical & symbolic Place that affirmed Muslim presence Cordoba Both a major commercial & intellectual center for the arts, literature, science, & philosophy Fostered a diverse & thriving urban culture Islamic civilization appreciation for different cultures & worked to preserve/absorb preceding cultures Caliphates had classical Latin works translated into arabic gained mathematical knowledge from india Learned of the invention of paper from china ^^this willingness to incorporate other cultures extended into their art & is exemplified in this mosque One of the oldest structures still standing from the time Muslims ruled Al-Andalus in the late 8th century Al-Andalus = Muslim Iberia (includes most of spain, portugal, small section of southern france) The great mosque at córdoba (overview) Very simple plan; hypostyle hall Less of a sense of monumentality (in comparison to the great mosque of damascus) Double arches to raise the ceiling Mixing roman and byzantine mosaic work - striking juxtaposition of old and new A center for scholars all over the islamic world "Prime example of the muslim world's ability to brilliantly develop architectural styles based on pre-existing regional traditions" (Khan Academy, The Great Mosque of Cordoba) "An extraordinary combination of the familiar & the innovative" (Khan Academy, The Great Mosque of Cordoba)

74. Adam and Eve. Albrecht Dürer. 1504 C.E. Engraving.

Form Made by German renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer Two figures standing in controposta Engraving Function Served to please the eye Made to show people the story of Adam and Eve with a new modern invention Content Adam and Eve are clearly in a german forest (evidence- the woods are shown as dark and menacing like they are in german tales and there are "devils" around the couple which are seen throughout german folklore) Adam and Eve are the first humans ever created according to the bible There are multiple animals around them including a parrot who is on a branch which identifies the artist as a citizen of Nuremberg Showcases Vitruvian (Roman architect) ideals about the human body The four animals represent the four humors in the human body (Melancholic: elk, black bile, Phlegmatic: ox, phlegm, Sanguine: rabbit, blood, and Choleric: cat, yellow bile) Context Parrots were often bought by wealthy germans at the time to show off their wealth At the time people thought that if all of your humors were healthy a person would look ideal German artists were interested in classical italian/Roman art Printmaking was super new to people at the time of its creation Dürer was credited as an agent of change from gothic to renaissance

79. Allegory of Law and Grace. Lucas Cranach the Elder. c. 1530 C.E. Woodcut and letterpress.

Form Material/technique → woodcut and letterpress Lucas Cranach the Elder = artist Located in Germany Media = oil on wood Northern Renaissance 72 cm by 88.5 cm Lucas Cranach the Elder Influential artists in 16th century German art Printmaker and painter Representative of the Northern Renaissance His father, Hans Maler, was a painter and gave Cranach his first lessons He adopted the name Cranach when he was 30 years old Birth place = now Kronach As court painter of the Elector of Saxony, the patron of Luther, he is remembered as the chief artist of the Reformation Moved to Vienna in 1501 Full of expression and dynamic Moved to Wittenberg in 1505 More static style Met the reformed Martin Luther = portrayed in his works He also sold medicine, papers, ran a wine pub, printed books He was elected as mayor three times A talent for politics 1524-met Albrecht Durer Lutheran Reformation The Law and the Grace Single most influential image of the Lutheran Reformation The Reformation--initiated by Martin Luther in 1517 (attempt to reform the Catholic Church, which had been the only church in western Europe up until Luther) The Role of Art The Law and the Grace explains luther's ideas in visual form Heaven is reached through faith and god's grace Luther despised and rejected the Catholic idea that good deeds ("good works") could play any role in salvation Catholics Vs. Luther: how to get to heaven? Catholics Believer could take action to vouchsafe their salvation by good deed (financial donations and paying for art) Luther Insisted that salvation was in God's hands and all the believer had to do was to open up and have faith Anger led to rebellion and destruction of artwork that the Catholic Church was become rich on Scene: Two nude figures appear on either side of a tree that bisects the composition Law (left) = dying tree Gospel (right) = living tree Tree is dead on the side of the Law but vibrant on the side of the Gospel The altarpiece from left to right Six columns of Bible citations appear at the bottom of the panel Left (Law) Side Scene: Law and judgement symbolized by a man being forced into hell by Death (skeleton) and Satan (demon) Moses delivers the Ten Commandments Moses beholds these events; his white tablets standing out against the saturated orange rope and green tree Highlighting the association of law, death, and damnation Held by a figure that appears to be Luther himself (Cranach consistently depicted Luther in his portraits alongside biblical figures) Christ sits in judgement Adam and Eve partake in eating the forbidden fruit Motifs (left) are meant to exemplify the idea that law alone, without gospel, can never get you to heaven Right (Gospel) Side Scene: Grace and Gospel with Christ's cross crushing Death and Satan Blood of christ covers those near the cross John the baptist directs a naked man to both Christ on the cross in front of the tomb AND to the risen Christ who appears on top of the tomb Risen Christ = stands triumphant above the empty tomb, acting out the miracle of the Resurrection Nude figure is not hoping to follow the law on judgement day Stands passively, stripped down to his soul, submitting to God's mercy Lutheran saw the law as the side in which financial donations enriched the church and should not be a way to salvation; in the gospel side he believed through your own belief in god should be enough to bring his grace Law paves the way to salvation by preparing the way for grace God judges and God shows mercy The Law and the Grace is concerned with two roles that God plays: Judge (condemns human sin) Show mercy (forgiveness) Granting unearned salvation to sinful believers Luther's idea of law is multifaceted and complex relationship to his idea of gospel Law alone will never make salvation possible, law paves the way to salvation Includes events from both the New and Old Testament Concerns two aspects of the relationship between humanity and god Describes events throughout the bible which reveal the dual aspect of god's relationship to people Cranach's pictorial translation of Luther's unique understanding of salvation Interprets the roles of law, good works, faith, and grace in the human relationship to God Themes Personal faith Protestantism Allegories Christianity

55. Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Matthew, cross-carpet page; St. Luke portrait page; St. Luke incipit page. Early medieval (Hiberno Saxon) Europe. c. 700 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (ink, pigments, and gold on vellum).

Form Parchment Ink made from vegetables, animals, and mineral pigments both local and imported St. Matthew page: seemingly endless colorful spirals that criss cross around the page and ues positive space St Luke page: brightly colored text in a intricate design with lost of negative space St. Luke portrait page: a portrait of St. Luke with purple robes and a halo Function Tells the gospel of Mark, Luke, John, and Matthew Content St. Matthews page: the many spirals are actually snakes of different colors, a cross is outlined in red and stabilizes the page as a way to reinforce the idea of christ St. Luke page: the letters are sourned with different types of animals (snakes being a recurring theme throughout this book). Blue spirals draw the reader into looking at the first letter of the sentence on the page St. Luke portrait page: The robe he has one is reminiscent of late Roman philosophers. The halo around his head parents his divinity as he transcribes his gospel. The cow flying above him is from a popular tale in the gospel. Luke is represented as the ox (christs sacrifice), Matthew the man (the human aspect of Jesus), Mark the lion (the triumph of christ) and finally John as the eagle (the second coming) Context The book was rewritten from an italian book around 500-900 ce The isles that it was made on during this time suffered from invasions This books was found in a small chritsan community in the isles of the UK

75. Sistine Chapel ceiling and altar wall frescoes.

Form every surface--ceilings, floors--are covered in mosaic and fresco Function where the College of Cardinals decides who the next pope will be Content ceiling vault completely covered in fresco 9 Old Testament scenes separated by painted architecture Context Michelangelo began work on the frescoes in 1508 for Pope Julian he continued work on it for 4 years, but took a break in 1510, and the frescoes painted after this time are palpably different--compare the complex narrative of The Deluge, which uses smaller figures, to the more idealized, monumental figures in God creates Adam the vault frescos are undeniably some of the most important images every painted--they turned into an "academy" for painters, meaning that up and coming Renaissance artists would visit the chapel in order to try to study and imitate the monumental weight, harmony, strength, anatomical perfection, and elegance of Michelangelo's figures the chapel has recently undergone a controversial cleaning in which soot and grime from years of the chapel's use were cleaned off to try to bring back the rich colors of Michelangelo's vision Sistine Chapel Ceiling (general): revolutionary painting style where the figures were so realistic that they looked like sculptures brilliant, rich colors were used Michelangelo's style involved "carving figures out of paint" figures are massive; have gravity, weight and presence are figures of idealized beauty (shows the relative religious optimism of the time; as compared to when Michelangelo paints The Last Judgement above the altar and his style has become more cynical and Mannerist) emphasized musculature and anatomy anatomy displays drama and power (despite the fact that that many of them are in positions of relative peace--for ex. Libyan Sybil) a complex "stage" of connected yet separate scenes strong visible presence of Ancient Roman and Greek sculptural style no images of Christ, but the scenes lay the stage for the coming of Christ the richly colored, monumental figures help convey the emotional impact of the scenes to the viewers gazing up at them from the floor Layout: 9 biblical scenes from Genesis that move across the ceiling lengthwise (starts with God dividing light from dark and moves on chronologically) 1. Noah is drunk and disgraced 2. The Great Flood/Deluge 3. Noah and his family make a sacrifice after the flood 4. Adam and Eve are tempted + sent from Eden 5. God creates Eve 6. God creates Adam 7. God divides the water from the Earth 8. God creates the sun and planets 9. God divides light from darkness scenes are framed by a painted architectural framework scenes are flanked on both sides by prophets and sybils that sit within the painted architecture in the spandrels, separate from the depicted scenes but connected ideologically sybils: pagan soothsayers that foretold the coming of Christ sitting on the architectural framework of the four architectural corners of each nine biblical scenes are male nude figures, called ignudi scenes from the Salvation of Israel painted in the pendentives The Delphic Sibyl: Form Function the sibyls were said to be future-seers of pagan times who saw the coming of Christ validates the Christian faith because the coming of Christ was foretold long before Jesus was even born shows a theme of foretelling present in Christian artwork since the Middle Ages; sibyls foretold the coming of Christ, the Old Testament foretold the coming of the New Testament, Mary foretold the death of her son Content her body has a circular composition signifies grace, balance, and harmony of proportion she has a "sculptural weight"--looks as though she is actually coming out of the walls due to the painted contour (contrapposto) of her skin and muscle she has idealized anatomy--by the way her muscles are sculpted, she looks as though she has incredible strength, yet she also possesses a sense of calm elegance (sprezzatura: a deceptive ease) shows close attention to human anatomy some believe that she was modeled after a man (which makes sense looking at the prominent muscles in her arms)--"biblical" beauty instead of sexual, like in Botticelli's Venus Context painted after Michelangelo took his break in 1510, so they show his new style of monumentality

80. Venus of Urbino. Titian. c. 1538 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Form: -Oil painting done in 1538 C.E -119.20 x 165.50 cm -Saturated, rich colors -Strong contrast Function: -Patronage was a factor -Duke Urbino Guidobaldo II Della Rovere commissioned this work from Titian for his wife -The woman (who is assumed to be Venus) looks directly at the viewer as if she is waiting for them -Her expression is confident and unfazed by her own nudity -The viewer is drawn in by the intrigue of her expression and reclined pose Content: -The woman was named Venus because this allowed the artist to paint her nude without social repercussions -Though many people have given the woman in the painting several different identities, some kind some vulgar -Many thought she wasn't Venus but just a depiction of the ideal female body type -The two woman in the back of the painting are not as debated over, it is thought the younger and older woman represent motherhood and the dog represents fidelity -The most popular theory of the woman is that Titian blended common women's identities in sixteenth century Italy to create this piece Context: -When this piece was made Venice had a strong government with good trade that was able to invest in artists -This piece helps show the social practices of intertwining marriage, sexuality, and female beauty in renaissance Italy

62. Röttgen Pietà. Late medieval Europe. c. 1300-1325 C.E. Painted wood.

Form: -Röttgen Pietà painted wood, 34 1/2 inches high -Painted wooden sculpture, but it is damaged, paint is less vibrant, worm holes in Mary's head -most of the Pieta statues of the time were from Germany, and the other surviving works are marble, or other stone, making this wooden sculpture all the more unique Function: -The lamentation section of the stations of the Christ, but the scene around it is taken away forcing the viewer to examine emotion -Artistic viewing is like a vision, would have been the object of focus during prayer - Would have been on an altar with other religious art, perhaps depicting the passions of the Christ -This type of sculpture was common in German abbeys Content: -Spirituality, mysticism, pure emotion of Mary holding her dead son -Sharp crown of thorns, 3D blood and wounds, making it violent and gruesome -Mary is not looking optimistic like she knows he will rise again; she looks like she had been wronged, she is draped in the typical garb with heavy fabric and she still looks young, but she is suffering -Extremely skinny, ribs visible, body is contorted -this new depiction and way of Christian thought was called "the patient Christ" Context: -c. 1300-25, late gothic period of middle ages, which was very dramatic -Saints like St. Francis of Assisi, Bridget of Sweden, St. Bernardino of Siena And Hildegard of Bingen -Originally depictions of Christ on the cross would demonstrate the Christus triumphans, like in the Lindisfarne Gospels -Greco Crucifixion came after this in the artistic evolution and it showed suffering but Christs legs are together so as no to be immodest or too humanized Principle, where his suffering is not apparent, but in this period divinity showed in a different, and more human way, belief that connection to god could be achieved through emotion -clearly reflects mysticism of the time, not caring about previous issues with iconoclasm during middles ages, as it is a holly object that would have been prayed to

85. Calling of Saint Matthew. Caravaggio. c. 1597-1601 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Form: 127 inches by 130 inches Very dark with the light drawing eyes to center towards Matthew (chiaroscuro and tenebrism technique which both use shadows and dark areas to highlight sections of the painting) The style is realism and reflects the Baroque period Function: To portray the moment that Matthew became Christ's disciple Portrayed this moment in a realistic, relatable, human way (in the dark room, the look of disbelief when Christ calls Matthew) A commission for this chapel by Cardinal Matthieu Cointerel left a stipulation in his will that he wanted the chapel to be decorated with paintings of Matthew (who he shared a name with) This painting was one of three of Saint Matthew he did for the chapel The fact that Matthew began as a sinful, greedy tax collector is also meant to inspire hope in the viewer that they too can reach salvation through faith Content: This painting depicts the conversion of Levi into Matthew, a gospel of the Lord (Matthew 9:9) Jesus (figure on the right with his arm extended) is shown entering the room and pointing at Matthew (the bearded man with the black hat pointing to himself) He says "Follow me."- saving Matthew from his life of greed and calling upon him to become one of his disciples The light follows his gaze and point, suggests his divinity along with his halo His hand is painted in an imitation of Adam's in Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam Jesus is sometimes referred to as the second Adam because he too is a creation of God, his second son This hand bridges the gap between Christ and Peter (the divine) with the tax collectors (the human and mundane) Matthew was a tax collector and is depicted around a table counting money with other men The scene is rather shady- some illegal business seems to be going on in a rather grimy, dark backroom with gruff looking, overdressed men (contemporary clothing- the time of Caravaggio, not biblical times), one even has a sword A strong contrast between the tax collectors' clothing and the humble garb of Jesus and Peter who are both barefoot He is pointing to himself, almost in disbelief as if he is saying "Me?" like he can not believe that Christ is looking for him A stark juxtaposition between the disbelief and uncertainty of Levi (Matthew) with the divine call and strength from Christ Peter (a disciple of Jesus) is shown in front of Jesus also pointing towards Matthew and the group of men Various theories as to why this is, one of which is that in order to reach Christ, we must first go through the church, represented by St. Peter Aside from Jesus and Peter, there are five men, two of whom seem rather young and out of place, another who is hunched over still counting the money, almost unfazed that Christ just walked into the room The window pane is also in the shape of a cross, acting as yet another religious symbol Context: Was one of three paintings of Saint Matthew that Caravaggio was commissioned to make in this chapel by Cardinal Matthieu Cointerel His patron Cardinal del Monte helped secure this commission for him which was his first big public work Made during the Counter Reformation, which was a response to the Protestant Reformation, where the church emphasized martyrdom and commissioned various paintings in an attempt to regain church followers This painting was rather controversial when it was first made due to its unique style and setting- not a divine background or Heaven that Christ is usually portrayed in

65. Alhambra. Granada, Spain.

Form: Every single space covered with decoration Extensive use of rhombus geometric forms and calligraphy Most of the interior arches are false arches, with no structure; they are there only to decorate. Built on a hill overlooking the city of Granada Walls are covered with beautiful and extremely rich ceramics and plasterwork. Walls include intricately carved wooden frames "muqarnas" hold up ceiling in Hall of Kings mocarabe vault can be seen in Hall of the two sisters Function: 3 Purposes Citadel, Barracks (alcazaba Residence palace of the Nasrid sultans Medina (the city) Connected by pathways and gardens, all of which could be blocked off Content: Contains palaces, gardens, water pools, fountains, and courtyards Three Palaces Comares Palace arched grill allows in light walls covered with inlaid tile in geometric patterns Salón de Comares hall of the ambassadors the Palace of the Lions separate building that was connected later arched covered patio encircles the marble fountain at the center contained residential halls with star motifs the Partal Palace known as the portico because of its portico in the center of an arcade and at the edge of a pool Generalife from the Arabic, Jannat al-arifa means paradise, garden vegetable and ornamental elements contribute to the paradise of the garden Context: Alhambra is an abbreviation of Qal'at al-Hamra meaning red fort. Built by the Nasrid Dynasty (1232-1492) the last Muslims to rule in Spain. Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr (aka Muhammad I) founded the Nasrid Dynasty in 1237 Palace of the Lions built by Muhammed V Exterior-Interior relationship Important transition seamlessly from shaded patios and covered walkways from well-lit interior spaces to courtyards and gardens Ornamental elements reflection of water intricately carved stucco decoration. Beautiful, detailed, and careful attention to detail

50. Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well and Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis. Early Byzantine Europe. 6th Century C.E. Illuminated manuscript

Form: Handmade pages by animal skin Purple parchment probably from a royal workshop Text is black now due to oxidation but was originally silver Supposedly one of the first images from the early bible stories Shows the first half of the 6th century 31.75cm x 23.5cm Function: -To shows the first stories of the bible and provided images -Meant to please the christian audience -Considered luxury items Content: -Realistic or abstract art? Mixture -Written in greek -Left page- Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well - Genesis 24: 15-61, Eliezer, a servant of Abraham, has arrived at a city in search of a wife for Abraham's son Isaac. There he meets Rebecca who is pictured twice. Illustrating a continuous narrative. -Right page- Jacob Wrestling the Angel - Genesis 32: 22-31 - Shows Jacob leading his family/followers over a bridge -at night Jacob wrestles an angel all night and then receives his blessing and was given the name Israel Context: -Early Byzantine (330-726 BCE) -Uses Church to back the authority -book was used to show royalties as well

67. Pazzi Chapel. Basilica di Santa Croce. Florence, Filippo Brunelleschi 1429-1461 C.E. Masonry.

Form: It is an architectural structure, making use of Pietra Serena stone (sandstone). Its masonry is the load-bearing element of this building (meaning the walls support the arches and domes, not the pillars). This is a chapel, a small building for Christian worship, usually attached to an institution or private house. In terms of size, an exact measurement is not easily accessible, but it is a relatively small area. Important to note the variety of shapes involved in this structure, squares, rectangles, triangles, circles, semicircles, etc. It's obviously a three dimensional piece. It includes fluted plasters, long walls, and a dome on pendatives, among other elements. It seems to be inspired by centrally planned architecture like that of ancient Rome. Function: The building itself has the function of a religious structure, used as the chapter house by Santa Croce friars (as seen in the benches that line the wall). In other words a meeting room for monks of Santa Croce. Now it is a true representation of early Renaissance work. Includes influence from other artists besides the architect, including Giuliano da Maiano, Luca della Robbia, Desiderio da Settignano and his brother Geri, and Alesso Baldovinetti. It was also used as a classroom for teaching monks (as well as other religious purposes) There was a place where the commissioning family could bury its dead. It could also be a social expression, as well, being that it was commissioned by a wealthy and influential family at the time the Pazzis. This would've essentially been a marking of territory in Florence. Overall, it is also the embodiment of the Pazzi family's power, wealth, and perhaps generosity. This structure carries a particular importance, as seen in how it was funded even through war with neighboring cities. Content: Includes elements that are typical of Brunelleschi like the use of pietra serena / the grayish green stone. This greyish green stone articulates the decorative elements on the walls and even the white colored walls themselves (emphasizing the perfect geometry displayed throughout). It is preceded by an atrium, an entrance hall, supported by six Corinthian columns placed next to the central arch. It is a rectangular layout containing a square room, covered by a dome, and two sides of the remaining space with a barrel vault with round windows. The wall opens on a scarsella (a small square apse or large semicircular recess in a church, arched or with a domed roof) covered by a dome decorated with a fresco painting reproducing the sky over Florence. Still discussed who contributed this, but many attribute the chapel to Michelozzo, Rossellino or Giuliano da Maiano. Has the feeling of an ancient Roman temple, as in it is close to a centrally planned space like the Pantheon. There is an attention to perfect geometry and centrality, as if the artist is trying to create a classism as well as replicate the ideals and standards of ancient Rome. There are fluted plasters (decorative pillars) on the interior and long walls. There is a hemispherical dome with an oculus in the center, with windows piercing its sides. This allows a pleasant light into the building. It looks like a dome on pendentives (a structure that allows a circular dome over a square space). In the triangular spaces of this pendentive are roundels (disks, or decorative medallions) of terracotta. Luca delorobia was the artist who contributed to this. The central dome is decorated with round sculptures and the coat of arms of Pazzi Family (two paired dolphins) made of glazed terracotta, works by Luca della Robbia. The architect wanted to create a space that wasn't exactly a basilica, for it is meant to be a chapter house not a church. But there is still a desire to work with centrally planned space. Overall it emits a feeling of order, design, perfect construction, and rationality. There is a subservience to the overall design conception. All of these elements mentioned contribute in some way to the overwhelming feeling of classism in the structure. Keep in mind, it is not exactly centrally planned - for it is more broad than long. There are also small barrel vaults on either side of this dominent central dome. Pretty much Brunelleschi wanted to turn this rectangular space into a square with a dome on top, and he does so pretty well, making it appear less rectangular and more geometrically even. Context: Brunelleschi built the Pazzi chapel as a perfect space with harmonious proportions, doing this by including in his project plan the knowledge he gained during a stay in Rome, where he focused on measuring ancient buildings like the Pantheon. It was commissioned by Andrea de' Pazzi in 1429 to the architect, but the construction continued on after the architect's death in 1446. It was never truly finished after the family suffered consequences of a conspiracy organized by some of the Pazzis with the archbishop of Pisa Francesco Salvati, against another family. Luca delorobia was the artist who contributed to the roundels, as he perfected the ability to fire at high enough temperature to vitrify modern glazes. The desire to work with centrally planned space becomes even more prevalent in the High Renaissance. Giuliano da Maiano made the frame and the door, Luca della Robbia made the relief representing Saint Andrews on the throne above the portal and the glazed terracotta rounds. The external frieze to Desiderio da Settignano and his brother Geri. Alesso Baldovinetti drew the pattern of the stained glass window with the figure of Saint Andrew.

48. Catacomb of Priscilla. Rome, Italy. c. 200-400 C.E. Excavated tufa and fresco.

Form: It is an architectural structure, specifically levels of passageways underground of tufa. Walls are decorated with murals/pictures. Consists of cubiculum and locali (poor v.s rich), both spaces that hold bodies. The catacomb itself would reach 3 levels deep in some areas. In terms of size, it stretches about eight kilometers. It holds around 40,000 tombs stacked. Being an architectural piece/structure, it's obviously a three dimensional piece. It includes elements of murals as mentioned. It also includes areas for oil lamps to be placed, implying these were painted in nothing but oil lantern light. Also includes stairs. It also consists of inscriptions, making it just as much of a written document as it is an artwork. Function: Thought to be an area of land donated by a wealthy Roman woman named Priscilla to be used for family burial and later a massive number of the Christian community. It was initially to escape the summer heat... Literally, this was built for religious purposes as a means of burial. Wealthy people would buy out enough space for a sarcophagus covered by marble, the poor would not have as much space, covered over by layers of tile and plaster. Some believe it was a place where Christians could escape persecution, though this may not be all that true. Overall it has a practical religious function, as well as a social function. It represents, in modern times, the beginnings of Christian iconography... Content: Consists of a series of underground passageways, going as deep as three 3 levels underground in some areas. On either side of the walls are horizontal niches called to hold bodies, wealthy people would have larger spaces to fit a sarcophagus. They would be covered by marble or tile and then plaster. There are cubiculum (wealthy) and loculi (poor) throughout the catacomb. The first images found date to 3rd c from the 200s. Earliest known representation of Madonna and child. Within these walls is the earliest known representation of Madonna and child (Virgin Mary and Jesus). Also contains some of the earliest of Christian iconography painted and carved. This includes inscriptions that speak to the people buried, relating to their lives and hopes for blessed afterlife. Also includes carved symbols like the anchor, which speaks to safe harbor and salvation. Also use of a fish, a representation of Christ. Themes of salvation are seen throughout, and reference to content of both the Old and New Testament. For example, the Greek chapel. This had nothing to do with the greeks it was only called this because both latin and greek writing is seen throughout. Consists of Roman first style wall painting, which is when plaster is built and painted to imitate marble to look rich. It is assumed to be the oldest part of catacombs. It is lavish yet small. Meals could be eaten in this place so as to honor the dead. Divine intervention scenes are present, the Book of Daniel (three youths in a fiery furnace, story is that they are asked to worship pagan idols but refuse, so they are sentenced to be burned alive but are saved). Pieces like this relate to the struggle of Christian persecution. Ressurrection of Lazurus, and other miracles of christ. Sacrifice of Isaac is shown, depicts Abraham in the center and Isaac off to the right carrying wood. We normally see Abraham depicted as about to kill Isaac with his wrist grabbed by an angel. Breaking of the Bread depcited, looks like a last supper (long table, still life, seven men. Meals). It is really just a reference to the story of multiplication of loaves and fishes, another miracle of Christ, typical in early Christian Iconaology. Cubiculum of the Veil, has images of a woman married, dressed as a bishop, and as a mother. Refers to the woman buried there. She is in a prayer pose, (referred to as an orant figure) representing the hopes of family that she will enjoy a blessed afterlife. She is looking up to heaven. Largest painting in this cubiculum is Christ as the Good Shepherd. Depicts three goats, one over shoulders. He is in a contrapposto stance, looks young, no beard, trees with doves next to him. Shows that he will care for his followers like a good shepherd for his flock. Also depicts peacocks, a symbol of eternal life. Quail, a symbol of the earth. It is all the first tentative steps of what would become christian art.

77. Isenheim altarpiece. Matthias Grünewald. c. 1512-1516 C.E. Oil on wood.

Form: Left picture Left side: red robed figure stands next to Corinthian column Middle: Christ is centered and crucified Very macabre and dramatic Hanging down from the cross On his left side are three people: two women looking up in anguish and one person holding the woman in white On his right side is a red clothed man and a dog Right side: red and blue clothed old, bearded man with a staff Pradella: Jesus's dead body is being held by several people next to some sort of opening, possible a grave Right Picture: Left side: woman looking up at a Gothic architecture place to a robed figure Middle: Left: Woman in pink dress playing guitar-like instrument surrounded by smaller figures and instrument Right: Mary and Christ-child in a landscape, blue sky and bright orange light (sun?) Right side: figure rising divinely with a mandorla over bodies Pradella: Same as the left picture → Christ's body being held Big! 9' 9 1/2" x 10' 9" (just center panel) But she's movable Function: Created to serve as the central object of devotion in an Isenheim hospital built by the Brothers of St. Anthony Popular in Germany at the time Facilitate public prayer Fully opened on special occasions → helps to inspire hope Content: Left picture: panels is closed Virgin is swooning into the arms of St. John the Evangelist John the Baptist gestures towards Christ Lamb of God is below him (metaphor for Christ himself) not usually at crucifixion Inclusion is symbolic, since he is considered as the last of the prophets to announce the coming of the Messiah Mary Magdalene is just crying Outside panels: St. Sebastian and then the St. Anthony Abbott Right picture: panels are open From left to right: Annunciation, Virgin and Child, Resurrection Angels playing music celebrate the birth of the Christ child resurrection (fireball— hovering over the sepulchre and the bodies of the sleeping soldiers, a combination of Transfiguration, Resurrection and Ascension.) Both predellas show a Lamentation scene Context: Isenheim Hospital was run by Brothers of St. Anthony St. Anthony was a patron saint of those suffering from skin diseases Took care of sick and dying peasants at hospital Christ was painted in such a macabre way to show them that he too suffered like they are now Predella: the bottom part in the altarpieces

73. Last Supper. Leonardo da Vinci. c. 1494-1498 C.E. Oil and tempera.

Form: Oil and tempura was an experimental combo Used lead white as a base instead of traditional wet plaster to achieve more brilliant colors but the paint never adhered to the wall and began immediately deteriorating Added a double layer of dried plaster to achieve greater detail Things that have contributed to its terrible condition: Location (side of a cafeteria building), materials, techniques used, humidity, dust, poor restoration efforts, bomb hit monastery in '43, destroying large section of the refectory, air pollution in postwar Milan, tourists and overcrowded viewing 42.5% of the surface is Leonardo's work, 17.5% is lost, and 40% is the additions restorers Perfect perspective is achieved at Christ's level using linear perspective This view is 15 feet in the air Strong sense of depth conveyed Vanishing point right behind Christ's head draws the viewer's eye to this central figure Christ's body forms an equilateral triangle Very unified composition (it is intentional, mathematical, and precise) Faces are individualized and figures are realistic with accurate proportions and light and shadow (chiaroscuro) Use sfumato technique (use of glazes in slightly different tones of color creating an almost imperceptible transition from light to dark) Great emotion, gesture, action (clamour and reaction of the figures), and interaction between figures Function: Monks would eat silently while looking at this painting. Used to teach and inspire contemplation about this pivotal moment in the religion Shows unity between the earthly, mortal world and the eternal and divine but also shows the chaos and flaws of humanity and greatness of the divine Content: The 12 apostles sit at a long table placed parallel to the picture plane in a simple, spacious room and react to Christ saying, "one of you will betray me" during seder at Passover (christ's mouth is still open) The apostles have highly emotional reactions In the center, JC appears isolated and composed while his apostles freak out around him, showing his divinity and ethereal nature. He is reaching for the bread and wine, the sacrament of communion Calm center with a window framing Christ's head draws attention to Christ with a realistic halo of the window and curved pediment (the only curve in the entire painting) Chaos surrounds him and all lines converge behind him- he is a divine center 4 groupings of figures create a clustered, chaotic sense to the scene Judas to the right of Christ has head down in shame and holds the bag of silver. He is reaching for the same bowl as Christ Peter is rushing to Jesus, pushing Judas back in need of knowing the betrayer, and he is holding a knife ready to defend Jesus foreshadowing that Peter will sever the ear of a soldier as he attempts to protect Christ from arrest. Peter was known as his protector John closes his eyes Simon, Thadeus, and Matthew to JC's far left demonstrate the force and extent of the impact of the news Thomas, to JC left points upward, questioning God Philip points to himself with a face of grief James spreads himself out to calm people down Through windows is a lush green landscape symbolizing heaven, which frames JC showing his divinity over all the others 3 windows, 4 groups of 3 apostles, Christ body forms a triangle = holy trinity and divinity Painted on the side of the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan. Context: Da Vinci, born in Florence, was a painter, sculptor, engineer, architect, and scientist Trained with the prestigious Andrea del Verrocchio High renaissance (rebirth of classical ideal of beauty, use of shading, naturalism, and humanism) Centralized in Rome, art was commissioned by popes Missing halo distinguishers like early renaissance, but it is obviously the last supper because of da Vinci's complete mastery of skill Fascination with the body to show beauty of nature and convey the soul Narrative style of painting common where the body and emotion reflects the mind Da vinci had desire to depict humanity and convey individual emotions and reactions to represent their character and humanity Idealized geometry of Jesus is in line with the Renaissance's rediscovery of Neo-Platonism (humanist revival combining Greek philosophy with Christian theology) Plato believed that the mortal realm was imperfect, and the divine can be seen in heavenly, geometric perfection Da vinci practiced with live models, and therefore had a deep understanding of the observable world which is reflected in the highly individualized and proportionally correct apostles

86. Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici, from the Marie de' Medici Cycle. Peter Paul

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

87. Self-Portrait with Saskia. Rembrandt van Rijn. 1636 C.E. Etching.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

88. San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane. Rome, Italy. Francesco Borromini (architect). 1638-1646 C.E. Stone and stucco.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

89. Ecstasy of Saint Teresa. Cornaro Chapel, Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria. Rome, Italy. Gian Lorenzo Bernini. c. 1647-1652 C.E. Marble (sculpture); stucco and gilt bronze (chapel).

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

90. Angel with Arquebus, Asiel Timor Dei. Master of Calamarcac. 17th century C.E. Oil on canvas.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

91. Las Meninas. Diego Velázquez. c. 1656 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

92. Woman Holding a Balance. Johannes Vermeer. c. 1664 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

93. The Palace at Versailles. Versailles, France. Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart (architects). Begun 1669 C.E. Masonry, stone, wood, iron, and gold leaf (architecture); marble and bronze (sculpture); gardens.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

94. Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene. Circle of the González Family. c. 1697-1701 C.E. Tempera and resin on wood, shell inlay.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

95. The Virgin of Guadalupe (Virgen de Guadalupe). Miguel González. c. 1698 C.E. Based on original Virgin of Guadalupe. Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City. 16th century C.E. Oil on canvas on wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

96. Fruit and Insects. Rachel Ruysch. 1711 C.E. Oil on wood.

Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

68. The Arnolfini Portrait. Jan van Eyck. c. 1434 C.E. Oil on wood.

Form: Painted, with the illusion of the third dimension given by perspective. More tall than wide, focused on a couple in the center which takes up most of the space of the painting. The point of view and dimensions of the room are confusing. Use of lighting, coming from the window in the painting and illuminating the room. Extensive fine details present throughout the work, all aspects of the painting are given remarkable attention. Mixture of light and dark shading, dull and bright, the color of the room itself is dull in comparison to the couple and their expensive furniture. Function: The function of the painting is still uncertain, there are a variety of theories proposed by historians. Van Eyck was hired in order to create the work, as was common during his period. The event represented in the work could be many things, among them a marriage, or an already married couple posing for a portrait, The work displays the wealthiness of the couple, both in their clothing and in the objects that make up the room. Content: It is almost definite that the man in the painting is the merchant Giovanni di Nicolao di Arnolfini, and the woman is his wife or wife-to-be. They are standing in an expensively decorated room. There is also a well-groomed dog in the room, beneath the couple. The event portrayed has something to do with the couple. Context: Jan van Eyck painted the work, he is considered one of the greatest dutch painters. In his time he was successful, as evidenced by the vast number of works commissioned from him. This work was created during the Northern Renaissance period, which saw a development of detail in paintings. Much of van Eyck's work contains christian religious symbolism. It is one of the most important european paintings ever made, notable for its complexities and perspective.

82. Il Gesù,

Form: Roma Italy in the 16th century Made of marble brick fresco and stucco The triumph of the name of jesus ceiling fresco was painted in a traditional style done by Giovanni Battista Gaulli Function: A church for the jesuits Would also be used to help bases other jesuit churches off of The ceiling represents christ visions and beliefs Either scared people off or brought people to join them Content: mix of the rational and Baroque styles The inside had a dark interior which is why the windows are so large because it relied on the natural lighting The painting is on the doma part of the ceiling Renaissance styled columns Context: The church was used as the religious center Founded by the popes grandson Located in the center of rome

58. Church of Sainte-Foy. Conques, France. Romanesque Europe. Church: c. 1050-1130 C.E.; Reliquary of Saint Foy: ninth century C.E., with later additions. Stone (architecture); stone and paint (tympanum); gold, silver, gemstones, and enamel over wood (reliquary).

Form: Romanesque pilgrimage church, and the reliquary: a container holding the remains of a saint or holy person The main feature of these churches was its cruciform plan. Looks like a cross, symbolically commemorating Christ's sacrifice. Also helped control the crowds of pilgrims, enter in the west, circle around to the east. The apse usually contained smaller chapels, known as radiating chapels, where pilgrims could visit saint's shrines, especially the sanctuary of Saint Foy. Pilgrims traveled around radiating chapels, paying homage to saints' shrines. Semi circular relief carvings on the outside. The reliquary was a gold and gem encrusted statue, containing and representing Saint Foy. Function: Has a religious function, a place of worship and pilgrimage, hosts pilgrims on their journey to Santiago de Compostela in Spain. It is also an abbey, a part of a monastery where monks worked, prayed, and lived. Visitors would be blessed, demonstrate their piety, and to be saved on Judgment day. Places like these would inspire Christians into behaving in a holy manner that would ultimately lead them to Heaven. There was a lot of misuse of church offices at the time among clergymen, elements like the carvings that you'll see speak to the misuse of church offices. Indeed, this portal was not only a warning for pilgrims, but for the clergy as well. Generally to respect Christ and honor his sacrifice on the cross for mankind's salvation. Content: Barrel-vaulted nave, with arches on the interior, the central part of the church building, meant to accommodate most of the congregation. Apse, the typically large semicircular or polygonal recess in a church, with a domed roof, usually containing the altar. Side aisles on either side. 5 radiating chapels surround the apse (in a semicircle). A cruciform outlined church. Elaborately carved relief carving on the South end of the Last Judgment. Before people would go inside to receive blessings, an important message of the Last Judgment is shown. This scene is depicted on the tympanum, the central semi-circular relief carving above the central portal. In the center sits Christ. He is depicted as in power, the one true Judge. He sits enthroned with his right hand pointing upwards to the saved while his left hand gestures down to the damned. Reminds people of the joys of heaven and torments of hell. Mary, Peter and possibly the founder of the monastery as well as an entourage of other saints are on the right of him. Below the saints on Christ's Right is an arcade (a covered passageway with arches along one or both sides) covered by a pediment, symbolizing the House of Paradise. Houses those who are saved; people who will live with Christ forever. Abraham is seated at the center. Above Abraham, the Hand of God reaches out to a kneeling Sainte Foy (Saint Faith) On the pediment's opposite side, angels open and release souls from their graves to be judged by God. A large doorway is shown leading to paradise, and a gaping mouth is shown leading to hell. Clear divide in faith is depicted on Judgment day Pediment of the Lower register of Hell has the Devil sitting in the center,smiling and surrounded by tortured souls. Feelings of pain, chaos, and cruelty all surround him. They all represent capital sin, adultery, gluttony, arrogance, misuse of church offices. Devil sits enthroned like Christ: as he has the power to judge/punish the damned. On the left of the devil is a hanged man, representing Judas. He hanged himself after he betrayed Christ. As mentioned before, the reliquary is a container holding the remains of Saint Foy, a martyr. It is golden and gem encrusted, very expensive. Those on pilgrimage would bring gems of their own to contribute. Context: Other small churches stood on sight from the 7th century. A church had stood on the spot since the 600s; the Church of Sainte-Foy was built from 1050-1130. It's an important pilgrimage church on the route to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain. Many churches on the pilgrimage route had a similar or identical layout. Pilgrims went to receive a blessing; their visitation = demonstration of piety The reliquary: Originally displayed in a monastery in Agen. First mentioned in written history in 1010 by Bernard of Angers, worried it would inspire idolatry because of its expensiveness. The monks at Conques stole it to draw visitors, it contained the bones of a beloved martyr. Sainte Foy, a 12-year-old French, Christian convert lived in Southern France under the Roman Empire. She was killed for refusing to worship pagan gods, making her seen as a martyr. Pilgrims would bring gems to be added to the reliquary as symbols of their piety. Includes agates, amethysts, crystals, carnelians, emeralds, and many others... The Reliquary brought/brings a great number of pilgrims or tourists. Perhaps the purpose of wanting to attract more people was to build up Conques' commerce and economy...

81. Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza.

Form: The drawing is separated into 4 quadrants plus one not included In the very center is the Tenochtitlan, it's an eagle on a cactus. Ten men are depicted within the quadrants wearing white robes The man left of the eagle with gray skin and different styled hair is identified as a priest The glyphs on the robes identify their names. The priest's name is Tenoch Glyphs are surrounding the page which has dates of different events in Aztec history Below the quadrants are 2 scene of what seems to be a conquest on different nations The Aztec's are drawn as bigger to exemplify their power over the nations Colhuacan and Tenayuca which were identified through the glyphs Function: The Frontispiece is a commissioned Codex to record information about the Aztec Empire. It has information about the organizations and foundations of their capital (Tenochtitlan) Their capital city was built where it was because their ancestors were told to leave their current home and build one where they saw an eagle on top of a cactus The glyphs surrounding the page are supposed to be years. Content: The work depicts the Aztects finding their city and them conquering other nations depicting how powerful they were The work also depicts their founding of Tenochtitlan The work also depicts Tenoch the priest and the other 9 men who led the Aztecs to find their new capital The war scene beneath is to represent their previous military victories and have them come off as powerful Context: The creator of the work is unknown, they were most likely indigenous(Nahuas specifically) and possibly more than one person created the work. The work was created in 1541-1542 CE at the Viceroyalty of Spain It was made to record information about the Aztecs The specific page is meant to show the founding of the Aztec capital The work was going to be sent to Spain but it never made it their as French pirates took it and it later ended up in France

70. Palazzo Rucellai. Florence, Italy. Leon Battista Alberti (architect). c. 1450 C.E. Stone, masonry.

Form: The facade Leon created has 3 tiers overall The building has small engravings in between the different layers of the facade The building actually has a hidden 4th floor which is where the servants lived(Designed to not be seen) Each floor had a dedicated purpose 1st floor was for the families business 2nd floor was for guests 3rd floor was for the families actual living quarters Function: It was designed as a home for the Rucellai family Represents the family's wealth, power, status etc. It also gave them a place for business, a place to house their servants and to house any guests that they had Content: Many different designs can be seen on the exterior of the building. Including the family seal which depicts a ring with 3 feathers coming out of it (Are you sure? I remember it as a billowing sail) Rectangular windows(1st floor) as you go up the windows get rounder A feeling of lightness as you move from the bottom to the top of the building Surrounded by benches Large blocks of stone are seen near the bottom of the building Entirely straight lines Pilaster (Flattened Columns) are seen at the bottom of the building Context: The building was built after the Medici's built their house and some of that can be seen in the two buildings Giovanni Di Paolo Rucellai commissioned the building, he had also commissioned several other works and was a very big patron of the arts Rucellai and Leon did use more Ancient Greek and Roman styles when they built his house however Alberti took influence from the Colosseum when he visited Rome in the 1430s. He used a lot of similar elements mainly for design and not actual support. The columns don't do anything for the facade they are there for style The Rucellai family was a family of merchants who had commissioned several pieces. This building was to be their house They family had intended the building to be bigger than it was but they couldn't purchase the nearby building so the plans were never completed Leon wrote a book on architecture that was the first printed book about architecture, the book is called On the Art of Building In Ten Books, the different sections go over different elements of architecture He wanted to build a house for his family that displayed how powerful and wealthy he was The building was created in 1450

61. Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France, Scenes from the Apocalypse from Bibles moralisées. Gothic Europe. c. 1225-1245 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum).

Form: The main mediums used for the piece are gold leaf, ink, and vellum, a paper-like material made out of animal skin. The figures portrayed above are Queen Blanche of Castile, and her young son next in line for the throne, King Louis IX. The queen dons very royal attire, as well as a white widow's veil to symbolize the loss of her husband. The king dons clothing of similar fashion, and in his hands holds what appears to be a coin. The queen and her son share a gaze between them with her hands held up as if she were preaching while her son politely gives his attention. Below the royalty are two scribes, both believed to have been working on the exact Bible that the page is in and simply just depicting their work in the process. Function: The piece was made as an illustration for carefully chosen scriptures to put into the Moralized Bible. Content: The queen had lost her husband and was left to tend to the next king in line herself. As the current leader and mother of the next king, it was her job to provide scholars and tutors to teach her son about different biblical texts and lessons just as every other king was required to learn, hence why she's depicted in a pose that shows how she's teaching him. Context: As mentioned before, with only the queen around to make sure the king has the best possible influence in order to rule, he was to be taught biblical texts, and one of the best possible ways to get the most important scriptures necessary for his lessons was to write a completely separate bible, of course leading to the Moralized Bible.

72. Birth of Venus. Sandro Botticelli. c. 1484-1486 C.E. Tempera on canvas.

Form: The medium itself is tempera on canvas/panel (tempera is a paint similar to acrylic, but it dries matte and can be water soluble) utilizing muted colors and organic shapes. Coming in from the right corner is the god of wind, Zephyrus, with his wife - the goddess of flowers - Chloris in arms. The two appear to be blowing a breeze towards Venus as flowers fall around them, showcasing their respective abilities while also pushing the new goddess to the shore. Waiting there is the Hora of Springtime, rushing to Venus with a cloth to cover her up. Function: The artwork was a commission for the Medici family portraying the myth of the goddess' birth as an addition to Betticelli's mythological series. Content: The piece depicts what's in the title, the birth of the goddess Venus as she rises out of the sea and is pushed to the shore. Context: There are many theories surrounding the intention of the work, but the focus will be on two for now. One belief is that the work, as it focuses on the goddess of love, was intended to fill the viewer with contemplations of love in physical and intellectual forms. In addition, the work was used frequently as a wedding painting to exemplify lovey-dovey feelings among the two spouses. Another theory believed that Botticelli based Venus off of a mistress that both the head of the family and his brother shared in order to further flatter and impress the Medicis, which seemed to work out well.

59.Bayeux Tapestry. Romanesque Europe c. 1066-1080 C.E. Embroidery on linen.

Form: This is not a true tapestry since it was not woven into cloth; instead the inscriptions and imagery are embroidered using wool yarn sewed into linen cloth This tapestry suggests that they were Anglo- Saxon embroiders who made it were skilled because of the high quality of the needlework, but the identity of the artists are unknown At this time, Anglo-Saxon needlework was prized throughout Europe The artist skillfully organized the tapestry so it leads the viewer's eye from one scene to the next: The main events of the story are in larger middle zone, the upper and lower zones contain images of people and animals Unrealistic figures 1 dimensional, flat It is is split into three sections in an attempt to show foreground and background The top and bottom can also function as borders Function: This tapestry was used as a way to remember and commemorate the win of the Normans This is also a semi- accurate description of war when during these times writing down information was not common; important visual sources for eleventh century textiles that have not survived in the twenty first century Provides information about civil and military architecture such as castle mounds, armour such as a nasal helmets and oblong shields, and seafaring Content: There are 75 scenes filled with latin inscriptions: tituli Presents a continuous narrative to the events leading up to the Battle of Hastings and the battle itself From the first meal, dining practices and battle preparation is seen. Examples of armor used, servants serving the food such as preparing bread over a fire, a stew being cooked is all there William and his nobles sit down to enjoy a feast as Bishop Odo says grace Servants load the food on their shield and then serve it to the people The scene with the war: calvary, which means sending in men on horseback is seen with William Using calvary allowed the soldiers to easily retreat or advance quickly Scattered the defense, so it was easier to invade The men wore conical steel helmets with a protective nose plate, mail shirts, and carried shields and spears The foot soldiers carried spears and axes The horses had no armor There are wounded men and horses along the tapestry's mid and bottom The English soldiers are on foot as they protect themselves with a line of shields. The Normans attack from both of the sides. The lower boarder of the tapestry is filled with dead and injured soldiers Context: Was probably made in Canterbury around 1070 Shows the Battles of Hastings in 1066, but shows the events leading up to that Begins in 1064 when Edward the Confessor, King of England, instructs his brother- in- law, Harold Godwinson to travel to Normandy to offer his cousin, William, the succession to the English throne In 1064, Harold's ships sail towards the coast of Normandy. After many difficulties, he sends a message to William Duke of Normandy that the King of England has designated him as his heir to the throne. When the old king dies though, Harold has himself crowned instead William decides to cross the channel to reclaim his throne On October 14th, 1066, the decisive battle between Norman and Anglo- Saxon troops begin: Many people die In the end, Harold is hit in the eye by an arrow and dies in battle. The English troops retreat The textile is missing, probably showing William as king.

52. Hagia Sophia. Constantinople Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. 532-537 C.E. Brick and ceramic elements with stone and mosaic veneer.

Form: Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus a mathematician and physicist designed and built the church. The architects fused together the vertically-oriented central-plan building and the longitudinally oriented basilica. It is 270 feet long and 240 feet wide. The dome is 108 in diameter and its crown rises to 180 feet above the ground in the original dome plan. There are 40 windows set at the bottom of the dome. The pendentive is a curved triangle of vaulting formed by the intersection of a dome with its supporting arches. The architects of the Hagia Sophia utilized four pendentives to create the dome that looks as if it is suspended in the air and made the famous lighting that comes into the Hagia Sophia possible. They wanted it to look like a floating "Dome of Heaven." The builders also squeezed the windows together and lined the sides with gold mosaic to create the idea again of a "floating dome." Function: The church was built and dedicated to Byzantium Emperor Justinian 1 as well as the city of Constantinople. It is the symbol of Byzantium. Emperor Justinian 1 reign from 527-565 was known as the First Golden Age of Byzantium and he proclaimed Orthodox Christianity as the only lawful religion. Therefore, he wanted the Hagia Sophia to be built so that it could rival all the other churches in the world. The original purpose was for the church to be the seat of the patriarch of Constantinople and the head of Eastern Orthodox Church. However, over the years its purpose has changed. In 1453. The Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque by the Ottomans. In 1935, it was converted into a museum and most recently in 2020, the Turkish Court revoked its museum staus and has reopened it as a place for Muslim prayers. Content: It is widely believed that the church is named after the Saint Sophia, but in Greek Hagia Sophia means "Church of the Holy Wisdom of God. It sits atop an earthquake fault and has been severely damaged three times with repairs still going on today. Inside the Hagia Sophia, there is a mosaic which depicts each emperor offering his monument to the Virgin Mary holding the Christ Child. The memory of Emperor Justinian and Constantine the Great (who built Constantinople) lives on in the church. It was not only the center of liturgical life, but also political as it was the location where each patriarch crowned the new emperor. Also, the church was used as a way to express Byzantine power to foreign countries and their ambassadors Context: Anthemius of Tralles and Isadore of Miletus were Justinian's architects who had the goal of surpassing Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem with the Hagia Sophia. It was known as the "jewel" of Christian churches and inspired many future architects and their endeavors. Constantinople built the first cathedral in 360 which was burned to the ground during the riots that occurred in 404. The second one was built by Emperor Theodosis II in 414 and was burned to the ground again in the "Nika Revolts". The third and final Hagia Sophia was commissioned in 532, completed in 537, and is still standing today.

51. San Vitale. Ravenna, Italy. Early Byzantine Europe. 526-547 C.E; mosaic.

Form: Centrally planned basilica Octagonal in shape Byzantine church Function:Obviously primarily to worship the Christian god (This is a church) Glorify the Byzantine Emperor Justinian and Empress TheodoraS erves as a reminder for the power of the Byzantine Emperor Context:Built after the split of the Roman empire

83. Hunters in the Snow. Pieter Bruegel the Elder. 1565 C.E. Oil on wood.

Form: It is interpreted by most as a genre scene which is an image of daily life. The painting is set in a town with a snow covered landscape. The world from a glance looked as if it is locked in winter, however, at a closer look one can see that life is bursting at the seams. The painting develops smoothly from the foreground to the background and draws the eye of the viewer diagonally into the depths of the work. Bruegel's amazing skill of using line and shape along with his use of tonal harmony has made this one of the greatest landscape paintings in Western art. It is 162 x 117 cm. Function: This painting was created to show the triumphs and hardships of life in the severe winter of 1565. The hunters which are the largest figures on the painting had an unsuccessful hunt as seen by their body position leaning forward in a look of defeat. They only have caught a small fox which shows how difficult it could be to find food in the dead of winter during this time. This is a sharp contrast to the people down below enjoying a fun winter day skating on the ice. The distant mountains represent Bruegel's travels to Northern Europe against the backdrop of typical winter activities in the Netherlands. He shows the world on a large and small scale while wanting to show everyday activities while expressing the beauty and magnitude of the world at the same time. Content: This painting was a part of a six part series that Bruegel did representing seasonal changes with each painting representing a few months and not just a single season. The landscape is drawn as much from his imagination as it is from his surroundings. The figures and the homes are all depicted in very warm colors and tones whereas the sky and surroundings are in very cool tones. He focuses on the depiction of peasant life and represents the months of December/January. He wants to represent a solemn mood with the group on the left desperate for warm and huddling around a fire. However, there is also a mood of happiness at a life downbelow that those up on the hill could only yearn for. Context: Hunting rights and dogs were often associated with the Northern Renaissance. Bruegl was from Holland, but Bruegel did not set his scene there since Holland is a flat country without any mountains. This leads the viewer to believe that the painting takes place somewhere in the alps. Nicaels Jonghelinck was a merchant and art collector in Antwerp who commissioned this painting to be done by Bruegel. You can see the painting today in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.

57 . Pyxis of al-Mughira. Umayyad. c. 968 C.E. Ivory.

form the Pyxis is 16cm tall and 11cm wide, and made of carved ivory from an elephant tusk There is inlaid jade and several other precisions stones Ivory was durable, smooth, elegant, and easily carved This made it highly desirable for the creation of pyxides (the plural of pyxis) Highly portable, they were often given as gifts. Function In Al-Andalus, ivory objects, including Pyxides, were bestowed upon members of the royal family Specifically sons, wives and daughters on important or memorable occasions, such as a marriage, birth or coming of age Later they were given as Caliphal gifts to important allies, such as the Berbers, who are the indigenous peoples of North Africa, many of whom converted to Islam and swore their allegiance to the Umayyad Caliphs in Spain. The practical function was to carry perfumes and other cosmetics Content The pyxis is decorated with four eight-lobed medallions These medallions are surrounded by figures and animals, including falconers, wrestlers, griffons, peacocks, birds, goats and animals to be hunted Each medallion has princely iconography Although Islamic art is commonly viewed as an-iconic, human and animal figures play an important role in iconography Context A Pyxis is a cylindrical contained for holding cosmetics This was a coming of age gift for al Mughira, the 18-year-old daughter of the caliph of the Umayyad dynasty Best surviving example of the tradition of carved ivory in Islamic Spain Spain was home to some of the most impressive Islamic art and architecture Ivory was part of the mediterranean art tradition, so this work is an example of local artistic tradition blended with Islamic themes This comes from the royal workshop of Madinat al-Zahra, which was one of the wealthiest cities in Umayyad-ruled Spain The work is currently located in the Louvre