APUSH - By the People - Chpt 28

Martial Law Anatoly Dobrynin

*Reagan's* goal of undermining communism where it already existed led also to other steps. In 1981, as protest movements spread in Poland and the Polish Communist government instituted _(1)_, *Reagan* imposed sanctions on Poland and on the Soviet Union: an end to landing rights in the United States for the Russian airline Aeroflot, a ban on the sale of equipment for a Soviet natural gas pipeline, and-- at the petty level—termination of the special parking privileges of Soviet Ambassador _(2)_ in the State Department garage. The administration secretly funneled some $20 million to *Solidarity*, the Polish protest movement, through the *Vatican Bank*, with the approval of Polish *Pope John Paul II*. (868) 5

Space Shuttle Olympics

*Reagan* also benefited from an upsurge of popular patriotism that he had helped to foster. The _(1)_ program had been years in the making since the days when Americans worried about *Sputnik* and Soviet leadership in space, but *Reagan* benefited from the good will when the first _(1)_ was successfully launched in April 1981. *Reagan's* tough line with the Soviet Union pleased anti-Communists, and the fact that at the end of his first term he was the first president since *Herbert Hoover* never to have met with a Soviet leader did not worry them. In June 1984, *Reagan* traveled to France for the 40th anniversary of the *D-Day* landing that ended *World War II*. In a series of events carefully scripted by his communications director, *Michael Deaver*, he led a series of jubilant and patriotism-filled celebrations honoring veterans and American power. Later that summer, the _(2)_ were held in Los Angeles, and *Reagan* led the celebrations, emphasizing how far the country had come since the boycott of the games in Moscow only 4 years before. *Reagan's* wealthy supporters also gave him a huge financial edge over *Mondale*. (867) 1

Palestine Liberation Organization

*Reagan* and his advisers were further pulled into Middle East conflicts when Israel invaded Lebanon in June 1982. Israel's goal was to attack the ___ presence in Lebanon and create a buffer against Syria. *Reagan* did not object, though he tried to get Israel to limit its engagement. Later that year, the United States sent a detachment of Marines to join an international peace effort in Lebanon. In October 1983, a truck loaded with *TNT* drove into the U.S. barracks killing 241 Marines. Americans, including the president, were horrified at the loss of life. The purpose the Marines were supposed to serve was always vague, and after the tragedy, the administration announced that the Marines were to be "redeployed" to ships off the coast where they moved in 1984. (870) 4

Military Spending Domestic Spending Federal Income Tax

*Reagan* came to office with three priorities: increasing _(1)_ to ensure that the United States was significantly stronger than the *Soviet Union*, cutting _(2)_ and government-sponsored social programs, and cutting the _(3)_. He was willing to compromise on almost everything else. (864) 3

Walter Mondale

*Reagan* could not so easily dismiss other issues, however. Labor unions almost unanimously supported ___, although because of *Reagan's* policies they had far less clout. Most African-Americans supported ___, continuing a move by black voters to the Democratic Party that was speeded by *Reagan's* inattention to their needs. Moreover, *Reagan's* silence on the rising epidemic of AIDS, a new and deadly disease, created some of his toughest enemies. Even social and religious conservatives who had flocked to *Reagan* in 1980 were disappointed. He had done little more than talk about many of their issues such as school prayer during his first term. As president, he never gave a speech to an antiabortion audience. However, conservatives did not have another candidate. (866) 5

Contras John Poindexter Oliver North

*Reagan* eventually had to admit, "I told the American people I did not trade arms for hostages. My heart and best intentions still tell me that it is true, but the facts and evidence tell me it is not." Many were shocked that an administration that talked so much about law and order was doing so many illegal things. *Reagan* clearly knew about the illegal sale of arms to Iran and the *arms-for-hostages* deals. Many also suspected that he knew about the transfer of funds to the _(1)_, although that was never proved. _(2)_ and _(3)_ insisted that the decision rested with them alone. Not everyone was convinced, but no "smoking gun" was found. _(3)_ managed to testify brilliantly before Congress, portraying himself as a well-meaning patriot, and though *Reagan's* approval rating plummeted, talk of impeachment ended. (873) 1

Walter Mondale Geraldine Ferraro

*Reagan* faced the prospect of reelection in 1984 with some significant strengths and some formidable weaknesses. To challenge him, the Democrats had, after an intense primary battle with Colorado senator *Gary Hart*, selected former vice president _(1)_ as the Democratic candidate for president. In an historic move, _(1)_ asked New York Representative, _(2)_, to be his running mate, the first time a woman was on the ticket of a major political party. At 73, *Reagan* seemed old, especially when in one debate with _(1)_ he seemed to lose track of a story he was telling. *Reagan* dismissed the issue saying, "I will not make age an issue in this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience." (866) 4

Containment

*Reagan* had several deeply held beliefs that would drive his foreign policy. His fierce anticommunism, which first developed when he battled with perceived Communists in the film industry in the 1940s, was reinforced by his religious faith, which was offended by Communist atheism. His ability to articulate that passionate stance against communism had been honed through his speaking career for *GE* and as governor. He saw communism, as he once said, as "the focus of evil in the modern world," and the United States as the exceptional carrier of goodness—the "shining city on a hill." He disliked the longstanding policy of ___ that had been at the core of American foreign policy from *Truman* to *Carter*. He did not want merely to contain communism where it was. He wanted to undermine existing Communist governments. (868) 2

Democratic Leadership Council

A year after the election, a group of Democrats, including Representative *Richard Gephardt* of Missouri and Governor *Bill Clinton* of Arkansas organized the ___. These "New Democrats" argued that there was more to the election than *Reagan's* personal popularity and that the Democratic Party was not going to win elections until it moved closer to the conservative mainstream. The creation of the ___ was high tribute to the conservative shift in American opinion that constituted the heart of the *Reagan Revolution* and signaled a move away from traditional *New Deal* Democratic values that included significant government services, especially for those in need, and support for labor unions. (867) 4

August Wilson Toni Morrison

African-American artists and writers also came to play a dominant role in theater and literature in the 1980s. The playwright _(1)_ began producing a series of plays that explored the black experience from 1900 to 2000, including *Ma Rainey's Black Bottom* in 1985 and *Fences* in 1986. _(2)_'s novel, *Beloved*, published in 1987, explored the evils of slavery and eventually won the Nobel Prize for Literature. (882) 5

Mikhail Gorbachev Perestroika Glasnost

After a succession of hard-line Communists who were aging and ill, _(1)_ represented a new younger generation of reform-minded Soviet leaders who saw how desperately their country needed change. Top-down Soviet-style planning was strangling the economy. Matching the United States in military matters took a huge percentage of their nation's limited wealth. The disastrous meltdown of the nuclear reactor at *Chernobyl* just after _(1)_ came to office further convinced him of the need for change. _(1)_ could be as charming and optimistic as *Reagan*, but he was also a devoted Communist and a very tough leader. He called for Major changes: _(2)_, reform of the Soviet economic system while maintaining communism, and _(3)_, more openness and freedom for Soviet citizens. He quickly concluded that matching the U.S. arms buildup was going to bankrupt the Soviet Union, and he sought a way to avoid the arms race. (874) 1

Cold War

After his reelection in 1984, *Reagan* was also ready to talk. By 1985, he had achieved the military buildup that he wanted and could negotiate from a position of strength. U.S. allies, especially those in Europe who lived on the front line of any conflict, were tired of ___ tensions and increased pressure on the United States for a different policy. *Nancy Reagan* nudged her husband away from the hard-liners in his administration. *Reagan* also knew that his ___ credentials gave him room to maneuver what another leader might not have. (874) 2

Franklin Roosevelt

After the 1986 tax bill passed, *Reagan* devoted more and more of his time to foreign policy. He continued to appoint conservative judges and to support deregulation and the shrinking of the federal government, but he did not present major domestic policy initiatives in his last 2 years in office. *Reagan* had come to office a devout *Cold Warrior*. But before he left office, he presided over the greatest change in U.S.-Soviet relationships since ___ had granted official U.S. recognition to the Soviet Union in the 1930s. (867) 6

National Security Council Robert McFarlane

Although the hostage crisis with Iran ended the day *Reagan* came to office in January 1981, The United States remained hostile to Iran because of the crisis. When Iran and Iraq went to war against each other in September 1980, the United States tended to wish both sides ill. However, as the war continued, members of Reagan's _(1)_ became convinced that it might be possible to support moderates within the Iranian government and build a new U.S. relationship by supplying Iran with weapons. The United States also had good reason to believe that Iran had influence with forces in Lebanon that were holding seven U.S. citizens hostage. _(1)_ staff, led by *National Security Advisor* _(2)_, argued Iran might help free the hostages, which was a high priority for the president. Carrying forged Irish passports and traveling under assumed names, _(2)_ and his deputy, Lieutenant Colonel *Oliver North*, secretly visited Tehran. In spite of U.S. policy never to negotiate for the release of hostages and despite its official arms embargo of Iran, the United States sold over 2,000 missiles to Iran in 1985 and 1986. It was the beginning of the greatest foreign policy misadventure of the *Reagan* administration. (870) 3

Gambling

By 1994, 72 tribes were operating ___ operations in half of the states, and many more were planned. The gross income of these operations, $1.5 billion, was only a tiny fraction of the $330 billion the Americans spent on ___, but it was a huge new source of income for tribes that had existed for generations on the economic margins. (887) 1

Savings and Loan Michael Milken

Among the victims of *Black Monday* was the nation's _(1)_ industry. In 1981 as part of the *Reagan* efforts to deregulate government, most of the restrictions on _(1)_ associations were removed. They were allowed to invest not only in houses and cars, which they had long done, but also in risky oil and gas ventures, real estate developments, and even *junk bonds* like those sold by _(2)_. They attracted many more depositors by paying previously unheard of high levels of interest. They made huge fortunes for their executives and investors. But when the stock market, *junk bonds*, and then housing prices collapsed in the late 1980s, the _(1)_ industry found itself in serious trouble with investments that were not worth what they owed to depositors. Some 1,200 of the nation's 4,000 _(1)_ required federal help or went out of business. Since the federal government guaranteed _(1)_ deposits as they did bank deposits, the government—and taxpayers—were left with the cost, which came to $500 billion or $2,000 for every American. Further investigations showed that U.S. senators had done special favors for the _(1)_ industry, and six senators were censured. _(1)_ owners who made fortunes were found to have stolen from their companies. *William Crawford*, a California official charged with investigating the scandal, said, "The best way to rob a bank is to own one." (880) 2

Tax Reform Act

As *Reagan* entered his second term, people expected a repeat of the first. *Reagan's* top priority remained reducing taxes, and in the mid-1980s, many Democrats agreed. A bipartisan coalition passed the ___ of 1986 that cut the number of tax brackets from 14 to two, with tax rates of 15 and 28 percent respectively, while closing many tax loop-holes. Led by the president, who had begun his term cutting the tax rate for the wealthiest Americans from 70 to 50 percent, the government had now cut it to 28 percent. (867) 5

George Bush Voodoo Economics

As a candidate in the Republican primaries in 1980, _(1)_ had called *Ronald Reagan's* economic plans, "_(2)_." While Democrats had a field day with the term once he became *Reagan's* vice president, _(1)_ was a loyal member of the *Reagan* team, so loyal that some thought he had disappeared, but those who thought that way underestimated him considerably. (875) 2

Israel Camp David Accords

As the United States focused on the Soviet Union, the *Reagan* foreign policy advisors also viewed the rest of the world through the prism of the *Cold War*, sometimes with disastrous results. Regarding the Middle East, *Reagan* came to office with a generally pro-_(1)_ point of view, a perspective that was supported by many Christian evangelicals in his political base. His team believed that *Jimmy Carter's* _(2)_ had tilted U.S. policy too closely toward Egypt and wanted to correct the balance. At the same time, they saw _(1)_, Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia as U.S. allies and were prepared to sell military aircraft to the Saudis and to supply _(1)_ with jet: bombers and military hardware. Their goal was to create a strong buffer in the Middle East against *Syria* and *Iraq*, both of which Were viewed as Soviet client states. (869) 4

Ed Meese Oliver North Contras John Poindexter

As the details of U.S. activity began to emerge, the president insisted that the government, "did not, repeat, did not trade arms or anything else for hostages." He also asked Attorney General _(1)_ to investigate. _(2)_ immediately began to shred documents in his office. _(1)_ reported to the president that _(2)_ had, in fact, not only sold arms to Iran—presumably to free hostages—but also used the profits to aid the _(3)_. National Security advisor _(4)_ met with *Reagan*, confirmed that _(1)_ was right, and resigned. *Reagan* asked former Texas Senator *John Tower* to lead an investigation. A special prosecutor, *Lawrence Walsh*, was appointed, and Congress held hearings. (872) 7

Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty

At their next summit in Washington, DC, in December 1987, *Reagan* signed the _(1)_ in a well-publicized ceremony, and *Gorbachev* met and mingled with American crowds like a U.S. politician. The two seemed at ease with each other. When *Reagan* included one of his favorite sayings, "trust, but verify," in his remarks, *Gorbachev* interjected, "You repeat that at every meeting." People celebrated "*Gorby fever*." The Senate ratified the _(1)_ by a large vote in May 1988. The two countries also made significant progress in resolving the conflicts in Nicaragua and Afghanistan, plans for joint space missions, cultural and student exchanges, and emigration and human rights. They jointly sponsored a UN resolution calling for an end to the Iran-Iraq war. The same month that the Senate ratified the _(1)_, the two leaders met for a fourth time in Moscow. They walked through *Red Square*, called each other "old friends," and talked with Russian citizens. When asked about his earlier *Cold War* speeches, *Reagan* said they were from "another time, another place."Before *Reagan* left Moscow, the United States and Soviet Union had essentially normalized their relationship. For all intent and purposes, the *Cold War* was over. (875) 1

Boland Amendment Barry Goldwater Contras

By 1984, however, Congress was unhappy with the administration's *Central American policy*. As early as 1982, Congress passed the _(1)_, prohibiting the United States from seeking to overthrow the *Sandinista* government. Since *Reagan* insisted he was simply trying to get them to negotiate, he ignored that stipulation. But in 1984, when it came to light that the *CIA* had mined Nicaraguan ports, members of Congress—not only liberals but also conservatives, including _(2)_—were furious. In October 1984, Congress passed stricter legislation that cut off all aid to the _(3)_. (872) 3

Margaret Thatcher Strategic Defense Initiative Star Wars

By 1985, *Reagan* and *Gorbachev* were ready to work together. British Prime Minister _(1)_, known as the *Iron Lady* because of her ability to stand up to pressure, was a close ally and friend of *Reagan*. She assured him that *Gorbachev* was someone "with whom we can do business." *Reagan* and *Gorbachev* began a private correspondence and then met for the first time in November 1985 at *Geneva* where they agreed in general to a reduction in nuclear arms. The following October, they met again at *Reykjavik*, Iceland. There, in a small house on the ocean, they got to know each other. They talked about their lives—*Gorbachev* had once wanted to be an actor—their grandchildren, and their hopes for the future. At one point, they frightened their respective staff when they reached a tentative agreement to abolish all nuclear weapons by 2000 and then moved the date back to 1995. That agreement floundered over *Gorbachev's* insistence that they include _(2)_ and *Reagan's* refusal. The *Reykjavik* summit ended in anger over _(3)_ and without any agreement, but the two men had established a personal bond. (874) 3

Christian Coalition

By the mid-1990s, every Republican candidate for president was courting the ___ and *Reed* could say, "We have gained what we have always sought, a place at the table, a sense of legitimacy." His goal was more than legitimacy, however. *Reed* and *Robertson* wanted to shape the nation's political agenda, from the grass roots up as much as from the top down. *Pat Buchanan*, who served as an advisor to *Reagan* in the 1980s and sought the Republican nomination in the 1990s, told *Reed*, "You just keep working on those school board races and leave the presidency to me." *Buchanan* never won a presidential nomination, but *Reed* told the *National Press Club* "There are an estimated 2,000 religious conservatives who now serve on school boards, city councils, state legislatures, and in Congress." Their impact throughout the 1990s testified to the ___'s power. (883) 6

The Speech

By the time *Reagan* left *GE* in 1962, he was as well known for his political views as his acting. He supported *Barry Goldwater* in 1964. In a standard stump speech that came to he known simply as "___," *Reagan* said that the choice facing Americans was "whether we believe in our capacity for self-government or whether we abandon the *American Revolution* and confess that a little intellectual elite in a far-distant capital can plan our lives for us better than we can plan them ourselves." The speech did not elect *Goldwater*, but it did bring *Reagan* to the attention of a crucial audience—rich Republican conservatives who agreed to back him if he would run for governor of California in 1966. The incumbent governor, Democrat *Edmund G. "Pat" Brown*, a tough campaigner who had defeated Richard Nixon in 1962, was seeking a third term in 1966. *Reagan* defeated him in the fall election and won reelection as governor in 1970. (864) 1

Capitulationist Line

Critics in both countries thought the leaders were moving too fast. In the Senate, North Carolina's *Jesse Helms* tried to stop any new treaty, and *Howard Phillips* of the *Conservative Caucus* called the president a "useful idiot for Soviet propaganda." *Gorbachev*, for his part, had to deal with military and civilian attacks for his "___" toward the United States, Even so, the momentum was not going to be stopped. (874) 6

Patrick Buchanan

Debates about immigration became intense. In campaigning for the Republican presidential nomination in 1992, ___ staked out the anti-immigrant views in the strongest terms. He said, "Our own country is undergoing the greatest invasion in its history, a migration of millions of illegal aliens yearly from Mexico... A nation that cannot control its own borders can scarcely call itself a state any longer." In 1986, almost three-quarters of California voters approved a law that made English the "official language" of the state. While the law had little formal meaning, it was a slap at those who spoke other languages. Some labor union leaders and workers, white and black, complained that new immigrants were taking their Sob or depressing wages in whole industries. (885) 2

Nuclear War

Despite that fierce anticommunism, however, *Reagan* had a far greater horror of ___ than some of his fellow conservatives. His firm belief was that a ___ could "never be won and must never be fought." During his first term, he never trusted the Soviets enough to engage in serious negotiations, but he was determined to avoid ___. (868) 3

Evil Empire

During his first term, *Reagan* was harshly critical of the *Soviet Union*. In a 1983 speech to Christian evangelicals, referred to the Soviet Union as the "___." A year later, in August 1984, thinking that the microphone was turned off, *Reagan* said "My fellow Americans, I am pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever. We begin bombing in five minutes."' It was a joke, but the Soviets found it frightening. *Reagan* also ordered a massive arms buildup. Worried about US vulnerability and believing that any negotiations needed to be from a position of strength, *Reagan* supported annual increases in the military budget between 1981 and 1986. He arranged the deployment of new intermediate, range missiles in Europe in 1983 and resisted serious talks with Soviet leaders. (868) 4

Leonid Brezhnev Mikhail Gorbachev

During his first term, as *Reagan* talked tough and launched the arms buildup, he also refused to meet with Soviet leaders, in part, because he saw no point in such conversations and didn't trust the Soviets and, in part, because of changes in Soviet leadership. _(1)_, who had led the Soviet Union since *Nikita Khrushchev* was deposed in 1964, died in 1982. His successor *Yuri Andropov* died 2 years later, and the next leader, *Konstantin Cherenko*, died a year after that. *Reagan* said, "How am I supposed to get anyplace with the Russians...if they keep dying on me?" Then in 1985, a new and very different leader, _(2)_, came to power in the Soviet Union. (873) 3

Alexander Haig Oscar Romero

Even though a majority of the Congress wanted nothing to do with supporting Central American dictators or overthrowing governments, the administration was determined to see its will done. While rejecting a proposal to invade Cuba, made by _(1)_ during his short tenure as secretary of state, *Reagan* greatly expanded military aid and sent military advisers to El Salvador. That support was authorized even while government-sanctioned death squads assassinated critics, including the Archbishop of San Salvador, _(2)_, murdered while he was saying mass in 1980. (872) 1

Security and Exchange Commission Ivan Boesky Michael Milken

Federal employees at the _(1)_ became suspicious that anyone could have as much success as _(2)_ in guessing the direction of stock values year after year. A _(1)_ investigation showed that _(2)_ was indeed getting illegal insider information about corporate takeovers and mergers. When he was charged with breaking the law, _(2)_ implicated _(3)_, whose illegal dealings were even more complex. _(2)_ was eventually fined $100 million, half of his fortune, _(3)_ paid over $1.1 billion, and both served almost 2 years in federal prison. In the 1987 movie, Wall Street, the villain *Gordon Gekko* gave a "greed is good" speech, based on _(2)_'s Berkeley talk, which became a symbol of an era. (879) 1

Indian Gaming Regulatory Act

Gambling transformed many American Indian communities in the 1980s. While often a subject of derision, gambling brought prosperity to many tribes that had experienced only poverty since their first engagement with Europeans. Two federal court cases, *Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Butterworth* in 1981 and *California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians* in 1987, made it difficult for states to limit gambling on Indian reservations. Some of those who controlled the gambling industry did not like the idea of new competitors, and *He who shall not be named* complained about "equal treatment under the law." But the United States had always used a different set of laws for Indians, and treaty rights created a unique situation. In the court cases, tribes and their attorneys argued that the treaty rights creating the reservations gave them all the powers of any sovereign state to handle their own affairs. To regularize the new industry that was emerging, Congress passed the ___ in 1988, and *Reagan* signed it. While the court cases and legislation did not give the tribes unlimited control over their own affairs, a new industry was born, one that brought prosperity to some, though not to others. (886) 2

General Electric

In 1952 he married *Nancy Davis* and left a declining Hollywood career to become a spokesperson for the ___ Company, serving as the TV host of the ___ Theater program from 1954 to 1962. Working for ___, he also gave pep talks to workers at ___ plants, touted ___ products, and spoke about the corporation's views on taxes and government regulation to business groups. In his ___ career, as in Hollywood, *Reagan* mastered the art of connecting with audiences, especially, maintaining a relaxed and genial presence in the face of lights, crowds, and distractions as well as delivering content from a script. While at ___ he also changed his party registration from Democrat to Republican. (863) 4

AIDS Center for Disease Control

In 1980, _(1)_ was an unknown disease. In June 1981, the _(2)_ , the U.S. government's key agency for monitoring the spread of disease, reported _(1)_ for the first time. Later studies found that _(1)_ may have infected people in the United States as early as 1969, but only the 1980s did Americans learn about what would quickly become a terrible new scourge, first identified among gay men. (887) 4

Freedom Fighters Taliban

In Afghanistan, *Reagan* expanded the *Carter*-era efforts to resist the Soviet occupation. In 1983 and 1984, the United States provided significant aid to the *Mujahedeen* opposition whom *Reagan* called "_(1)_." In 1985, when the Soviets, escalated their involvement, *Reagan* ordered his military to do "what's necessary to win," and the United States began supplying the Afghan resistance with antiaircraft missiles and satellite-based intelligence on Soviet troop movements. Eventually, the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan, leaving the CIA-backed _(2)_ in control of the country. It was a short-term victory but one that came with significant long-term consequences not only for the people of Afghanistan but also for the United States. (870) 1

Berlin Berlin Wall

In June 1987, *Reagan* traveled to _(1)_, the flashpoint of the *Cold War*. Facing the _(2)_ at the *Brandenburg Gate* he demanded, "Mr. *Gorbachev*, tear down this wall!' The speech, which sounded much more like *Reagan's* old line anticommunism than the new thaw in U.S.-Soviet relations, seemed to have been as much an effort to reassure the president's conservative critics as an actual demand. But in fact, the stems that *Reagan* and *Gorbachev* were taking would lead to the end of the wall within 2 years, just after *Reagan* left office. (874) 4

Strategic Defense Initiative Mutually Assured Destruction Edward Teller

In March 1983, *Reagan*, against the almost unanimous advice of his foreign policy team who seldom agreed on anything, announced that the United States was going to develop a _(1)_. As the president described it, _(1)_ would use U.S. technological know-how to create a series of space stations armed with lasers that would destroy any enemy missiles fired at the United States. He thought that long-standing U.S. policy dating to the *Eisenhower* administration of _(2)_ in which each superpower had the ability to retaliate after a nuclear attack was essentially a commitment to mutual suicide. In 1979, _(3)_, the lead scientist in the development of the hydrogen bomb, told *Reagan* that for all its ability to build and launch missiles, the United States had virtually no defense against incoming missiles. As president, *Reagan* was determined to create one, to make Soviet missile "impotent and obsolete." *Reagan* was convinced that the United States could do it. (869) 1

Rock Musicians

In addition to the fundraising—which was badly needed—the 1985 concerts also symbolized the way American ___ had come to dominate the world. Michael Jackson, Bruce Springsteen, and Cyndi Lauper first emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. They were joined in these concerts by others, Ray Charles, Bob Dylan, and Tina Turner, some of whom had been international figures since the 1950s. They represented diverse musical styles from Turner's start in rhythm-and-blues to Charles's jazz, to Lauper's rock, but all had become cultural icons across the United States, in major world capitals, and in isolated rural villages in Asia, Africa, and tiny Pacific islands. (881) 3

Comprehensive Employment and Training Act Aid to Families with Dependent Children

In addition to the tax cut, Congress passed a modified version of *Reagan's* budget. He did not get all the cuts he wanted, but the new federal budget reduced domestic spending significantly. *Reagan* also used his administrative authority to cut a number of additional federal programs, including food stamps and other programs for the poor as well as *Social Security* benefits for people with disabilities. Some 500,000 people were removed from the *Social Security* disability list. Another 300,000 who had been employed through the Carter administration's _(1)_ (CETA) lost their government-sponsored jobs. The cuts were not the wholesale abolition of welfare that *Reagan* advocated, but they represented a substantial cut in the federal safety net that had been growing since the 1930s. At the same time, some programs such as _(2)_ (AFDC) and federal tax credits for the poor actually expanded during the *Reagan* years. (865) 1

Muammar Gaddafi

In addition, the leader of Libya was cause for concern. Libya's longtime leader ___ had come to power in 1969, long before *Reagan's* time. Most of his North African neighbors found him to be a troublemaker, but he especially liked to create trouble for the United States. *Reagan* was determined to respond. In 1981, the U.S. Navy conducted exercises off the Libyan coast, and when Libyan jets attacked, the Navy shot them down. As terrorism expanded across the Middle East, *Reagan* was sure ___ was behind much of it. When a *TWA* flight was hijacked in June 1985 and a West German discotheque was bombed in December of that year, killing one U.S. soldier, *Reagan* retaliated. In April 1986, the United States bombed ___'s headquarters in *Tripoli*, destroying much of the Libyan air force and killing some 30 civilians including ___'s 15-month-old adopted daughter. For a time, Libya was quiet, but in December 1988, a *Pan Am* flight was blown up over Lockerbie, Scotland, and the plot was again traced to Libya. Nevertheless, ___ maintained his hold on power until 2011. (870) 2

Caspar Weinberger Colin Powell Powell Doctrine Intifada

In response to the experience in Lebanon, Defense Secretary _(1)_ and his top military advisor and future chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, _(2)_, crafted what became known as the _(3)_. Henceforth, they said, U.S. soldiers would be sent overseas only as a last resort if and only if the mission was clearly defined, attainable, supported by the public, and included an exit strategy, none of which had been true in the case of the deployment in Lebanon. The new restrictions would be honored more clearly in some cases than others. Toward the end of the *Reagan* administration, when Palestinians in the *Gaza Strip* and *West Bank* territories under the control of Israel rose up in what they called the _(4)_ (or "shaking off) the United States did little beyond urge both sides to negotiate. (870) 5

Hart Cellar

In the 1980s and 1990s many who lived in the United States were very recent arrivals. In 2000, 28.4 million people, or 10.4 percent of the population of the United States, were foreign born. This increase was a significant change from the 4.7 percent who were foreign born in 1970 and marked the end of almost 50 years of very tough immigration restrictions. Immigrants came in growing numbers in every decade. When Congress passed and *Lyndon Johnson* signed the *Immigration and Nationality (_(1)_) Act* in 1965, no one expected it to have a major impact on the overall numbers of people coming to the United States. They could not have been more wrong. The 1965 law capped the number of immigrants at the same place as the older law, however, it was designed to make the process fairer. In addition to the numerical limits in the 1965 law, it provided for family reunion. If one member of a family was a legal resident or citizen of the United States, then that member could bring his or her family, regardless of the caps. By the 1990s, two-thirds of all immigrants to the United States were coming as part of family reunions. Official government numbers showed the impact of the changes brought about by the law: 4.5 million immigrants in the 1970s 7.3 million immigrants in the 1980s 9.1 million immigrants in the 1990s. (884) 2

Walter Mondale

In the November 1984 vote, *Reagan* carried every state except ___'s home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia and won almost 60 percent of the popular vote. While Republicans continued to control the Senate 53 to 46, the Democrats controlled the House 252 to 182. (867) 3

Robert Dole Pat Robertson

In the Republican Party, the conservative but genial Kansas senator _(1)_ challenged the vice president. And _(2)_, the extremely conservative religious broadcaster and head of the *Christian Broadcasting Network*, who had strongly supported *Ronald Reagan*, now resigned his ordination as a Baptist minister and campaigned for the nomination. _(2)_ felt that it was time to take the *religious right's* social and cultural issues into a presidential campaign. While *Bush* won the nomination on the first ballot, he embraced many of _(1)_'s and _(2)_'s issues, invited a conservative, Indiana senator J. *Danforth Quayle*—whom many considered to be a lightweight—to be his running mate, and made a speech he would later regret, telling the Republican convention, "*Read my lips. No new taxes*." (875) 5

Paul Volcker

In the short term, the *Reagan* initiatives did not improve the nation's economy. The president strongly supported *Federal Reserve Chair* ___, whom *Carter* had appointed. Both presidents told ___ to curb inflation no matter what the cost. ___ did, with tough policies that sent unemployment above 10 percent in 1982, the highest since the *Great Depression* of the 1930s. Many people lost jobs, and new jobs were often in low-paying service sectors of the economy. Homelessness doubled while *Reagan* was in office from an estimated 200,000 to 400,000. The recession of the early *Reagan* years hurt the president's popularity, and the Republicans lost seats in Congress in the 1982 elections. *Reagan*, with his optimism and self-confidence, asked the nation to "Stay the Course." By 1983, the national economy started to improve and continued to do so through the last 5 years of *Reagan's* tenure. Economists argued whether the improvement was due to the tax cuts or expanded military spending, but in either case, a strong economy made *Reagan* more popular. (865) 2

Ronald Reagan

Other developments helped ___ in 1984. By 1983, the economy started to turn around. More Americans had jobs and people were buying more goods, often on credit, including personal computers, video cassette recorders (VCRs), and telephone answering machines that had not been available in the 1970s. (866) 6

Black Monday

It was not only a few high flyers who got into trouble in the late 1980s, however. Throughout much of the 1970s, the *Down Jones Industrial Average* had hovered just under 1,000 (that is, the average value of a share on the list was $1,000). In 1980, the average crossed the magic 1,000 line to 1,100, and from there it just kept going up along with public optimism. By 1987, the average was above 2,500. Then in October 1987, the bottom fell out as it had done before. On October 19, known as "___," the market fell by 508 points, closing below 2,000. The next day, the *Federal Reserve Bank*, seeking to avoid a repeat of the 1929 crash, responded, pumping millions of dollars into the market. Consumer confidence returned and the market stabilized, but in one day, American stocks had dropped $500 billion in their value, and many investors lost their savings. (880) 1

Reagan Revolution

Many federal government programs that dated from the *New Deal* changed drastically during what came to be known as the _(1)_. By the end of the 8 years that *Ronald Reagan* was president, taxes took less of people's incomes, the federal debt ballooned, and a 50-year period in which labor unions could rely on a friendly government came to an end. The *Cold War*, which had been the dominant element in U.S. foreign policy since the end of *World War II*, also ended. Both the Republican and Democratic parties emerged from the ___ more conservative than they had been. Supporters and detractors all agreed that the presidency of *Ronald Reagan* was a significant turning point in the United States. (863) 1

Ronald Reagan

Many immigrants also came to the United States without official approval. The borders with Mexico and Canada were hard to guard and many simply walked across. Others came on tourist visas and never left. In 1986, Congress passed legislation that President ___ signed, giving anyone who had been in the United States since 1982 the right to seek amnesty, and 1.7 million people, most from Mexico, took advantage of the law. (885) 1

Michael Jackson

On April 5, 1985, 3 months after *Reagan's* second inauguration, ___, the most successful American rock star of the 1980s, joined in a concert, originally planned by Rob Geldof and Midge lire, Irish and Scottish musicians, to raise funds for famine relief in Africa, The concert was broadcast around the world and raised $44 million in a production which included ___, Lionel Richie, Bob Dylan, Ray Charles, Billy Joel, Cyndi tamper, Bette Midler, Willie Nelson, Paul Simon, Bruce Springsteen, Stevie Wonder, and Tina Turner. (880) 3

Social Security System

On the other hand, defenders of immigration argued that the American economy was dependent on immigrants who were willing to take jobs—in restaurants, agriculture, and home health care—that few native-born Americans were willing to do. Would the crops get harvested, the meat packaged, the dishes washed, and the elderly cared for if immigrants, documented and undocumented, were forced to leave? Immigrants are generally younger than the average population, pay taxes, and contribute to the ___, though in the case of those who are undocumented, they may never collect benefits. Some studies, they argued, indicate that immigrants are more highly educated, more likely to be in stable families, and less likely to be engaged in crime, though other scholars disputed those numbers. While the arguments continued, people kept coming. ( 885 ) 3

Ivan Boesky

One of the striking features of the economy of the 1980s was the extraordinary fortunes made by a few individuals. In the 1980s, ___ anticipated corporate takeovers and mergers, buying stock just before it increased in value with stunning regularity. In December 1986, ___ was honored with a cover photo in Time magazine, and by 1987, he had earned a total of more than $200 million. (878) 3

Debtor Nation Daniel Moynihan

One result of the *Reagan* economic agenda was rapid growth in the federal deficit. The tax cut did not bring in as much new revenue as estimated, while the expansion of military spending more than offset cuts in domestic programs. The total federal deficit neary tripled during the *Reagan* years from $914 billion to $2.7 trillion. More than one supporter saw the deficit as *Reagan's* greatest failure. The United States, which had been a motor creditor nation since *World War 1*, became the world's largest _(1)_. The government kept borrowing money to cover the federal deficit while individuals borrowed money—often by running up credit card debt. If some complained that Americans were maintaining a living standard beyond their means, they quickly noted that the worst offender was the U.S. government. _(2)_, once an advisor to *Richard Nixon* and who was a Democratic Senator from New York throughout the *Reagan* years, warned that the huge deficits virtually guaranteed that new federal initiatives to improve the lives of average or poor citizens were now of the table. (866) 3

Strategic Defense Initiative

Only long after *Reagan* left office did it become clear how deeply fearful Soviet leaders were of the *Reagan* rhetoric and arms buildup, especially _(1)_. The Soviets feared that _(1)_ would make them vulnerable to a U.S attack, one they could not resist if they could not retaliate. In September 1983, a Soviet satellite mistook blips for incoming U.S. missiles and the country went on full military alert. Only the courage of a young Soviet officer, who believed that there was a computer error and who over-rode the system, appears to have avoided a *World War Ill* with millions of deaths in both countries. The *Cold War* had never been so dangerous. (869) 3

Morning Again in America James Brady Great Communicator Tip ONeill

Perhaps most of all, *Reagan's* own sunny disposition made people like him. His TV ads reinforced *Reagan's* message that it was "_(1)_." His optimism was on full display when on March 30, 1981, *Reagan* was shot while leaving a speaking event. His press secretary _(2)_ was severely wounded and permanently disabled. Few knew at the time how seriously the president had been wounded when a bullet lodged in his left lung and he bled heavily. But just before entering surgery, *Reagan* looked at his wife, *Nancy*, and said, "Honey, I forgot to duck," and then asked the surgeons, "Please tell me you're all Republicans." That sort of pluck made him popular even with people who disagreed with his policies. In addition, his speaking style was extraordinary. His many years as an actor paid off. His friends called him, "The _(3)_," and even his toughest opponents admired him. The Democratic Speaker of the House, _(4)_, who tangled with *Reagan* on many occasions, said of him, "He may not be much of a debater, but with a prepared text he's the best public speaker I've ever seen....I'm beginning to think that in this regard he dwarfs both *Roosevelt* and *Kennedy*. (867) 2

Economic Bill of Rights

Presidential candidates, economists, and families who gathered around the dinner table or the TV trays in the living room all debated the nature of the economic changes that were taking place in the 1980s as "*Reaganomics*" led to tax cuts, a reduction in government services, and fewer government regulations. Late in his term, in July 1987, President *Reagan* proposed what he called an ___, which he restated on several occasions: First is the freedom to work—to pursue one's livelihood in one's own way ... free from excessive government regulation and subsidized government competition;...freedom to enjoy the fruits of one's labor... free from excessive government taxing, spending and borrowing by the government...the freedom to own and control one's property....freedom to participate in a free market... and to achieve one's full potential without government limits on opportunity. It was a philosophy that *Reagan* seemed to embody in his own life story. Yet by 1987, when the president spoke, some Americans were beginning to have second thoughts. (878) 1

Robert Bellah Robert Putnam

Religious conservatives were not the only critics of American culture in the 1980s and 1990s. _(1)_, a liberal sociologist, argued in his 1986 book *Habit of the Heart* that Americans were becoming so individualistic and consumption oriented that they were losing their ability to work together for the common good. A decade later in 1995, a Harvard scholar, _(2)_, published *Bowling Alone* in which he explored the impact of individualism. Americans who, in the past, joined churches, social and service organizations, and bowling leagues, now stayed home to watch television, spent less time in face-to-face gatherings of any sort, and even if they went out to a bowling alley, now did it alone. Some critics thought that _(2)_. and _(1)_ romanticized the past, but few dismissed their worries. (884) 1

William Casey Contras

Seeking to expand the aid, *North* and his mentor _(1)_ had what they termed a "*neat idea*." The United States was secretly selling arms to Iran. What if, they thought, the United States could make a profit on the clandestine arms shipments to Iran, and then use the funds to support the _(2)_? Congress would not have to appropriate any money, and no one needed to know. (872) 5

Strategic Defense Initiative Star Wars

Senior advisors worried that _(1)_ would be expensive, impractical, and a needless escalation of the *Cold War*. Critics called the whole system "_(2)_," and worried that it would militarize space, drain the treasury, and ultimately turn out to be ineffective. Military contractors, however, loved _(1)_. The president was committed, and throughout his two terms, research and development of the system continued. (869) 2

Gary Hart Jesse Jackson Michael Dukakis

Sensing possible victory, many Democrats sought the nomination. Colorado senator _(1)_, an initial front runner, was forced out of the race after he was photographed on the yacht *Monkey Business* with the model *Donna Rice*—not his wife—sitting on his lap. The nomination battle came down to a contest between the Reverend _(2)_, a longtime civil rights leader, and Massachusetts governor _(3)_. _(2)_ was extremely popular in some circles and reviled in others. He was the first African-American candidate to win presidential primaries in southern states, winning five. But in the end, _(3)_ won the Democratic nomination. He summed up his campaign when he told the Democratic convention, "This election is not about ideology, it's about competence." (875) 6

Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces

Soon after *Reykjavik*, the Soviet physicist *Andrei Sakharov* convinced *Gorbachev* that *SDI* would not work and could safely be ignored. The two leaders then authorized further negotiations on offensive weapons that led to a treaty dramatically reducing ___ and to onsite inspections so rigorous that they frightened the American *CIA*. (874) 5

Ronald Reagan

Soon after college, and after a brief stint as a sports announcer in Iowa, ___ left the Midwest for Hollywood where he appeared in 53 films between 1937 and 1953. It was steady work and it paid well. ___ later said that he generally made two pictures per year, earning $300,000 to $400,000 per film, and would have worked harder to make more pictures if not for the high tax bite. The film work took ___ a long way from the marginal economic status of his childhood. He married and later divorced *Jane Wyman*, whose Hollywood career was more successful than his; he would be the first divorced person elected president. He was popular in Hollywood and was elected president of the *Screen Actors Guild* from 1947 to 1952, a position he used to identify suspected Communists in the film industry. When he became U.S. president, he was the first former union president to do so. During his Hollywood years, ___ remained a Democrat, voting for *Harry Truman* in 1948 and against *Richard Nixon* for the Senate in 1950. (863) 3

Laffer Curve

Tax cut proponents also cited what is called the "___." Developed in the 1970s by *Jude Wanniski*, a correspondent for the Wall Street Journal, and economist *Arthur Laffer*, the curve meant to show that higher taxes reduced government income by reducing the incentive to work and earn taxable wages. At the extreme ends, the curve made complete sense. Zero tax would not impact work and earning in any way, and a 100 percent tax would certainly stifle most work. But the point in between, where taxes really cut into the will to work and where decreased tax rates might actually increase government income, was hard to pinpoint. (864) 5

Choctaw

The *Pequots Foxwoods Casino* produced almost $900 million in 1994, and the tribal council used the money to create other job-producing enterprises, including a silica mine and a printing plant. They bought the former *Electric Boat* shipyard that helped maintain the U.S. nuclear submarine fleet. Their goal was long-term economic development that was not dependent only on the gambling industry. Other tribes did the same. The *Oneida Tribe of Wisconsin* used the income from its slot-machine complex near Green Bay to open a chain store and a high-tech research and development firm. The ___s of Oklahoma used income from a bingo parlor in Durant to build a manufacturing plant, hotels, and the *___ Nation Travel Plaza* that earned $1.4 million per month in 1992. (887) 2

Bill Cosby Show

The most successful TV series of the 1980s, the ___, reflected an updated version of the 1950s family shows. But the family in the ___, the Huxtables, was led by an African-American doctor, played by ___. The focus on a successful African-American family in the mainstream of America, and their warm acceptance by viewers, was a clear shift. In contrast, when the lead character of *Murphy Brown*, played by Candice Bergen, had a child without being married and indicated that the father's identity was not important, the vice president of the United States, *Dan Quayle*, criticized the show. (882) 4

VCRs

The 1980s were one of the most successful decades in the history of the film industry. The most popular film of the decade was *E.T., the Extra-Terrestrial*, a story produced by *Steven Spielberg* about a small creature from outer space who liked candy and wanted to "phone home." Other highly successful films of the decade included *The Empire Strikes Back* (1980), *Return of the Jedi* (1983) in *George Lucas's Star Wars* trilogy; Batman; Ghostbusters; and the Indiana Jones movies, Raiders of the Lost Ark (all in 1981) and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989). There were also more violent movies such as Terminator (1984) with Arnold Schwarzenegger and the Rambo films with Sylvester Stallone. While both Schwarzenegger and Stallone played classic "good guys," the films had plenty of blood and violence. Spike Lee directed films like Do the Right Thing, which explored serious issues in a thoughtful way. Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ, released in 1988, generated critical acclaim but also demonstrations in front of theaters, with its portrayal of Jesus as a man with ordinary temptations. As with music, so with films, technology expanded beyond anything previously thought possible. People still watched movies in theaters, but they also watched them at home as ___ made it possible for films to be distributed, not only to the local theater but also to the local living room where people could watch at their leisure. (882) 3

Sandinista Contras

The United States also determined to intervene in Nicaragua where the new socialist _(1)_ government was committed to land reform. In December 1981, *Reagan* at the urging of CIA director *Casey*, authorized $20 million for covert operations to support the Nicaraguan "_(2)_" (or counterrevolutionaries) who sought to overthrow the new government. The core of the _(2)_ movement was a group of some 500 followers of *Somoza*, but it grew to an army of perhaps 10,000 who were trained in US-sponsored camps in Honduras and sent back to Nicaragua with U.S.-supplied weapons to disrupt the workings of the _(1)_ government. By 1984, *Reagan* was calling the _(2)_ "our brothers," and he remained steadfast in their support. (872) 2

Religious Right Moral Majority Jerry Falwell Pat Robertson

The _(1)_ was made up of people who were increasingly angry at many of the cultural trends of the 1980s and 1990s. The _(2)_, the major political organization of the _(1)_, declined in the late 1980s and disbanded in 1989. It had fallen victim to some of the more extremist statements of its founder _(3)_ as well as institutional mismanagement. Some commentators thought that decline would be the end of religious conservatism as a political force. They could not have been more mistaken. After _(4)_ lost his campaign for the Republican nomination in 1988, he helped launch a new conservative religious and political organization: the *Christian Coalition*. (883) 2

Supply Side Economics

The antitax crusade had helped elect *Reagan*, and he surrounded himself with advisors who developed new economic theories to defend a tax cut even as he sought increased military spending. *Reagan* justified the tax cut with an economic theory known as ___. As defined by Republican congressman *Jack Kemp* and Democratic senator *Lloyd Bentsen*, ___ referred to stimulating the economy, not by means of federal spending--the traditional approach since the *New Deal*—but, rather, by means of supporting the ___—cutting taxes to foster private investment that might then lead to the creation of new jobs. (864) 4

Contras Sandinista Boland Amendments Iran Contra

The complex arrangement did not remain secret for long. In October 1986, an American cargo plane loaded with military supplies for the _(1)_ was shot down in Nicaragua. The _(2)_ government let the world know that, in spite of the two _(3)_, the United States was still providing significant aid to the _(1)_. A month later a Beirut, Lebanon, newspaper published an account, based on Iranian sources, of U.S. arms sales to Iran and the link to hoped-for hostage releases. People soon connected the two, and the scandal quickly became known as the "*arms for hostages*" deal or simply as "_(4)_." The matter was serious. In selling arms to Iran and in funding the _(1)_, U.S. laws had been broken, laws that the White House clearly knew existed. Some in Congress talked of impeachment. As with Nixon at *Watergate*, the question was "what did the president know and when did he know it." (872) 6

George Bush Voodoo Economics

The conservative wing of the Republican Party never trusted _(1)_, especially after his "_(2)_" remarks, but also because of his lack of enthusiasm for their social issues. Disappointed that *Reagan* had not done more to support the social issues that were near and dear to them, some conservatives thought that the 1988 election was their chance, And Democrats., convinced that *Reagan* was more personally popular than his programs, believed that the end of his second term would be their chance to retake the White House, Neither challenge succeeded. (875) 4

Robert Bork Carl Rowen

The cultural developments of the 1980s and 1990s in music, drama, and creative writing also produced a considerable critical response. Looking at the era, _(1)_, a conservative legal scholar who had been denied a position on the Supreme Court by a Senate vote in 1987, published *Slouching Toward Gomorrah* in 1996 in which he blamed a decline he saw in American culture on the nation's "enfeebled hedonistic culture," its "uninhibited display of sexuality," and "popularization of violence." Many other authors, liberal and conservative, worried about what the liberal African-American journalist _(2)_ called the "sexual rot and gratuitous violence" that led to "decadence, decay, and self-destruction" in the United States. In 1985, "*Tipper" Gore*, whose husband was then Democratic Senator from Tennessee, co-founded the *Parents Music Resource Center* after hearing her 11 -year-old daughter listen to music by the recording artist *Prince* that she deemed profane. (883) 1

Baby Boomers

The music of the 1980s also connected with Americans, especially young Americans, and their counterparts around the globe. It was their generation's challenge to the traditional culture and its music. Where jazz, rock, and folk music all began as protests, against musical and political systems, so the music of the 1980s was its own forms of protest. African-American artists dominated the music, but they were not alone. Tina Turner, an African-American, who with her husband had headlined the Ike and Tina Turner Revue in the 1950s and 1960s, emerged after her divorce as a farce in her own right in the 1980s, celebrating her energy and her sexuality with recordings like Private Dancer in 1984. A younger white, woman, Madonna, celebrated her sometimes off-the-wall sexuality in releases like her 1984 album, Like a Virgin. A new generation, the children of the ___, was creating a new music and a new culture of its own in the 1980s and making sure that its country, and the world, listened. (882) 2

Latin America Asia

The new immigrants who came between 1970 and 2000 also came from places different from immigrants of earlier eras. Before 1924, when the United States virtually closed its doors to immigrants, most immigrants had come from Europe and, unwillingly, from Africa. After 1980, most new immigrants came from _(1)_ and _(2)_. Between 1980 and 2000, 2 million people came to the United States from Europe (mostly from former Soviet states); 5.7 million people came from _(2)_; 4 million people came from Mexico; 2.8 million people came from other parts of Central America, and the Caribbean; 1 million came from South America; 600,000 came from Africa; and 250,000 came from Canada. By any counting they were reshaping the country. (884) 3

Urban Relocation Program R Edmunds

The new wealth allowed tribes to design their own museums, support retention of tribal languages, and maintain aspects of their culture that were otherwise being lost. They also allowed tribes to expand schools, provide new job training programs and health services, and generally support their members at a higher level. Promises of wealth also led some to "rediscover" their Indian identity. Indians who had drifted away from reservations were now returning, a change since the 1950s when a government _(1)_ had led perhaps half of all American Indians to move from reservations to cities. Others who were part Indian were now claiming their Indian ties. Determining who was, and was not, a member of a specific tribe became a complex issue for some. _(2)_, an ethnohistorian who himself is part Cherokee, wrote that traditionally no one questioned tribal membership, "If the Shawnees said you were Shawnee, you were Shawnee." By the 1990s, however, such issues had become more complex, and tribes sometimes had to make difficult decisions. Nevertheless, the new prosperity was significant. (887) 3

MTV

The popularity of American music and American musicians was made possible, in part, by rapidly changing technologies. Michael Jackson insisted that *We Are the World* be released at exactly 3:50 p.m. Greenwich Mean Time (10:50 a.m. on the East Coast- of the United States) in 8,000 radio stations around the world. The technology to transmit the music to all of these stations was new. When the Live AN concerts were held in July 1985, one of the musicians, Phil Collins, managed to perform in person at both the London and the Philadelphia concerts thanks to the supersonic concord plane that brought him across the Atlantic faster than the speed of sound. ___ began broadcasting in August 1981 and built a worldwide audience for rock music. Generating these huge audiences would not have happened without the nonstop broadcasting of music videos aimed at audiences in the 12 to 14-year-old demographic who made up the bulk of those who attended the concerts or listened to the broadcasts. And after *We Are the World* had been released, it and other music from the concerts was listened to over and over by individuals using *Sony Walkman* personal stereos, first sold in 1979, or Sony compact disc (CD players; which produced far better quality than older tapes and records. American music of the 1980s could be heard worldwide because American—and Japanese—technology made possible the easy and cheap distribution of quality musical sounds. (882) 1

Grenada

The same month as the attack on the Marine barracks in Lebanon, October 1983, *Reagan* ordered U.S. troops into the small Caribbean island nation of ___, where a military coup had overthrown the previous government. Fearing growing Communist influence, and worried about U.S. medical students in ___, U.S. troops quickly defeated the coup leaders. Leaders in other countries and in the United Nations condemned the invasion as a violation of international law, but some, in and out of ___, were grateful for the U.S. role. (871) 3

William Casey Nancy Reagan

When *Ronald Reagan* became president in January 1981, he had virtually no foreign policy experience. He was more sophisticated as a politician than many of his detractors (and some of his supporters) admitted. Nevertheless, he had not spent much time outside of the United States and did not know much about foreign policy. He was served by a series of weak national security advisors as well as two secretaries of state, two secretaries of defense, and a strong director of central intelligence, _(1)_: all of whom disliked each other intensely, kept major developments secret from each other, and at times implemented contradictory policies. _(2)_ also took an active role in policy discussions, especially when she feared that conservative ideologues were taking her husband in an unnecessarily hard-line direction. it was not an administrative structure leading to crisp and clear decision making. However, in the midst of apparent chaos, *Reagan* himself appeared to have been a far stronger leader than perceived, one who determined the main aspects of his foreign policy even as he left the details of implementation to others. (868) 1

Reagan Democrats Proposition 13 Social Conservatives Religious Right

The voters who gave *Ronald Reagan* his margin of victory over *Jimmy Carter* in 1980 were a diverse lot of Working-class whites, north and south, sometimes called "_(1)_," were alienated by the civil rights and protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s. Many feared crime, which they tended to see as a "black issue," and wanted a champion of "law and order." The coalition also included middle-class and upper-middle-class suburbanites in revolt over taxes, especially rising property taxes, and government regulations that they thought were intrusive. The antitax movement led to the passage of _(2)_ in California in 1978, a law sponsored by a private citizen, *Howard Jarvis*, which significantly cut California's property taxes and ultimately the state's vaunted government services. Other states copied _(2)_, reducing taxes and public services. A third group of *Reagan* supporters were _(3)_--Catholics and Protestants associated with the _(4)_-- -for whom the key issues were their opposition to abortion, sexual and reproductive freedoms, gay rights, and the teaching of evolution as well as their desire for prayer in the public schools. In seeking to limit abortion or gay rights, the _(3)_ wanted a more activist government, even if they otherwise favored a smaller government and lower taxes. (862) 1

Live Aid

These ___ concerts eventually raised over 580 million for Africa. Subsequent concerts raised more money. They also symbolized new international connections. Without a time lag, people could listen to the same concert at the same time. They could also transfer money, hold meetings, and plan new enterprises, creating a worldwide culture and economy. Given the speed of travel, it did not take much longer for people to visit new places, transmit diseases, or start a new life halfway around the world. (881) 2

We Are the World

Three months later, on July 13, 1983, some 100,000 people attended one of two simultaneous rock Concerts held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and London, England. Another 1.5 to 1.9 billion people around the world watched the concerts on TV or listened on radio. At the July concert *Jackson*, his guests, and an audience of many million sang ___. (881) 1

Anastasio Somoza

US policy in Central America, especially in El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, was also shaped by the *Cold War*. Since the 1920s, Democratic and Republican administrations depended on a series of Latin American dictators to create a safe climate for U.S. business and ensure that there was no Communist influence in the government of their countries. What they did to their own citizens was of less concern to American authorities. By the time *Reagan* had Come to office, the longtime dictator in Nicaragua, ___, had been overthrown by a popular uprising, and the totalitarian regime in El Salvador was seriously threatened by similar opposition. Fearing Communist influence in such popular uprisings, the *Reagan* administration supported the besieged government of El Salvador and sought to overthrow the new government of Nicaragua. (871) 1

Voodoo Economics Boll Weevils Reaganomics

When *Reagan* first called for a 30 percent tax cut and used *Laffer* and the *supply-side arguments* to justify his position, his main rival for the 1980 Republican nomination, *George Bush*, called it "_(1)_," and *Jimmy Carter* called *Reagan's* tax plans, "rebates for the rich, deprivation for the poor, and fierce inflation for all of us." But after he became president, *Reagan* dismissed criticism, saying of the economists who challenged his ideas, "They're the sort of people who see something works in practice and wonder if it works in theory." In spite of a lack of evidence in either practice or theory, the president made a tax cut his first priority, and in August, 48 congressional Democrats—their Democratic colleagues called them "_(2)_"— joined the Republican minority to pass a cut in federal income taxes that reduced the top rate on individual income from 70 to 50 percent. The president won the first of his three goals for his *Reagan Revolution*- the implementation of "_(3)_," as his economic policy came to be called - in less than 100 days in office. (864) 6

Ronald Reagan

When ___ became president, he was only 1 month short of his 70 birthday, the oldest man ever elected to the office. ___ was born in the small town of Tampico, Illinois, in 1911. His father was a shoe salesman and an alcoholic who was unsuccessful in his search for better jobs until he was hired by the *New Deal's WPA*. His mother, who worked as a seamstress, was a religious woman who made sure that the young ___ and his brother were brought up in church. (863) 2

B 2 Bomber

While campaigning for the presidency, *Reagan* also promised to expand the military so the United States would, without question, be the most powerful nation on earth. As a candidate, he said, "You spend what you need." As president, he got congressional approval to develop a new ___ as well as cruise and *MX missiles* and to expand the Navy, During his first term in office, from 1981 to 1985, the total defense spending of the United States rose by 34 percent, from $171 billion to $229 billion. (865) 2

Christian Coalition Ralph Reed Moral Majority

While launching the _(1)_, *Robertson* hired a young veteran of the *College Republican National Committee*, _(2)_, to run the organization on a day-to-day basis. _(2)_ brought a steady hand as well as organizational and fundraising skills to the _(1)_ that the _(3)_ never had. He was a young fresh face and managed to portray himself as a moderating influence on the more extreme *Robertson*. (883) 3

Coyote

While their numbers were drastically reduced by war and disease, American Indian tribes have survived and sometimes thrived in spite of the difficulties. As restrictions on teaching American Indian languages, culture, and religion were lifted in the 1940s, 1950s' and 1960s, a surprising reservoir of an earlier cultural heritage resurfaced. For some tribes, ___ is the perfect symbol of Indian life. ___ is the trickster who disappears and reappears as he needs to in order to survive and thrive in new contexts. At the *Spirit Mountain Casino*, which is operated by the *Grand Ronde* Reservation in western Oregon, State, a picture of ___ dominates the gambling hall and the tribal logo. It is a fitting symbol. ( 886) 1

Contras Oliver North

With what seemed like an iron-clad prohibition of aid to the _(1)_, U.S. adventures in Central America seemed to be at an end. But *Reagan* did not give up easily. The president encouraged efforts of a young *National Security* staffer, _(2)_, to find new sources of aid, though it was never clear how much *Reagan* knew of the details of _(2)_'s enterprise. Since Congress had banned government aid to the _(1)_, _(2)_ sought donations from friendly governments in Taiwan, Brunei, and Saudi Arabia and from wealthy private U.S. citizens like beer magnate *Joseph Coors*. At least $50 million in such aid was delivered to the _(1)_. (872) 4

Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization

Within months of the new administration coming to office, Americans understood that the change in Washington was significant, indeed, that some federal policies that had been in place since the 1930s were no longer going to continue. In addition to the tax cuts and expanded military spending, the new administration showed its attitude when the members of the ___ went on strike. The president told the members of the union who were federal employees that they had 48 hours to go back to work or they would be fired. When almost two-thirds of ___s members stayed out on strike, *Reagan* fired all 11,000 of them. They permanently lost their jobs and the union was destroyed. People worried about the safety of air travel with so many veteran controllers gone, but the signal that this administration was going to have a different views of unions was clear. Organized labor used to having a friend in the White House, was demoralized. Other strikes were also defeated, including an especially bitter one by the meatpackers at the *Hormel* plant in Minnesota in 1985-86. Union membership dropped from one-fourth of the U.S. workforce to one-sixth during *Reagan's* two terms. Organized labor, long a major force in American society, was on a long slow decline, something that delighted the president and his conservative backers. (866) 1

Lawrence Walsh Iran Contra

_(1)_ continued his investigation after *Reagan* left office and eventually secured the indictment of several officials, but *Reagan's* successor *George H.W. Bush* pardoned them. In 1994, _(1)_ concluded that *Reagan* probably should have been impeached, but by then, he was retired and ill. _(2)_ seriously damaged *Reagan's* reputation. As *Reagan* entered his last 2 years in office, many considered his foreign policy efforts to be a failure. Between 1987 and 1989, however, the president accomplished his great foreign policy triumph. (873) 2

Michael Dukakis

_(1)_ entered the fall campaign with a 17-point lead in the polls, a sign that people were ready for a change, but the lead quickly evaporated in what turned into a very nasty battle. _(1)_'s focus on competence did not make for an inspiring campaign. The comedian *Mort SahI* complained that _(1)_ was "the only colorless Greek in America." The *Bush* camp, led by *Lee Atwater*, ran TV ads featuring a black convicted criminal, *Willie Horton*, who had killed a man and raped a woman while on furlough from a Massachusetts prison. The fact that many states, including *Reagan's* California, had furlough policies did not make a difference. The appeal to fear was strong. In the end, *Bush* swamped _(1)_ by a vote of almost 49 million to 42 million and 426 to 111 electoral votes and won the presidential term he had long sought. (877) 1

Ronald Reagan Clark Kent

_(1)_ talked a more conservative line all through his presidency than he practiced while he was governor of California. While he was tough on student protests, raised tuition at California's public colleges and universities, and ousted _(2)_ as the president of the University of California, he was willing to compromise with a Democratic legislature on other matters. He raised taxes to cover a budget shortfall as well as signed bills supporting liberalized abortion rights and bilingual education. Some of his conservative supporters were nervous about his positions but valued his skill as a campaigner. As a conservative governor of the nation's largest state, _(1)_ quickly became a presidential contender. He almost defeated *Gerald Ford* for the 1976 Republican nomination and easily defeated *George H.W. Bush* to win the 1980 nomination and then the presidential election against *Jimmy Carter*. As president, he did not disappoint most of his supporters. (864) 2

Ivan Boesky Michael Milken

_(1)_, _(2)_, and other slightly lesser figures were the heroes of the 1980s. In a speech to business students at the University of California, Berkeley, _(1)_ said, "I think greed is healthy. You can be greedy and still feel good about yourself." But *Kevin Phillips* noted that, "By early 1990 The New York Times noted that *Wall Street* found an unnerving whiff of populism in the public's anger over junk-bond pioneer _(2)_'s $550-million-a-year salary." (878) 5

Immigrants

___ moved to every part of the United States. Meatpacking plants in Kansas, potato farms in Maine, and agribusiness in southern Indiana all depended on recent ___ who were willing to do hot, dirty, and generally low-paying work. The majority of ___, however, settled in relatively few areas, especially the states of California, Texas, Florida, New Jersey, Illinois, and New York. By 2000, California's population was 27 percent foreign-born as a result of a major influx of new ___ and a modest white exodus. (884) 4

George Bush

___ was a child of privilege. His father was a successful banker and Republican senator from Connecticut. ___ attended private schools, and expected to attend Yale when *World War II* intervened. While *Ronald Reagan* made war movies in Hollywood for the government, ___ flew more than 50 combat missions in the South Pacific and was shot down twice. After the war, he married *Barbara Pierce*, attended Yale, and then moved to Texas to make his fortune in the oil business. He served two terms in the House of Representatives from Houston. He was defeated when he ran for the Senate in 1970 but was subsequently appointed head of the Republican Party, nominal U.S. Ambassador to China after the *Nixon* trip, and head of the *CIA* for *Gerald Ford*. (875) 3

Jean Kirkpatrick

___, *Reagan's* United Nations ambassador, said that Central America was "the most important place in the world for us." ___ also outlined a key *Reagan* policy of differentiating between authoritarian governments such as that of El Salvador, which ___ said could in time be reformed into democracies, and totalitarian governments—particularly, the government of the Soviet Union and its client states—which she claimed would never change. Under the policy, the United States would provide support for the former and opposition to the latter. (871) 2

Michael Milken

___, an investor for the firm *Drexel Burnham Lambert* who specialized in so-called junk bonds, earned much more. Junk bonds were high-risk investments that could pay high Yields. ___ arranged investments in gambling casinos and technology startups as well "leveraged buyouts" in which investors would buy a controlling share of a company—using loans arranged by ___—and thereby take it over in spite of the will of its owners and managers. In 1987, his estimated income for that one year was $550 million. (878) 4

Ralph Reed

___, born in 1961, was a generation younger than *Robertson*. As student, he was fascinated with the mechanics of politics and initially put off by the *religious right* because of their amateurishness. He was determined that the *Christian Coalition* would be an effective organization. The two made a strong team. By 1992, the *Christian Coalition* had more than 150,000 members and controlled the grass-roots Republican Party in several southern states. (883) 5

Kevin Phillips

___, who helped Republican presidential campaigns from *Nixon* to *Reagan*, was among them. In his book, *The Boiling Point*, he described what he saw as *Reagan's* term came to an end. *Reagan* had been elected in 1980, ___ said, because government was "fairly in disrepute for its swollen size and record of aggravating rather than solving problems." He continued that with the cuts in taxes and government programs, however, "high-income persons did not suffer, but middle-class voters usually worried when federal and state reductions went too far." (878) 2