APES Exam

Savanna

- Seasonal precipitation - warm temperature - compact soil - hooved herbivores - tropical latitude

Chaparral

- Semi-Arid precipitation - temperature: hot summers/mild winters - thin and poor soil - periodic fires - temperate latitude

Gaia hypothesis

- The perfect world - organisms change ecosystems to benefit themselves

Uniformitarianism

- The present is the key to the past - James Hutton in 1785: natural processes that occur today can shed light in past events

La Nina

A cooling of the ocean surface off the western coast of South America, occurring periodically every 4 to 12 years and affecting Pacific and other weather patterns.

rift valley

A deep valley that forms where two plates move apart

What is occurring at the mid atlantic ridge

A divergent plate boundary exists at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where plates move away from one another, leading to seafloor spreading.

Greenhouse gas

A gas that traps infrared radiation in the troposphere. Excessive levels can cause increasing global temperatures. Most common anthropogenic GHG are CO2, CH4 and N2O. Water is the most common natural GHG.

Social Impacts of Mineral Development

A sudden influx of workers/miners can overwhelm a community. Urbanization occurs. The local economy becomes dependent on mining.

Earth's polar regions are warming faster than the rest of the planet due to

2 positive feedbacks: ice-albedo and melting permafrost-methane release

Growth rate of a population of 1,000 that experiences 100 births, 90 deaths, 20 immigrants and 10 emigrants in a year

2% per year

open system

A system in which matter can enter from or escape to the surroundings.

closed system

A system in which no matter is allowed to enter or leave

atmosphere

A thin layer of gases surrounding Earth

Urban populations have higher standards of living due to

access to electricity, sanitation, clean drinking water, clean fuels for cooking and heating, and good nutrition

Problem that results from the release of nitrogen oxides when fossil fuels are combusted

acid rain, photochemical smog

Ocean acidification damages coral because

acidification makes it difficult for them to form shells, due to the loss of calcium carbonate.

Uses energy from the sun to heat a liquid

active solar energy

Indicators of sustainability

biological diversity, food production, average global surface temperatures and CO2 concentrations, human population, and resource depletion

calcium and magnesium is extracted by...

biological processes

ocean warming negatively affects corals by

causing coral bleaching

Pioneer species

commonly move into unoccupied habitat and over time adapt to its particular conditions, which may result in the origin of new species.

Radon

Naturally formed gas that occurs when radioactive uranium-238 breaks down. Can seep into houses through cracks in the foundation or enter through well water.

How can the amount of energy converted by plants be measured?

Net primary productivity (NPP) and Gross primary productivity (GPP)

HNO3

Nitric Acid. Secondary pollutant, formed when NOx interacts with water in the atmosphere. Causes a decrease in pH in rivers and lakes, disrupts symbiotic relationships between plants and soil fungi, and dissolves buildings and monuments made of limestone, marble, or sandstone

although earth contains lots of silver, it is still valuable and scarce because of its low

concentration

Environmental impacts of recovering and using petroleum

Release of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, release of volatile organic compounds, groundwater contamination, Land subsidence (sinking), Pollution of surface and groundwater, Habitat destruction, Aesthetic degradation, Oil spills in the ocean

Milankovitch Cycles

Variations in the Earth's orbit around the sun that occur about every 100,000 years, Cause Ice ages and interglacial warming periods

hot spot

A volcanically active area of Earth's surface far from a tectonic plate boundary, where magma comes to the surface through a weak area of crust

volcano

A weak spot in the crust where magma has come to the surface

The relationship between insolation and latitude

As latitude increases, insolation decreases (inverse relationship)

Distributions of mineral resources- 99% of Earth's crust is composed of nine elements:

By weight: 45.2% oxygen, 27.2% silicon, 8.0% aluminum, 5.8% iron, 5.1% calcium, 2.8% magnesium, 2.3% sodium, 1.7% potassium, 0.9% titanium

How matter moves through ecosystems

Biogeochemical cycles - essential for life and each cycle demonstrates the conservation of matter

what is responsible for the production of the ozone layer

UVC. Ozone is produced by oxygen and sunlight in the UVC wavelength range (<240 nm). In the atmosphere, this reaction only works at higher altitudes where there is adequate energy UV penetration. The atomic oxygen formed can combine with oxygen gas to for ozone

2 major drawbacka of nuclear energy

Uranium-235 is not renewable, and its fission products have long half-lives, leading to problems with disposal of high level nuclear waste

Relationship between level of development and use of energy resources

Use of energy is higher in more developed countries and lower in less developed countries

2 most commonly used biomass sources in developing countries

Wood and charcoal

Power

Work / time, measured in Watts

aquifer

a body of water underground that moves slowly downhill

island arc

a chain of volcanic islands formed at an ocean-ocean subduction zone

Symbiosis

a close and long-term interaction between two species in an ecosystem

the slow down or shutdown of thermoline circulation would result in

a colder scandanavia and great britain

Reserve

a portion of resource that can be legally and economically extracted at the time of evaluation.

adaptive radiation

a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly because of an environmental change

flux

a process that moves a chemical between reservoirs

Loss of vegetation and soil during urbanization will produce A. more throughflow B. more subsurface flow C. more overland flow D. less overland flow E. more groundwater flow

C. more overland flow

The most populous countries in the world are

China, India, United States

Gas with the highest global warming potential

Chlorofluorocarbons

A population has CDR = 7/1000, CBR = 19/1000, and net migration of 4/1000. What is the population of this country doing?

Growing/increasing

True or False? - average carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and global temperatures are higher then they have ever been in earth's history - the increase in average global air temp is equally distributed throughout earth's surface

False! - Before lots of plants there was lots of carbon dioxide and high temperatures on the planet - the increase in average global temp is not evenly distributed throughout earth's surface

True or False? The increase in hydrogen ions dissolved in the ocean water erodes the skeleton of corals, making them weak and vulnerable to damage or death.

False. The increase in hydrogen ions does not erode the skeletons of corals directly. The hydrogen ions must first form an acid or bond with carbonate ions to cause damage to the reefs. An important step in the chemical process is missing in this option.

When a resource is limited, we have four options

Find more sources Recycle and reuse Reduce consumption FInd a constitute

6 main reasons for decreases in biodiversity

HIPPCO (habitat destruction, invasive species, population growth, pollution, climate change, and over exploitation)

During a La Niña event, what environmental changes would the tropical Pacific Ocean and its surrounding landmasses most likely experience?

Increased upwelling off the coast of South America resulting in increased productivity of fisheries

During a la niña event, what environmental changes would the tropical Pacific Ocean and its surrounding landmasses most likely experience

Increased upwelling off the coast of South America resulting in increased productivity of fisheries

Negative impact of sea level rise on ecosystems

Loss of habitat for organisms that are no longer in the photic zone

Hg

Mercury. Primary pollutant, enters the atmosphere when coal containing small amounts of it is combusted, neurotoxin

Plate boundaries

Metallic ores are deposited at plate boundaries. At divergent boundaries with 1+ oceanic plates, water is heated by molten rock, making it lighter and more chemically active. At convergent boundaries with 1+ oceanic plates, partial melting occurs.

Impacts of nitrogen oxide production when burning fuels

formation of ozone, photochemical smog, and acid rain

sedimentary rock

formed from burial and sedimentation

metamorphic rock

formed from deep burial, heating, and squashing

Crude oil can be turned into various products, such as gasoline, jet fuel, heating oil, and asphalt by the process of

fractional distillation

insolation

incoming solar radiation

Which of the following effects does recycling have on the environmental impacts of mineral development? A. forces more landfills to open B. forces producers to explore for new mineral reserves C. increases the quantities of raw materials mined from the Earth D. decreases the quantity of waste E. drives the prices of raw materials up

decreases the quantity of waste

El niño weakens winds and makes them opposite direction, la niña

makes winds stronger but same direction

Negative impacts of burning biomass to produce heat

deforestation, release of air pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and volatile organic compounds

nitrates are returned to the atmosphere

denitrification

The rock cycle

depends of the tectonic cycle for energy and the hydrologic cycle for weathering and erosion

Most of the Earth's deserts are at approximately 30° latitude, north and south, because these latitudes are characterized by

descending air currents

Which two biomes have the same amount of rainfall

desert and tundra

naturals sources of Carbon TO the atmosphere

diffusion, cellular respiration, decomposition, volcanic eruptions

natural sinks of carbon FROM the atmosphere

diffusion, photosynthesis, rock weathering (very long term)

iceland is located on a

divergent plate boundary

What do 1. decrease in food production 2. dropping water tables 3. increase in food prices 4. decrease in energy production by hydroelectric plants signify?

drought

shrub land (chaparral)

drought tolerant plants

biome

contains characteristic communities of plants and animals that result from, and are adapted to, its climate

The largest users of water in the US are...

farms and power plants

growth rate =

final - initial / initial *100

%change =

final - initial/initial

Force

mass x acceleration, measured in Newtons

Biotic potential

maximum reproductive rate of a population in ideal conditions

Impact of invasive species on island species

may outcompete native species and put them to local extinction

Potential positive impact of sea level rise

newly created habitats on continental shelves

Mineral resources are A. nonrenewable B. alternative energy sources C. chemical byproducts D. infinite E. rare and high-cost materials

nonrenewable

The phosphorous cycle differs from the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles in that

not in atmosphere

infant mortality

number of babies who die in their first year per 1000 live births

Population density

number of organisms per unit area

Four types of ecosystem services

provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting

factors that make a species more prone to extinction

specialist species, large territory requirements

Many species on islands have evolved to be

specialists

why don't air masses flow in straight lines from high to low pressures

the rotation of earth causes air masses to be deflected

Island biogeography

the study of the ecological relationships and distribution of organisms on islands, and of these organisms' community structures

air pressure is low at the equator because

the sun is very strong, which heats the air and causes it to rise

Why do Hadley cells form between 30 N & 30 S?

the sun warms the moist air at the equator, causing it to rise because of its lower density. As the air becomes cooler, it becomes denser then sinks

geological cycle

the tectonic, hydrologic, rock, and biogeochemical cycles viewed collectively

Core

two parts: solid inner core, liquid outer core

mutualism

type of symbiosis in which both organisms benefit

parasitism

type of symbiosis in which one organism benefits and the other is harmed

commensalism

type of symbiosis in which one organisms benefit and the other is neither harmed nor benefits

tilt of the earth causes

unequal heating and seasons

how does differences in the distribution of solar radiation effect wind patterns?

uneven solar radiation creates global wind patterns because it causes warm area at low latitudes and cool air at high latitudes, resulting in density differences between the air masses

Resource partitioning

using the resources in different ways, places, or at different times—can reduce the negative impact of competition on survival.

cogeneration

using waste heat to make electricity

rising air

cools and causes precipitation (forests)

Impacts of ocean warming on ecosystems

coral bleaching, loss of habitat, and metabolic and reproductive changes

earth's layers

core, mantle, crust

Sub-economic resources

cost more to mine than the mineral would be worth

Direction of storms in the hemispheres

counterclockwise in the north and clockwise in the south

ways humans can mitigate the impact of loss of biodiversity

creating protected areas, use of habitat corridors, promoting sustainable land use practices, and restoring lost habitats

Strategies to protect animal populations

criminalizing poaching, protecting animal habitats, and legislation

Tar sands are a source of

crude oil

Impact of ocean acidification on ecosystems

damage to corals because it becomes more difficult to make shells due to the loss of calcium carbonate

the rotation of earth causes

day and night

Ecological impacts of oil spills

death of marine organisms such as birds, mammals, and benthic organisms

types of cells in order from equator to pole

hadley, ferrel, polar

underground soil that remains more or less permanently frozen

permafrost

where weather occurs

troposphere

If your refrigerator runs on 200 W, and electricity costs $0.10/kWh, how much will it cost you to run your refrigerator all year?

$175.20

Coal use in the United States was 1150 million short tons per year. In 2018, coal use was 700 million short tons per year. Calculate the % change in coal use between 2008 and 2018. Show your work.

% change = [(final - initial)/initial] x 100 = [(700-1150)/1150]x100 = -39.1% (39.1% decrease)

Indonesian Tsunami

- 2004 ~250,000 dead (¾+ in Indonesia), millions displaced - cause: magnitude 9 earthquake offshore the plate was lifted by a few meters, lowering adjacent water. This movement created a series of waves around 1m high, these waves become bigger when they reach shallow water, the waves travelled at the same speed as a jet - dangers: series of tsunami waves, return flow - actions: first tsunameter in the Indian Ocean installed in 2006, sirens installed along costal areas

La Conchita Landslide

- 2005 - location: la conchita, 80km northwest of LA - 10 dead, 30 homes destroyed - what: fast moving debris flow (a type of landslide) - cause: high intensity rainfall further weekend the debris from a 1995 landslide

atmospheric composition (highest to lowest)

- 78% nitrogen - 21% oxygen - 1% water vapor - 0.93% Argon - 0.04 carbon dioxide other particles include methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide

Systems

- Closed system: restricted inputs and outputs - Open system: connected to the outside environment in some way - earth is a closed system for matter (with the exception of materials from space) and an open system for energy (sunlight) - a boundary separates a system from the outside

Classification

- Elements for metal production and technology: - Building materials - Minerals for the chemical industry - Minerals for agriculture - Metallic minerals Abundant metals: iron, aluminum, chromium, manganese, titanium, magnesium Scarce metals: copper, lead, zinc, tin, gold, silver, platinum, uranium, mercury, molybdenum

Tropical Rainforest

- High precipitation - hot temperature - nutrient poor soil - most diverse, high NPP - tropical latitude

Temperate rainforest

- High precipitation - mild temperature - acidic soil - old growth forest-redwood - temperate latitude

temperate deciduous forest

- High precipitation - temperature changes (seasons) - fertile soil - organic matter (leaf litter) decomposes - temperate latitude

Sedimentary processes:

- Placer deposit: an accumulation of minerals in areas of lesser water movement - Precipitated compounds due to evaporation are called evaporates. - Marine evaporates (solids): potassium and sodium salts, gypsum, and anhydrite - Non-marine evaporates (solids): sodium and calcium carbonate, sulfate, borate, nitrate, and limited iodine and strontium compounds

Desert

- Low precipitation - varied temperature - soil rich in minerals/poor in nutrient - fragile with low resilience - 30 latitude

Biological processes

- Major iron ore deposits in sedimentary rocks were formed 2+ billion years ago. - Gray beds have unoxidized iron. - Red beds contain oxidized iron.

Boreal Forest/Taiga

- Moderate precipitation - cold temperature - acidic/poor soil - coniferous trees - polar latitude

Based on the wind map, which of the following best explains the area of the Andes Mountains that would have the greatest number of rivers?

- More rivers would be located on the east side of the Andes Mountains because the trade winds are coming from the east. - Trade winds come from the east, so the east side of the mountain will have air currents rising, cooling, and dropping precipitation before going over the mountain and descending on the other side, creating drier conditions. - Increased precipitation on the eastern = more rivers on the eastern side

Sustainable Solutions:

- People living in developed countries have larger footprints - Solutions require an economic driver/incentive before widespred chang will occur - The earth will survive but we might not (save our planet vs save our society)

convergent boundary

- Plates collide. - Subduction: falling under another plate. - often forms mountains

The Importance of Minerals to Society

- US: the average person requires 10 tons of non-fuel minerals per year - Minerals are a nonrenewable resource that will eventually run out. - To postpone this inevitability, we can recycle and conserve minerals.

factors creating climate

- Unequal heating of the Earth by the Sun - atmospheric convection currents - the rotation of the Earth - Earth's orbit around the Sun on a tilted axis, and Earth's topography

Weathering processes

- Weathering: the chemical and mechanical decomposition of rock - Bauxite: an ore formed from residual aluminum oxide in soil - Sulfide ore deposits are purified through secondary enrichment. Oxidized sulfides dissolve and sink. The solutions are deposited as sulfides below the water table if oxygen is no longer present.

States of systems

- a system in equilibrium is in a steady state and most systems in nature are in steady states - not in equilibrium = not steady - The Aral Sea had more output then input since its water was used by irrigation by the soviet union and as a result the aral sea is now dried up

functions of ozone molecules

- absorb harmful solar rays - they release heat into the surroundings - they create a buoyant lid on the atmosphere - they create a warm layer of atmosphere that keeps the lower atmosphere from mixing with space

How does ocean acidification negatively affect shelled organisms, coral, and fish

- acidification causes a decrease in carbonate ions, an important building block of seashels and coral skeletons - affects fish ability to detect predators

Plate tectonics: the slow movement of plates of lithosphere atop the asthenosphere

- boundaries between plates are geologically active ares - there are 6 large plates and a few small ones

Elemental composition

- carbon has 4 valence electrons - humans are mainly water (mainly oxygen by mass because hydrogen is light) - seawater is mainly oxygen by mass - earth's crust is mainly oxygen by mass - earth's atmosphere is mainly nitrogen by mass

The tectonic cycle involves the creation and destruction of the solid outer layer of earth

- law of conservation of matter: no new matter is created - material for new plates comes from old plates

Weather

- clouds are formed when air in convection cells rises up and reaches the dew point (why they are all the same height) - there is a lot of convection/wheather at the equator and the air moves down at 30N/30S (Hadley Cell). It moves up/cools at 60N/60S (Ferrel cell) The polar cell is near the poles - the Tradewinds are near the equator - the westerlies are further north/south and move the opposite direction of the trade winds (west to east)

coastal upwelling occurs where

- cold currents run along a continent, creating zones of high productivity - winds blow offshore, pushing top water out to sea and cold, nutrient rich water from the deep rises to take its place - brings nutrients and cold water to the surface - causes productive ecosystems and fisheries

Mining Impacts

- contamination to soil, water & air - biodiversity loss - adverse human health effects - abandoned mines (2015: the gold king mine, southwest colorado, ruptured and spilled chemicals)

movement in the mantle moves the plates

- convection cell: heated material is less dense and floats up where it cools before sinking - heat sources: energy from the creation of earth, radioactive decay, the sun

Mantle

- convection currents in the mantle move plates. Warmer substances float and then cool before sinking again - the mantle makes up 85% of earth's volume

tectonic cycle

- creation/destruction of the lithosphere (solid outer layer of earth) - lithosphere is 60 miles thick - plate tectonics: movement of plates - moving plates change the location/size of continents, atmospheric/oceanic circulation, climate, and presence of ecological islands - plate boundaries are geologically active

Thermohaline circulation (the ocean conveyor belt) is driven by

- differences in salinity of seawater - differences in temperature of seawater - differences in density of seawater - ex: sinking of cold, salty water near greenland

Human activities affecting the nitrogen cycle

- draining wetlands - burning fossil fuels - fertilizers for agriculture - clearing land for agriculture

biogeochemical cycles are important because

- earth is a closed system so since more nutrients aren't introduced they must be recycled - organisms cannot produce the chemical nutrients themselves, and must get them from other sources

1872: general mining act

- encouraged mining on federal lans - allowed for staking claim - offered protections for minors

Malthusian Catastrophe

- eventually population will outstrip our capability to produce food, leading to famine and conflict - food production increases linearly but population increases exponentialy

rainshadow

- ex: reno, nevada - what: the dry side of a mountain

Laws of Thermodynamics

- first law of thermodynamics: conservation of energy (energy can be converted but not created or destroyed) - second law of thermodynamics: usable energy is lost throughout each stage of a process

Igneous rock

- formed from lava/magma - intrusive: below ground - extrusive: above ground

impacts of coal mining

- habitat destruction - groundwater contamination - release of methane - particulate air pollution

Ways to mitigate urban runoff

- incentivize the use of public transportation - plant trees in the city - replace traditional pavement with permeable pavement - build up, not out

Layers of the earth

- inner core (solid nickel/iron) - outer core (liquid, creates magnetic field) - mantle (semi-solid) - asthenosphere (elastic) - lithosphere (plates) - crust (continental: thick/light, oceanic: thin/dense)

Themohaline circulation is important because

- it moves energy around the planet - it brings nutrient rich waters up from the ocean floor to sustain ecosystems

loss of vegetation and soil during urbanization causes

- less infiltration - more surface runoff - less transpiration

Gaia Hypotheses

- life manipulates the environment for the maintenance of life (the earth is a perfect, self-adjusting system) - pt 1: life has greatly affected the planetary environment (not contested) - pt 2: life has altered the environment, allowing it to keep existing (some evidence) - pt 3: life deliberately altered the environment (contested; people)

Tundras

- low precipitation - cold - poor soil - permafrost - polar latitude

Crust

- made of rocks and minerals - has continental/oceanic plates

Volcanoes

- magma is below the surface while lava is above the surface - composite/stratovolcanoes: explosive, tall/steep, high in silica/dissolved gases - shield volcanoes: not explosive, flat slopes, low in silica/dissolved gases - cinder cones: are conical and are made of cinders (simple, no side vents

temperate grassland

- moderate precipitation - temp: hot summers/cold winters - most fertile soil - often is converted for agriculture - temperate latitude

Global CO2 levels are much higher in winter than summer in the Northern Hemisphere because

- most developed nations are in the northern hemisphere - most land is in the northern hemisphere - People burn more fossil fuels in the winter to heat their homes - Plants photosynthesize more in the summer, taking CO2 out of the atmosphere

what happens at a divergent plate boundary?

- new crust forms - rift valleys and ocean basins are created by seafloor spreading - small earthquakes and volcanoes are present

minerals

- non-renewable resources naturally formed from the rock cycle - distributed unevenly (a lot owned privately) - Hubert peak theory: the rate of production follows the bell curve (low production > (discovery) > increasing production > (peak) > decreasing production > (depletion) - Types of minerals: fuel (ex: coal), metals, nonmetals (ex: gravel)

carbon dioxide reacts with

- ocean water to form carbonic acid

what happens at a transform plate boundary

- one plate slides past another, generating moderate earthquakes but no volcanoes. - crust is neither created nor destroyed

Evolutionary leaps like the Cambrian explosion resulted in species diversification

- oxygen in the atmosphere allowed for more diversification - plants having flowers resulted in adaptive radiation

Plates

- plates float on the mantle - hot spots: an area where the crust is thin and the mantle is close to the surface, ex: how hawaii was formed - convergent boundary: collision boundary - diverging boundary: moving apart - transform boundary: sliding across - moutains, etc are formed here - oceanic plates are more dense and subduct under continental ones - ring of fire: a volcanically active layer where plates come into contact in pacific ocean (70% of volcanoes, 90% of earthquakes - living around boundaries can be dangerous (explosive volcanoes ex: mount saint helens, landslides, earthquakes, which can cause tsunamis)

divergent plate boundary

- plates move apart, - ex: seafloor spreading 2 oceanic plates diverging

transform fault boundary

- plates slide past each other - ex: San Andreas fault

An ecological footprint takes into account

- pollution and waste production - demand for food, water, minerals, and living space

Feedback

- positive feedback = causes change to be amplified ex: warm temps lead to more evaporation leading to increased temperature ex2: ice has high surface albedo, meaning that it is good at reflecting light back into space. warmer temps lead to decresed surface ice, decresed surface ice means less reflecting of light back into space meaning warmer temps - negative feedback: reduces change, ex: more water in lake results in more drainage

Feedback occurs when output serves as input

- positive: an increase in output leads to further increase - negative: an increase in output leads to a later decrease

Seismic waves

- primary (p) waves: compressional, fastest - secondary (s) waves: transverse, slower, ground up and down, energy moves perpendicular - surface waves (rayleigh, love): travel on surface, slower

warming ocean affects on marine life

- reduced fertilization - reduced hearing ability

ground water overdraft causes

- salt water intrusion

How do we decide what to believe about environmental issues?

- scientific evidence: mainly observations - media accounts: mainly inferences - source: is it reputable? does it have bias? - a claim can be accepted tentatively if it is based on scientific evidence presented logically from a reliable source

System

- set of components or parts that function together to act as a whole - open system: energy or material moves in/out of the system (earth is open for energy, earth wastes energy in the form of heat because there is no perfect energy transfer - closed system: no energy or material moves in or out (earth basically closed in terms of material but technically open because of meteors and rockets)

Daisyworld

- simple model that illustrates feedback loops - white daisies have high albedo (light reflectivity) and thrive in higher temperatures, they cool the planet causing black daisies to outcompete them - black daisies have low albedo (high light absorption) and thrive at lower temperatures, they warm the planet, causing white daisies to outcompete them

Earthquakes

- starts at focus - epicenter: point at the surface above the focus - magnitude is measured of the richter scale (logarithmic) - 10x greater amplitude = 32x energy - seismology: seismographs print seismograms, which can be used to calculate magnitude/epicenter - use the S-P interval (triangulate three seismographs) to determine the epicenter and the amplitude to determine the magnitude

System states

- steady state: input = output - unsteady state: input > output or > input

Surface mining: mining on the earth's surface

- strip mining: repeatedly peel off strips of earth's surface - open-pit mining: dig down and create giant hole in ground - mountain top mining: remove the top of a mountain - placer mining: dig and uses troughs

What happens at a convergent plate boundary between 2 continets

- strong earthquakes - large mountain ranges due to uplift, but no volcanoes - crust is neither created nor destroyed

What happens at a convergent plate boundary between ocean and continent

- subduction (oceanic crust going under continental crust) causes deep ocean trench - volcanic island arc - strong earthquakes - crust is destroyed

Relationship between altitude and temperature

- temperature decreases with the increase in altitude in the troposphere - temperature increases with the increase in altitude in the stratosphere - the mesosphere is the coldest layer of the atmosphere - increases in the thermosphere with the increase in altitude

Energy

- the ability to do work - joule: the SI measurement of energy that was named after james joule - watt: (joules/second)

Average residence time (ART)

- the ratio of the size of the reservoir to the rate of transfer through it - ART = S / F - ART = reservoir size / rate of transfer

results of increased levels of ultraviolet radiation reaching earth

- the stratosphere has been cooling over the past three decades - increased genetic damage - reduction in immunity - reduction in plant productivity

Geology

- the study of rocks and how they change over time - rocks change very slowly over geologic time

Tsunamis

- the sudden thrust of oceanic plate starts a wave that begins a tsunami - the 9.2 indonesia earthquake release the amount of energy the US used in a year in a second (can humans use this energy?)

conditions and events associated with an el niño year

- the west coast of south america experiences heavy rains, while countries of the eastern pacific experience drought - normal coastal upwelling does not occur along the west coast of south america, and ecosystems are deprived of nutrients - ocean surface temperatures are much warmer than usual along the west coast of south america +++memorization strategy: since there was lots of rain (mud on my shoe), and the ocean water at ayengue was warm, and due to not having coastal upwellings there wasn't enough nutrients for las palmitas (west coast of las palmitas) to be green meanwhile, eastern Pacific had drought

sea level rises because

- thermal expansion - ice melting positive feedback loop

Rock Cycle

- transitions between types of rocks - igneous rock: formed from magnetic crystallization - weathering breaks rocks into sediments' - sedimentary rock: a rock formed from compressed sediments - metamorphic rock: a rock formed from heat and pressure

atmosphere layers in order (earth to space)

- trop, strat, mes, therm - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere

pH =

-log[H+]

The four greenhouse gases

- water vapor (H2O) --> doesn't really cause global warming because of low residence time - carbon dioxide (CO2) --> higher residence time in the atmosphere, but lower GWP then methane - Methane (CH4) --> high global warming potential - Nitrous oxide (N2O) - note: SF6 (Sulfur hexafluoride) is also a greenhouse gas, and SO2, which is responsible for acid rain, is not a greenhouse gas

Direction of Westerlies, Trade Winds, and Polar Easterlies

- west to east - east to west - east to west

Trophic level efficiency is the ratio of production of one trophic level to the next lower trophic level. Values for trophic level efficiency generally range from

1% to 10%

mining process

1) mining 2) ore processing - tailings are left over - lots of grinding - chemicals and bubbles (froth filtration) used to separate substances - smelting: producing metal from ore (smelting waste: slag)

If the half life of Cesium-137 is 30 years, how much of a 200 gram sample will remain after 120 years?

12.5 grams

The net annual primary productivity of a certain wetland ecosytem is found to be 8,000 kilocalories per square meter. If respiration by aquatic producers is 12,000 kilocalories per square meter, what is the gross annual productivity of the ecosystem?

20,000

A temperate grassland biome has a gross primary productivity of 3,480kilocalories/meter2/year and a net primary productivity of 2,000kilocalories/meter2/year. Which of the following is the approximate number of kilocalories/meter2/year available to herbivores in that biome?

200 kilocalories/meter2/year

Doubling time of a population with 2% growth per year

35 years (use Rule of 70!)

mesosphere

3rd layer of the atmosphere

Current human population on Earth

7.7 billion

doubling time =

70 / growth rate

Composition of the atmosphere

78% N2, 21% O2, 0.9% Ar, 0.1% everything else

How much energy produced at each trophic level is lost as heat from respiration?

90%

average residence time (ART)

= reservoir size/rate of transfer - can only be calculated if the system is at a steady state - use dimensional analysis to get units you want - important to determine how long pollutants will be in a system (pollutants adhered to sediments will remains longer)

formula for average residence time

= size of reservoir / rate of flow

divergent boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move away from each other.

transform boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move past each other in opposite directions

convergent boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move toward each other.

Forcing

A process that changes global temperatures

strip mining

A process whereby miners strip away at the surface of the earth to lay bare the mineral deposits

Is the Gaia Hypothesis science?

Analyzing a hypothesis: identify hypothesis, identify supporting evidence, determine weather it is testable, determine if it is a science, fringe science, or pseudoscience, identify its strengths and weaknesses

All of the following are consistent with sustainable water management except A. Provide enough clean water for residents to cook, clean, and drink B. Subsidize the price of water for end users C. Protect water resources from the potentially adverse effects of human activities, such as deforestation, mining, and oil spills. D. Provide river systems with enough water so that they are deep and cool enough that fish can survive

B

CA farmers did not receive their allotment of water from the State Water Project this year, because of the severe drought conditions CA has been in for the previous 4 years. Which of the following actions could farmers take to reduce their need for water? A. Irrigate mid-day B. Computer monitoring of water need, so that water can be supplied only when necessary C. Use irrigation systems that "broadcast" water (spraying it through the air over crops) D. Plant crops that require a lot of water, such almonds and alfalfa

B. Computer monitoring of water need, so that water can be supplied only when necessary

Use of groundwater at a rate faster than it is naturally re-supplied is called A. wetlands B. overdraft C. variable-source approach D. water budget E. influent streams

B. overdraft

If a company were to dump toxic chemicals on the soil, which type of aquifer would most likely be affected? A. artesian aquifer B. unconfined aquifer C. confined aquifer D. recharge aquifer

B. unconfined aquifer

Benefit and drawback of using ethanol in place of gasoline

Benefit: does not increase atmospheric carbon dioxide; Drawback: return on energy investment is low

Benefits and drawbacks of solar power generation

Benefit: no CO2 emissions; Drawbacks: expensive, may damage desert ecosystems

Benefits and drawbacks of hydroelectric power

Benefits: Does not generate pollution or waste; Drawbacks: can be expensive to build, may change habitats both upstream and downstream

Benefits and drawbacks of fuel cells

Benefits: Only emit water, no CO2 if the hydrogen is produced with renewables; Drawbacks: very expensive, production of hydrogen gas requires energy

Benefits and drawbacks of using geothermal energy

Benefits: no CO2 emissions; Drawbacks: expensive, not accessible everywhere, may produce hydrogen sulfide

Benefits and drawbacks of using wind energy

Benefits: renewable, no CO2 emissions; Drawbacks: birds and bats may be harmed

Which of the following effects can be associated with groundwater overdraft? A. acid mine drainage B. raising of the water table C. salt water intrusion. D. uplift of the land surface E. global warming

C. salt water intrusion.

List the greenhouse gases in order of their GWP from highest to lowest

CFC, nitrous oxide, methane, carbon dioxide

methane chemical formula

CH4

Environmental indicators of sustainability

CO2 concentrations, human population, surface temperatures, resource depletion, food production, biological diversity

CO2

Carbon Dioxide. Primary pollutant, formed from combustion of fossil fuels and organic matter, does not cause human health effects, but is a greenhouse gas that causes global warming

CO

Carbon Monoxide. Primary pollutant, both indoor and outdoor, formed from incomplete combustion reactions, can cause asphyxiation because it binds hemoglobin better than oxygen

Coriolis effect

Causes moving air and water to turn left in the southern hemisphere and turn right in the northern hemisphere due to Earth's hemisphere.

What is a method for producing the primary energy for an ecosystem?

Chemosynthesis, photosynthesis

Igneous processes: ore deposits form when magma (or lava) cools

Chromite (chromium ore) deposits are created as magma settles by weight (heavier minerals sink). High pressure and slow cooling of carbon in magma can produce diamonds. Hot water moving within the crust is thought to transport minerals.

Planetary Boundaries (must be limited in order to prevent abrupt environmental change)

Climate change, ocean acidification, ozone depletion, changes in nutrient cycling, freshwater use, deforestation, biodiversity loss, particle pollution, chemical pollution

The top 1 km of the Earth's crust contains an estimated 2 x 1012 metric tons of silver, equal to hundreds of millions times the average consumption of the metal. The main reason that silver remains a valuable and relatively scarce material is its low: A. Density B. Depth C. Market Price D. Abundance E. Concentration

Concentration

Atmospheric Inversion

Condition that forms when warm air traps cold air in a valley or coastal plain, and pollutants concentrate to become potentially toxic

Convergent: together

Continental-continental: crust is neither created nor destroyed, no subduction/volcanoes, mountain ranges, strong earthquakes Oceanic-oceanic: subduction, deep oceanic trench, island arc of volcanoes Continental-oceanic: subduction zone (denser sinks), deep oceanic trench, inland mountains/volcanoes

Divergent: away

Continental-continental: rift valleys, new oceans, mild earthquakes, volcanoes Oceanic-oceanic: mid-oceanic ridges, seafloor spreading, mild earthquakes, volcanoes Continental-oceanic:

Saudi Arabia

Country with the largest reserve of petroleum (crude oil)

Australia

Country with the largest reserve of uranium

Steps to generate electricity

Create heat, boil water, create steam, turn a turbine, generate a flow of electrons in a generator

1977: Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act

Created the Office of Surface Mining

Transform: slide past

Crust is neither created nor destroyed. There are "frequent, moderate earthquakes, but no volcanoes."

Channelized streams have reduced wildlife because of which of the following characteristics? A. aesthetic degradation B. excessive shading C. increased leaf material input D. excessive daily and seasonal variation in water temperature E. low stream velocity

D

Environmental impacts of damming a river include A. Flooding upstream of the dam, which may destroy habitats and/or displace people B. Decreased streamflow and depth downstream, which may disrupt organisms that live there C. Sediment buildup behind the dam, and lack of sediment reaching the coast to resupply beaches D. all of the above

D. all of the above

Phosphorus is important to living things because it is found in

DNA/RNA/ATP/phospholipid bilayer, cell membranes

How hydroelectricity is generated

Dams store water in reservoirs, and water moves downhill to turn a turbine and power a generator

Environmental impacts of burning biomass

Deforestation, plus burning produces carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulates, and VOC's

During the sprig equinox and in the fall equinox the equator is getting the most ______ sunlight

Direct

latitude

Distance north or south of the equator

Why does Earth have seasons?

Earth has seasons because its axis is tilted as it revolves around the sun.

Atmosphere structure

Earth's surface > Troposphere (we live here) > (Ozone layer)/Stratosphere (weather balloons) > Mesosphere (meteors) > Thermosphere (aurora) > Exosphere (bordering space)

How geothermal energy is used to produce electricity

Energy from the heat inside the earth is used to create steam, which turns a turbine and drives a generator

Which of the following is a way that energy enters an ecosystem?

Energy is fixed by autotrophs into organic compounds, Heat energy warms organisms

Mining environmental and social impacts

Environmental: contamination, deforestation, pollution, habitat destruction, noise pollution Social: Jobs/worker influence > exploitation (child labor, etc) > worker dangers (health issues) Visual/noise pollution Worker influx > urbanization/stress on resource supplies > ghost towns/reclamation laws Public health costs Black lung disease

Type II survivorship

Equal risk of death through the life span

Resource cycle

Exploration > resource extraction > refining and processing > product creation > product sale > product usage > disposal (waste stems from each step of process)

Impacts of mineral development

Exploration has minimal impacts. Subsurface (smaller, less visible, less waste, less safe for workers, less habitat destruction, higher cost) vs surface mining

Environmental Impacts of Mineral Development

Exploration: minimum impact (erosion, disturbances, etc) Mining/processing: heavier impact Effects worsen as the ore becomes lower grade. Subsurface v.s. surface mining: Subsurface mines are small. Subsurface mines are less visible and less disturbing. Subsurface mines produce less waste rock. Subsurface mines are more expensive. Subsurface mines are more dangerous to miners. We are trending towards more surface/open-pit mines. Surface mines and quarries cover <0.5% of the US. Dust harms air quality. Water resources are contaminated by drainage/leakages/surface water infiltration/groundwater movement. Plants and animals are killed/harmed by pollutants.

Process and fuel used for nuclear power

Fission of Uranium-235

Energy or Work

Force x Distance, measured in Joules, BTU, kcal, or kWh

Use hydrogen as a fuel, combining hydrogen and atmospheric oxygen to produce electricity

Fuel cells

Equation to determine human impact

I = P x A x T

Minimizing Environmental Impact of Mineral Development

Harming the environment harms us. Environmental regulations (federal, state, local) protect us, to some extent. Initiatives: Reclaiming areas Stabilizing soils Controlling air emissions Treating contaminating water before it leaves a site Treating waste on/off-site The 3 Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle Recycling a ton of steel saves 2,500 pounds of iron ore, 1,000 pounds of coal, and 40 pounds of limestone for ⅓ the energy of creating another ton of steel. Lead (63%), aluminum (38%), and copper (36%) are recycled a lot.

Type III survivorship

High infant mortality, but those that survive live a long time. Typical of r-strategists.

Methods to control invasive species

Human interventions such as mechanical removal, chemical methods, and biological control

Hydrogen fuel cells

Hydrogen fuel cells are used to generate electricity, Energy is needed to produce hydrogen, either by electrolysis or methane reforming, If the hydrogen is produced from water using renewable energy sources, there are no greenhouse gas emissions, The only byproduct of a fuel cell is water, Hydrogen fuel cells are most often used to run electric cars

when was there too many CFCs (chlorines attached to oxygen)

In the 60s and 70s they destroyed the ozone layer. Montreal protocol banned CFCs, ozone levels expected to be normal by 2050

During the past 100 years, mean global annual temperature has

Increased by 0.5 degrees C

Ozone (indoor)

Indoor air pollutant put out by electronic devices such as copy and fax machines, printers, and air conditioners that is toxic and irritating to the eyes and lungs.

asbestos

Indoor air pollutant that causes lung cancer. Used as insulation against fire in older buildings.

Bioaerosols

Indoor air pollutants such as mold spores, pollen, viruses and bacteria, that can cause allergies of sickness

Demographic transition

Industrialization of a country, and resulting transition from high birth and death rates in the preindustrial stage, to low birth and death rates in the post-industrial stage

CITES

International treaty prohibiting trade in endangered species

Carrying capacity of the Earth for humans

It depends on level of consumption per person

Sutters mill, California (1848)

James Marshall discovered gold, kicking off the gold rush, 300,000+ came to California, few struck it rich (mainly those selling supplies did)

How wind energy is used to generate electricity

Kinetic energy of moving air is used to spin a turbine, which powers a generator

Environmental science involves studying interactions between natural and human systems in terms of:

Land and water use Energy Pollution Climate change

carrying capacity

Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support

overburden

Layer of soil and rock overlying a mineral deposit.

Pb

Lead. Primary pollutant, used to be added to gasoline, neurotoxin.

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990

Legislation that further limits SO2, NOx, toxics, and CFC emissions and places stricter controls to reduce urban smog.

chaparal

Low annual precipitation, cool/wet and hot/dry seasons, low scrubby vegetation adapted to fire

Type I survivorship

Low infant mortality, most individual die in old age. Typical of K-selected species.

What triggers an El Nino

Low pressure in Eastern Pacific and High Pressure in Western Pacific

savana

Low rainfall, high temperatures, high biodiversity of plant species, few trees, many large grazing mamals

natural resources

Materials or substances such as minerals, forests, water, and fertile land that occur in nature and can be used for economic gain

CH4

Methane. Primary pollutant, enters the atmosphere when melting permafrost releases methane hydrates, when coal is mined, when oil is drilled, when gas pipelines break, in leaky gas pipes in houses and buildings, and due to natural seeps. Strong greenhouse gas that causes global warming.

Reclamation

Mine Reclamation (video): Location: Kantishna, Alaska Placer mining > more extensive mining (caused extensive damage) Took out 200,000+ pounds of waste. Goal: reestablish a stable stream so that revegetation can occur Reclamation can provide lots of jobs (many people are passionate about this). Reclamation process: Remove waste/hazardous material Prevent acid damage Stabilize land/slope Establish new landforms and vegetation Control particulate emissions Contain/treat contaminated water

Availability of Mineral Resources

Mineral resources are nonrenewable. Rapid consumption (not ideal): faster depletion Conservation: slower depletion Conservation and recycling (ideal): slowest depletion When availability is limited, we can: Find more resources Recycle and reuse Reduce consumption FInd a substitute

prarie

Moderate annual average temperature, too dry for trees but too moist to be a desert, good for agriculture, high abundance and diversity of large grazing mammals

which area of the andes mountains has the most rivers?

More rivers would be located on the east side of the Andes Mountains because the trade winds are coming from the east.

How light varies in the photic zone

Most red light is absorbed in the upper 1m of water, and blue light only penetrates deeper than 100m in the clearest water. This affects photosynthesis in aquatic ecosystems, whose photosynthesizers have adapted mechanisms to address the lack of visible light.

NOx

Nitrogen Oxides (NO, NO2, N2O). Primary pollutant, formed during all combustion reactions, leads to the production of secondary photochemical smog and acid rain. Primary source is vehicles.

N2O

Nitrous Oxide (type of NOx). Primary pollutant, enters the atmosphere when soil bacteria do incomplete denitrification, commonly associated with excess fertilizer use on agricultural fields, strong greenhouse gas that causes global warming

ozone depletion reactions that occur in the stratosphere are facilitaded by

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

areas in US most affected by sea level rise

Northeast and gulf of mexico

Distributions of mineral resources: 71% of the Earth is covered by ocean.

Ocean water contains ~3.5% dissolved solids (mostly chlorine) The concentrations of dissolved minerals in the ocean is lower than the concentrations of those same minerals in the crust

Ores

Ore: a mineral deposit from which minerals can be profitably extracted Ores are concentrated by fractional cooling, evaporation, weathering, and heat/pressure at plate boundaries.

Efficiency

Output/Input

Water pollution: acid mine drainage

Overburden and tailings from coal/metal mines are acidic Acidic water lowers pH and harms/kills organisms

PM2.5

Particulate matter under 2.5 microns in diamter. Primary pollutant, caused by combustion of fossil fuels and biomass, fine particulate matter that gets deep into the lungs and causes irritation, can carry other toxins (such as mercury!) deep into the lungs

Fuel in order of energy efficiency (lowest to highest)

Peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite

Factors affecting infant mortality

Prenatal and child healthcare, access to good nutrition

method to reduce the occurrence of natural fires

Prescribed burn - forests are set on fire under controlled conditions

Vapor Recovery Nozzle

Pollution control device on gas pumps that prevents VOC's from entering the atmosphere while pumping gas.

Catalytic converter

Pollution control for automobiles that reduces emissions of CO and NOx

Scrubber

Pollution control for coal burning plants that removes SO2

Settling chamber

Pollution control that allows air to slow down to let particulate matter drop out of the airstream

Electrostatic precipitator

Pollution control that uses static electricity to remove particulate matter

Benzene

Primary air toxic that is colorless with a sweet odor. Used as a gasoline additive, industrial solvent, and found in ETS. Can cause blood and bone marrow cancers.

Two types of ecological succession

Primary and secondary

Minerals and Sustainability

R-C ratio A measure of the time available to find solutions to the depletion of a given resource. R: known reserves C: Rate of consumption When R is larger or when C is small, we have more time.

Albedo

Reflection - ice has high albedo meaning high reflectivity

A developer wants to develop a large tract of land near a watershed, which will require the removal of several large trees. Which of the following statements best describes the impact that the development would have on the watershed?

Removing large trees would cause an increase in temperature and keep the surrounding water and soil warmer.

tailings

Rock and other waste materials removed as impurities when waste mineral material is separated from the metal in an ore.

ore

Rock that contains a metal or economically useful mineral

Minimizing impacts of Mineral Development

SMCRA: Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act The 3Rs of waste management: reuse, reduce, recycle

Air Quality Index

Scale that allows citizens to know how good or bad air quality is on a given day and whether they should restrict their activity

Despite the montreal protocol, we are currently at the peak of concentration of chemicals in the stratosphere. Scientists expect a recovery in the ozone levels in the stratosphere in ___ years

Scientists expect a recovery in the ozone levels in the stratosphere in 100 years

Photochemical smog

Secondary pollutant, brown in color, formed when high levels of NOx and VOC's mix with UV light, irritates eyes and lungs

Ground level ozone

Secondary pollutant, formed with photochemical smog, harmful eye and lung irritant. Acts as a powerful greenhouse gas in the troposphere

Sick Building Syndrome

Situation in which building occupants experience acute health and comfort effects when inside a building but not when they leave, which cannot be identified as a specific illness. Can be caused by inadequate ventilation, chemical or biological contaminants

Taiga

Snow forest, coniferous forest, includes pines and spruces

contains the ozone layer

Stratosphere

coal extraction and use paired with environmental impact

Strip mining- acid mine drainage, Mountain top removal- valleys are filled with waste rock, Underground mining- risk of collapse, explosion, fire, and respiratory illness, Burning coal to generate electricity- emissions of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, toxic metals (such as mercury), and particulates into the atmosphere

Characteristics of developed countries

Strong economy, low TFR, low birth and death rates, more people dying of diseases of aging (diabetes, heart disease, cancer, etc.)

Which type of mining is usually most directly harmful to miners? A. Strip mining B. Subsurface mining C. Mountaintop removal D. Open-pit mining E. Placer mining

Subsurface mining

SO2

Sulfur Dioxide. Primary pollutant, formed when coal is combusted, leads to the production of secondary smog and acid rain

H2SO4

Sulfuric Acid. Secondary pollutant, formed when SO2 interacts with water in the atmosphere. Causes a decrease in pH in rivers and lakes, disrupts symbiotic relationships between plants and soil fungi, and dissolves buildings and monuments made of limestone, marble, or sandstone

Minerals and Sustainability

Sustainability is for the long-term, but mineral resources are nonrenewable. Humans will use different resources to obtain the same results. R-C ratio: the ratio of time available to find a solution to the depletion of nonrenewable reserves. R-C ratios for zinc and copper have been ~30years for the last 50 years.

Which of the following abiotic factors, when graphed on the x-axis, leads to the curved line in the atmosphere graph due to variation in the different layers of the atmosphere?

Temperature

Which of the following is the best explanation for the formation of Hadley cells in the tropics, as seen in the diagram, between 30°N and 30°S latitude?

The Sun warms the moist air at the equator and causes it to rise because of its lower density. As the warm air moves away from the equator, it cools, becomes denser, and then sinks.

Total fertility rate

The average number of children born to a woman during her childbearing years.

climate

The average weather conditions in an area over a long period of time (30+ years)

weather

The condition of Earth's atmosphere at a particular time and place.

Mechanism of how global warming works

The earth receives UV and visibile light radiation from the sun, heats up, and releases infrared radiation (heat), which gets trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and stay in the earth system longer

Coriolis effect

The effect of Earth's rotation on the direction of winds and currents.

subsurface mining

The extraction of mineral and energy resources from deep underground deposits.

surface mining

The extraction of mineral and energy resources near Earth's surface by first removing the soil, subsoil, and overlying rock strata.

wind

The horizontal movement of air from an area of high pressure to an area of lower pressure

how does ocean acidification affect coral formation?

The increase in hydrogen ions dissolved in the ocean water sequesters available carbonate ions, preventing the use of calcium carbonate for coral skeleton formation.

troposphere

The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, where weather occurs

Fossil fuels

The most widely used sources of energy globally

Species richness

The number of different species in an area

The maximum amount of biological production that can occur in an ecosystem is determined by

The trophic level efficiency of the organisms in the ecosystem, The amount of energy coming into the system

exosphere

The outer layer of the thermosphere, extending outward into space.

thermosphere

The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere.

seafloor spreading

The process that creates new sea floor as plates move away from each other at the mid-ocean ridges

stratosphere

The second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, where the ozone layer exists

earthquake

The shaking that results from the release of stored energy when stress overcomes a locked fault.

Malthusian theory

The theory that population grows faster than food supply

Major factor that limits food production on Earth for humans

There is only so much arable land on Earth, and some is being lost to erosion every year

Two reasons sea level is rising

Thermal expansion of the oceans and melting land ice

3 nuclear disasters

Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima

VOC's

Volatile Organic Compounds. Primary indoor and outdoor pollutants, compounds that evaporate from gas stations, car engines, industrial processes, paints, solvents, varnishes, clothing, cleaning products, personal care products, and ETS. Lead to the production of photochemical smog outside and are toxic, irritants, and carcinogens

why is water vapor, a greenhouse gas, not considered a significant contributor to global climate change?

Water vapor has broader absorption bands than carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases do, but a relatively short residence time

The earth is closest to the sun in the ________ and farthest away in the _______

Winter, Summer

trophic cascade

When one species is removed from or added to a specific food web, the rest of the food web can be affected

How is oxone formed?

When oxygen molecules interact with ultraviolet radiation from the Sun

convection current

a current caused by the rising of heated fluid and sinking of cooled fluid

What type of park is best for preserving wildlife?

a large one

reservoir

a location where an element spends some period of time

food web

a model of an interlocking pattern of food chains that depicts the flow of energy and nutrients in two or more food chains

indicator species

a plant or animal that, by its presence, abundance, scarcity, or chemical composition, demonstrates that some distinctive aspect of the character or quality of an ecosystem is present

rain shadow

a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side

reservoir

a site where a chemical is stored for a period of time

keystone species

a species whose activities have a particularly significant role in determining community structure

El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

a systematic shift in atmospheric pressure, sea-surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean

Limnetic zone

a zone of open water in lakes and ponds (freshwater)

Ecological services provided by forests

absorb pollutants and store carbon dioxide

The cooling tower in a nuclear power plant

acts to dissipate the heat into the atmosphere and reduces the amount of water that a nuclear power plant uses from a nearby body of water

4 methods for conserving energy at home

adjust the thermostat, conserve water, use energy-efficient appliances, and plant conservation landscaping

Generalists

advantage in habitats that are changing

Specialists

advantage in habitats that remain constant

When the costs of locating, extracting, processing, and distributing mineral resources exceed the price the market is willing to pay, which of the following results? A. development of alternatives to that mineral resource B. development of recycling techniques for that mineral C. consumers do without that mineral resource D. all of these E. exploration for new reserves

all of these

Species response to environmental changes

alter behaviors, move, or perish

climate is affected by

altitude, latitude, topography, ocean, wind

nitrogen is important to living things because it is found in

amino acids and proteins, DNA/RNA/ATP

average residence time

amount in reservoir/amount outflow

recharge zone

an area in which water travels downward to become part of an aquifer

An increase in ocean water temperature causes

an increase in metabolism in marine species and a decrease in disolved oxygen in ocean water

Increase in ocean temperature causes

an increase in metabolism in marine species and decreased disolved oxygen in ocean water

El Nino

an irregularly occurring and complex series of climatic changes affecting the equatorial Pacific region and beyond every few years, characterized by the appearance of unusually warm, nutrient-poor water off northern Peru and Ecuador, typically in late December.

Selective pressures

any factors that change the behaviors and fitness of organisms within an environment

The 10% rule

approximates that in the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next. The loss of energy that occurs when energy moves from lower to higher trophic levels can be explained through the laws of thermodynamics.

a drawback of HCFCs as a replacement for CFCs is that HCFCs

are a greenhouse gas and contribute to climate chage

ferrel cell

between 30 and 60

polar cell

between 60 and 90

hadley cell

between equator and 30

characteristics of a watershed

area, length, slope, soil, vegetation types, and divides.

Wetlands

areas where water covers the soil, either part or all of the time

Winds generated by atmospheric circulation help transport heat throughout the Earth. Climate change may change circulation patterns,

as temperature changes may impact Hadley cells and the jet stream.

usable nitrogen is taken up by plants

assimilation

How nuclear energy is used to produce electricity

atoms are split into smaller parts, releasing heat, which boils water to produce steam, turn a turbine, and power a generator

3 things that influence which energy sources people use and how they use them

availability, price, and governmental regulations

Things that limit population growth

available resources and space

Factors that affect human population growth

birth rates, infant mortality rates, death rates, access to family planning, education, nutrition, and age at first marriage

natural rate of increase =

births - deaths

growth =

births - deaths + immigration - emigration

As it relates to corals: ocean warming causes____, ocean acidification causes ____

bleaching, loss of calcium carbonate/hard to make shells

taiga

boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces, and larches.

Benefits of using ethanol for transportation

burning ethanol does not increase atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, it can be grown and produced locally, reducing reliance on foreign oil imports

anthropogenic sources of carbon to the atmosphere

burning fossil fuels, deforestation, land use change

Impacts of urbanization on the carbon cycle

burning of fossil fuels and landfills increase the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

ocean currents that impact whether in the united states

california current, gulf stream

clearcutting

can be economically advantageous but leads to soil erosion, increased soil and stream temperatures, flooding, release of carbon dioxide which contributes to climate change

renewable energy source

can be replenished naturally, at or near the rate of consumption, and reused

Competition

can occur within or between species in an ecosystem where there are limited resources - resources like territory, food, mates, and habitat

Warmer oceans can hold less

carbon

products of fuel combustion

carbon dioxide and water

What is released when any fossil fuel is combusted

carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, particulate matter

Changes in temperature can change circulation patterns, leading to

changes in jet stream and storm tracks

Impacts of succession on a disturbed ecosystem

changes in the total biomass, species richness, and net productivity over time

Impacts of climate change on soil

changes in viability and increased erosion

"The average rainfall in Palo Alto is about 15 inches per year, and temperatures range from 38 to 80 degrees F." This is a statement about

climate

Factors affecting the global distribution of nonmineral terrestrial natural resources, such as water and trees for lumber,

climate, geography, latitude and altitude, nutrient availability, and soil.

population means

closely assosiated

when a fuel source is used to generate both useful heat and electricity

cogeneration

How fossil fuels are used to generate electricity

combust with oxygen to produce heat, boil water to produce steam, turn a turbine, power a generator

Threats to wetlands and mangroves

commercial development, dam construction, overfishing, and pollutants from agriculture and industrial waste

Results of plate movement

earthquakes/tsunamis, landslides, oceanic basin formation, volcanoes, mountains

Impact of human disruption to ecosystem services

economic and ecological consequences

Strategies for reducing TFR

education about and access to family planning, education and employment opportunities for women, eliminate government policies that reward having more children, encourage breastfeeding

Mineral resources

elements, chemical compounds, minerals, or rocks concentrated in a form that can be extracted to obtain a usable commodity

Units of Productivity

energy per unit area per unit time (e.g., kcal/m2/yr)

strip mining requires the removal of vegetation, which makes the area more susceptible to

erosion

calcium, sodium, and potassium is extracted by...

evaporative processes

Nonrenewable energy source

exists in a fixed amount and involves energy transformations that cannot easily be replaced

Happens when resources are abundant

exponential growth

How energy flows through ecosystems

from the sun to producers in the lowest trophic levels and then upward to higher trophic levels

Irrigation systems, least to most effective

furrow flood spray drip

Characteristics of invasive species

generalist, r-selected species and therefore may outcompete native species for resources

3 Levels of biodiversity

genetic diversity, species diversity, and habitat diversity

Ozone

good ozone protects us from harmful radiation, bad ozone is smog

Survivorship curve

graph that shows relative survival rates of a group of individuals of the same age

what is required to turn geothermal energy into electricity

groundwater

Impacts of hydrologic fracturing (fracking)

groundwater contamination and release of VOC's

Major environmental change may lead to this

habitat changes

4 impacts of mining

habitat destruction, groundwater contamination, particulate air pollution (dust), release of methane

Impacts of urban sprawl

habitat loss - more land is used for housing and roads, so there is less for ecosystems; increased traffic congestion and pollution

Impact of Global climate change on biodiversity

habitat loss via changes in temperature, precipitation, and sea level rise

High thin clouds

have low albedo, warm the planet

plate tectonics is driven by

heat and convection currents in the earth's mantle

low thick clouds have

high albedo

factors that promote ecosystem resilience

high genetic diversity, high species richness, more generalist species

Characteristics of developing countries

high infant mortality rates, high TFR, more children in the workforce, more people dying of epidemic diseases

southeast trade winds move from +++check

high to low pressure

Population dispersion

how individuals are arranged in space - can be uniform, random, or clumped

Sustainability

humans living on Earth and their use of resources without depletion of the resources for future generations

Environmental unity

impossible to change only one thing because everything affects everything else *many things are closely related but not everything is linked to everything ex: extinction of north american snail doesn't change amazon river's flow

4 methods for large scale energy conservation

improving vehicle fuel economy standards, using BEV's and hybrids, using public transportation, and implementing green building desing

Antrhopogenic reasons that oceans are warming and becoming more acidic include

increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to burning of fossil fuels, vehicle emissions, and deforestation

Major impact on human health due to global climate change

increase of vector-borne diseases

Primary impact of burning diesel fuels

increased sulfur dioxide reduces air quality

2 things that increase the demand for energy

industrialization and development

Methods to protect forests from pathogens and insects

integrated pest management (IPM) and the removal of affected trees

descending air

is dry, causing lack of precipitation (deserts)

water vapor, a greenhouse gas, is not a significant contributer to climate change because

it has a short residence time

what effect would the removal of large trees have on a watershed

it would cause an increase in temperature, making the surrounding water and soil warmer

the greatest contributer of methane to the atmosphere is

landfills

K-selected species

large, few offspring, high parental care, long life spans

ocean

largest reservoir, containing 97% of water on Earth

difference between magma and lava

lava is above the surface

how to draw a wind diagram (starting from poles going to center) the arrows go

left right left

What percent of the water on Earth is actually useful for drinking and producing food?

less than 1%

Three types of coal, from least to most energy content

lignite, bituminous, and anthracite

Density independent factors

limiting factor that affects all populations in similar ways, regardless of population size (major storms, fires, heat waves, droughts)

density dependent factors

limiting factor that depends on population size (access to clean water and air, food availability, disease transmission, territory size)

Happens when resources are limited

logistic growth

Climate is

long term

Economic impacts of oil spills

loss of revenue in fishing and tourism

temperate rainforests

lots of rain, but lower temp than tropical rainforest

sun

major energy source powering the hydrologic cycle

Ore deposits

metals concentrated in anomalously high amounts by geologic processes

Impact of cities on the carbon cycle

methane from landfills, carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels for cars and power plants

Oceans are becoming more acidic because

more CO2 in the atmosphere leads to more CO2 diffusing into the ocean and forming carbonic acid

migration

movement of wildlife from place to place due to seasons or natural disruptions

road construction, logging, and mining are banned in which of the following federal lands?

national wilderness preservation areas

The "cleanest" fossil fuel, mostly made of methane

natural gas

overshoot

occurs when carrying capacity is exceeded. leads to resource depletion, causing famine, disease and/or conflict, and dieback of the population.

Habitat fragmentation

occurs when large habitats are broken into smaller, isolated areas. Causes include the construction of roads and pipelines, clearing for agriculture or development, and logging.

Ocean warming is causing coral bleaching, which

occurs when the loss of algae within corals cause the corals to bleach white. Some corals recover and some die.

major reservoirs from largest to smallest

ocean, glaciers, groundwater, surface freshwaters

Marine aquatic biomes

oceans, coral reefs, marshland, and estuaries

The simplest ecosystem needs___ to function properly

one species that produces its own food, and a second species that decomposes the waste of the first, plus air and water

Large portions of soil and rock that are removed to expose ore during strip mining

overburden

Peat

partially decomposed organic material that can be burned for fuel

absorbs heat directly from the sun, but cannot be stored or collected

passive solar energy

Types of Earth system processes

periodic, episodic, or random

fluxes that move carbon into and out of the biosphere

photosynthesis and cellular respiration

Capture light energy from the sun and transform it directly into electricity

photovoltaic cells

winds (top to equator of earth diagram)

polar easterlies, westerlies, northeast trades

Melting sea ice and thawing tundra causes release of greenhouse gases like methane —> this is a

positive feedback loop

predator-prey relationship

predator is an organism that eats another organism (the prey)

Global circulation models

predict climate change

Functions of algae in marine biomes

primary producers, supply a large portion of the Earth's oxygen, and also take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

Most invasive species are this type

r-selected, generalists

population bottlenecks and domestication of crops and livestock

reduce genetic diversity

methods for mitigating deforestation

reforestation, using and buying wood harvested by ecologically sustainable forestry techniques (sustainable forestry), and reusing wood

Environmental impacts of hydrologic fracturing (fracking)

release of volatile organic compounds, groundwater contamination, release of methane

overdraft

removing groundwater faster than it is recharged, causing the water table to drop

Methods to increase water infiltration

replacing traditional pavement with permeable pavement, planting trees, increased use of public transportation, and building up, not out

This location on chart

reserves that are being profitably used

Factors in an ecological footprint

resource demands (food, water, energy, minerals, etc.) and waste production

Marginal Resources

resources neither exploited or explored

Coastal populations will be displaced due to this

rising sea levels, increased storm surges, and increased extreme weather events

Factors affecting the global distribution of nonmineral marine natural resources, such as different types of fish

salinity, depth, turbidity, nutrient availability, and temperature

Impacts of urbanization on the water cycle

saltwater intrusion in coastal areas; Impervious surfaces such as roads, buildings, sidewalks, and parking lots do not allow water to reach the soil, leading to flooding

The largest non-enegy related mineral industry in the United states is A. sand and gravel B. iron C. gold, silver and planinum D. limestone E. salt

sand and gravel

Ways to reduce the air pollution caused by coal combustion

scrubbing, cleaning coal prior to combustion, boiler designs that allow for combustion at lower temperatures, consumer education about energy efficiency

Two earth systems that have changed over geological time for many reasons

sea level, climate

the tilt of the earth on its axis causes

seasons

The rock cycle song

sedimentary rock has been formed in layers Often found near water sources with fossils from decayers then theres igneous rock, here since earth was born with pressure heat and chemicals metamorphic they'll become

Types of rocks that contain oil and natural gas

sedimentary rocks

largest reservoir of carbon

sedimentary rocks (carbonate sediments)

How did we determine the composition of earth

seismic waves

Subsurface mining: mining below the earth's surface

sink the shaft, dig the ore

ART

size of resevoir/rate of flux

Atmospheric window

small window CFCs fit through

r-selected species

small, many offspring, minimal or no parental care, short life spans

Invasive species

species that can live, and sometimes thrive, outside of their normal habitat. Invasive species can sometimes be beneficial, but they are considered invasive when they threaten native species

Impact of ice loss on ecosystems

species that depend on ice for habitat and food will decline

decomposition

storage of carbon in the lithosphere

Freshwater aquatic biomes

streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes - a vital resource for drinking water.

Ways to promote smart urban growth and reduce urban sprawl

subsidize mass transit and bike paths; don't extend sewer, water or power beyond a certain boundary to protect wild lands; alter zoning rules for industrial/commercial areas

which type of mining is more dangerous to miners

subsurface mining

diesel fuel releases

sulfur dioxide

Air pollutants produced when coal is burned to produce electricity

sulfur dioxide, toxic metals like mercury, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and particulates

Which aquatic ecosystem has the largest mean net primary productivity (NPP in g/m2/yr)?

swamps and wetlands

Major terrestrial biomes

taiga, temperate rainforests, temperate seasonal forests, tropical rainforests, shrubland (chaparral), temperate grassland, savanna (tropical grassland), desert, and tundra

Waste material that remains once ore is separated from the surrounding rock

tailings or slag

Source of crude oil containing sand, clay, water and bitumen

tar sands

Which of the following abiotic factors, when graphed on the x-axis, leads to the curved line in the atmosphere levels graph due to variation in the different layers of the atmosphere?

temperature gradients

Sustainable yield

the amount of a renewable resource that can be taken without reducing the available supply

Urban sprawl

the change in population distribution from high population density areas to low density suburbs that spread into rural lands

the location in a nuclear power plant in which an accident would most likely result in the release in nuclear fission products is

the containment building because there is nuclear fuel there

what is the most likely change to terrestrial biomes resulting from warmer average global temperatures?

the global distribution of midlatitude biomes, such as grasslands and temperate rainforests, would increase

which protocol curtailed production of ozone-depleting substances?

the montreal protocol

the more CO2 absorbed in the ocean,

the more H+ ions released, and the more acidic the ocean becomes

hydrologic cycle

the movement of water molecules between the ocean, atmosphere, surface and ground water

Species richness

the number of different species found in an ecosystem

problem with biomass fired power plants

the operational costs of biomass fired plants are much higher in comparison to coal fired plants

the ocean currents move in the same direction as

the prevailing winds

Ecological tolerance

the range of conditions, such as temperature, salinity, flow rate, and sunlight that an organism can endure before injury or death results.

replacement fertility rate

the rate at which children must be born to replace those dying in the population (about 2.1 children per woman)

Primary productivity

the rate at which solar energy (sunlight) is converted into organic compounds via photosynthesis over a unit of time

Net primary productivity

the rate of energy storage by photosynthesizers in a given area, after subtracting the energy lost to respiration

source

the reservoir a chemical is coming from

sink

the reservoir a chemical is going to

the lithosphere is

the top of the mantle and the crust

Gross primary productivity

the total rate of photosynthesis in a given area

Which of the following layers of the atmosphere contains charged gas molecules that glow and produce light when hit by solar energy, leading to glowing gases such as the northern lights, found over 90 kilometers above Earth's surface?

thermosphere

Energy in daily tides is used to turn a turbine, which powers a generator

tidal energy

purpose of mining

to provide low cost energy and material necessary to make products

Tundras are (hot/cold)

too cold to support tree growth. Ground is frozen

a savana is a

tropical grassland

what is the boundary between the troposhere and stratosphere

tropopause

contains 90% of the atmosphere

troposphere

How organisms adapt to their environment over time

via incremental changes at the genetic level

temperate seasonal forests

warm moist summers and cool winters

environmental problems linked to fracking

wastewater from fracking operations is injected into porous rock formations, which can induce seismic activity

ice caps

water cycle reservoir containing 2% of water on Earth

Ecological services provided by wetlands

water purification, flood protection, water filtration, and habitat

bauxite (aluminum ore) is extracted by...

weathering processes

the area most affected by industrial air pollution from europe is

western asia

Radioactivity

when the nucleus of a a radioactive isotope loses energy by emitting radiation

the Coriolis effect causes

winds to be deflected right in the northern hemisphere, left in te south