Art and Architecture Exam 2

St. Michaels door Temptation Relief

- Adam and Christ are paired in the Temptation and Crucifixion scenes in the third register from the top, where Adam represents sin and mortality, Christ represents Salvation and immortality a paring taken right from I corinthians

Umayyad ivories made for the daughters of Abd al-Rahman III (711 - 1031)

- An ivory casket with silver hinges and clasp. -An Arabic inscription in the script known as floriated kufic reads, 'In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. -This is what was made for the young lady, the daughter of 'Abd al-Rahman, Commander of the Faithful - may God's mercy and favour be his'. -The sides of the casket's body, as well as the top of the lid, are decorated with relief carvings of gracefully intertwining stylised plants. -The same style of floral decoration appears on the marble wall panels of the reception hall in 'Abd al-Rahman's palace of Madinat al-Zahra, near Córdoba. Luxury ivory objects like this casket are an important feature of the arts under the Spanish Umayyads.

St. Michaels Door Eve Nursing Scene

- Eve nurses cain on the left, while Mary nurses Christ on the Right. -Eve holding her murderson son represent sin and the fall of humanity, whereas mary holding her divine son represetns the church which offers forviness and salvation. =Whereas Eve bars entrance to heaven, Mary opens the door

Capella Palatina, Aachen (Temple)792

- In the norman Palace (1132-1143) in Palermo, Sicily commissioned by Roger II, displays the diverse cultural inheritance of the Island -Space served both as a church and a throne room - THe eastern side of the hill is set apart from the rest of the building by four steps and parapets where a Byzantine domed, cross in square church is founded -It contains a complete mosaic program complemented by mostly greek but some latin texts -Space then opens up to a triple-aisled basilica, decorated with scenes focusing on the lives of Apostles Peter and Paul -The images on the walls of the Basilica are stylistically different from the ones in the eastern part of the chapel, and therefore may have been created by local artists who had studied under the Byzantine Mosaicists

Rashid World History Muhmand and Black stone story (605)

- One example is the illustration of the prophet Muhamad placing the black stone into the Ka'ba -The text tells us that this took place during the rebuilding of the Ka'ba in the prophets life time during the year 605 -With some repairs at the Kaaba on the way, a dispute broke among the Arab clans of Mecca as to who should be honored with returning the Black stone back to its original alce, since the heads of the clan could not agree they hired an arbitrary = Muhamad to decide -Muhammad took his robe, lifted the black stone and placed it on the cloth with his own hands and said let each clan take one side of the cloak and the lift it up together -That is what they did, and the illustration portrays an event involving the Arab clans of mecca doing this -The paintings detail of the Ka'ba and the details of the men from the clan are remarkably realistic and shows there Muslim identities

Ara Pacis Augustae Southside (Relief)

- Originally would have been brightly painted -On the south side, the relief begins with Augusts surrounded by his bodyguards and priests, they are followed by Marcus Agrippa, Augustus most trusted general and son in law, the next person, is Juli Agustus daughter and his stepson Tiberius the future emperor. Colleagues of priests, senators, and additional members of the imperial family stand on the north side

*Roman*

- Roman Republic was founded 509 BCe and by the end of 31 BCE they conqured the entire Italian Penisula, Northern Africa, Spain, Greece, France, as well as parts of Britain, Germany, and the Balkans -Roman art refers to the visual arts made in Ancient Rome and in the territories of the Roman Empire. Roman art includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Luxury objects in metal-work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass are sometimes considered in modern terms to be minor forms of Roman art,[1] although this would not necessarily have been the case for contemporaries. Sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was also very highly regarded. The two forms have had very contrasting rates of survival, with a very large body of sculpture surviving from about the 1st century BC on wards, though very little from before, but very little painting at all remains, and probably nothing that a contemporary would have considered to be of the highest quality. Ancient Roman pottery was not a luxury product, but a vast production of "fine wares" in terra sigillata were decorated with reliefs that reflected the latest taste, and provided a large group in society with stylish objects at what was evidently an affordable price. Roman coins were an important means of propaganda, and have survived in enormous numbers.

St. Michaels Doors Panel of God Interrograting Adam and Eve

- The Adam and Eve eating from the tree scene is portrayed with God pointing a condemning finger with the force of his whole body -Adam cowers guiding shielding his nakedness with his left hand and extending the pointing blame to Eve with his right - The contrast between the high relief bodies and the low relief trees emphasizes how Adam and Eve are exposed, with nowhere to hid their new found shame and fear.

Hisham's palace/Khirbat al-Mafjar (Gazelle Mosaic)

- The apse contains a famous floor music that displays a fruit tree with two gazelles grazing on its leaves while a lion is attacking the gazelle on the left - Some view the scene as a symbolic depiction of political power, while some say it represents peace and orderly life - The triumphant lion may represent the authority of the caliph, warning that anyone posing a threat will e attacked and defeated -The intimate chamber may suggest a more private interpretation -It has been proposed that the Gazelle-lion scene is related to the al-walid's love poetry to Salama his beloved -In poetry al Walid refers to her as a graceful gazelle and the male is decribed as a hunter and conqueror -The pursuit of the hunter is thus connected to the eroticism and love -The interpretation of the mossaic floor in a royal private room takes into consideration al-Walids sophistication an tastes as wel as the location of hte image

Coronation Gospels 794-800

- The coornation Gospels of Charlemagne (794 -800) contain 260 crimson dyed folios with text written in shaped gold and silver - Each gospel book opens with a portrait of its author - The painting of St. John harkens back to ancient Roman paintings of authors since it uses carefully modulated colors, shadows, and highlights to depict St. John with his quill poised above a coded - St. John sits in front of a curved throne with a massive gold halo around his head. -The part in his hair the pointed eyebrows, and even the shading across his right cheek all resemble the icon. this also reflects a deeper conection between the Gos[els and the words describing Christs human life and christ the divine presence - Charlemagne was buried with his Coronation Gospels and after his sucessor opened the grave they took the book they took the same oath on the same page that he did, the first page of the St. Johns gospel

Dome of the Rock Interior

- The dome of the rock is an octagon with four entrances at cardinal points and two circular corridors inside and a large dome at that center just above the rock - The walls are covered with amazing mosaics representing the crowns and jewels defeated rival kings and dynasties which the Umayyads overcame -There are also fantastic golden trees and fruits that may be related to descriptions of Solomons Temple -The quartet inscriptions made with gold underscore the ones of God, while they address the Christians and Jews day of Judgment -Abd al-Malik wanted to affirm the superiority of Islam as a religion and the victory of the Ummayyads perhaps representing himself as the new Solomon -

Hisham's palace/Khirbat al-Mafjar (statues) 740-750

-At the main entrance of the hall, there stood a large scale sculpture probably representing a prince or a Caliph, the ruler stands on two lions and holds a sword - He wears an outfit indicative of Eastern Lands, while his face is generic -Position of his feet as well as the type of cloths and sword exhibit similarities to the Kushan King Kanishka who ruled Central Asia and India, -the Iconography of a ruler set on top of a lion is well known from Sassanian art

Santa Maria Maggiore + (Hospitality Relief of Abraham )

- The images depict stories that anticipate the coming of the Messiah (Christ) and thus compliment the New Testament imagery found above the triumphal Arch -In the scene of Hospitality, the father of the Israelites is seen three times; this is an example of *Simultaneous Representation* - Abraham is shown bowing with outstretched hand, greeting three haloed men, understood by Christian theologians as a manifestation of the Holy trinity - The central figure responds to the greeting and is signaled out by his body halo or *Mandoria* -This implicates that he is a prefiguration of the incarnate Christ - The two figures flanking him are dressed the same, -In the lower register Sarah, the wife of Abraham and mother of Issac stands before her tent rendered as a *pediment* structure with a curtained door with a cross above it - This implies that this a no mere tent, but a prefiguration of the christian church itself - She prepares loaves of bread, an allusion to the Eucharist, and she herself served as a precursor of mary, who will incarnate Chirst within her own body -The image once again reiterates the importance of Old Testament events prefiguring their final fullfilment in the New Testament

Capella Palatina, Aachen (Mosaics)

- The nave is surmounted by an Islamic wooden *muqarnas* ceiling filled with princely secular imagery in the Fatimid style, accompanied by Arab inscriptions involving victory and good fortune -Roger II himself is represented sitting cross leged wearing a 3 pointed crown - On the westside of the capel, a huge mosaic featuring christ flanked by saint peter and saint paul -The chapel is dedicated to peter known as the Prince of the Apostles -It has been noted that facial features of Christ and Roger are somewhat similar and this is called Christomimesis or imitation of christ and served as indicator of the exalted statutes of the Norman Kings, who just like the Byzantine Emperors were anointed at their crowning -The later symbolized the merger of the roles of Kingship and priesthood.

Arch of Constatine (Reliefs)

- The reliefs were taken from monuments of earlier good emperors perhaps as a way of equating Constantine to them - The vertical pannels come from Marcus Aurelius, 8 of the founders are from Hadrian, and the standing figures of captive Dacians in the attic and the relief are from the Forum of Trajan - The heads of the old emperors were recarved to resemble Constantine - The relief depicts a series of contemporary events including the battle of Milvian bridge, and Constantines triumphal procession through Rome - In a particularly detailed scene, Constantine delivers an oration from the rostra, the ancient speaker's platform in Forum Romanum -Although Constantine rarely visited Rome, the arch embedded him in the heart of the empire

St. Vitale, Ravenna + mosaics (547)

- To commemorate Justinian Generals capturing the Capital of the Western Roman Empire, the images of Justinian and his Wife Theodora were placed on opposite walls of the Presbytery of the Church of San Vitale - Justinian appears in the center of the mosaic, haloed, and holding a large golden *paten*, the plate that holds bread for the *Eucharist* - To his left, there are two body guards wearing torques, indicating their barbarian origins - One carries a shield emblazoned with the *Chi-Rho* symbol -At the extremel right, there are three clergy men, 2 are deacons, and one is named Bishop Maximinus who clutches a *pallium* a symbol of his episcopal authority - The scene represents a procession in the chruh, the clergy are at the front, the bishop stands a little before Justinian who comes behdin them with his three courtiers and the guards in the rear -Intrestingly Justinian and the Clergymen can be seen as taking the place of honor, depending on how the image is read

Great Mosque Interior View

- While the nave/aisles in a basilica church are longitudinal, the aisles of the mosques in Damascus are horizontal -The shift in interior space represents Islamic liturgy, to face Mecca which is important while praying -Furthermore the Mosque utilizes columns in the hypostyle hall, something that was not founded in churches -The courtyard was lined wall to wall with mosaics depicting intricate structures, trees, and rivers - Some of the depicted structures have pearl-like oblongs suspended on golden chains in doorways and open windows -Some have interpreted the trees and rivers to be depictions of the Quadrans paradise, but those are very rare in Islamic culture - Others have said that they could symbolically refer to every city and every tree in the world that came under the rule of Islam

Santa Sabina + doors

- famous for its cypress door, which contains one panel scene that is the thought by some to be the first depiction of the crucifixion of jesus, all but one of the panels contain scenes from the old and new testaments - In the crxicifion panel Jesus s shown between two other males There are nails in jesus hands, they don;t make the cross and he is supporting himself on his own weight - -The panels show the stages and event of Jesus life, starting from miracles and birth to crucifixion

Church of the Dormition, Daphni + mosaics (537)

-100 Ca, located outside of Athens at the Daphni Monastery -The mosaic shows Christ Pantokrator or chirst the all-powerful -The image is visible everywhere int eh nave, and it seems as though the figures inexorable gaze follows the individual, eliciting feelings of guilt or protection -The mosaic shows the half-length figure, holding a book of the Gospels, and making the gesture of blessing with his right hand -The image might be an abbreviated version of the Ascension, or Christs return to heavens after his resurrection -In the upper part of the church, scenes from the life of Christ are seen, depicting events that were celebrated as chruch holidays throughout the year - When going into the church, it brings back people to the time of Christ and reminds them to be believers of an ongoing cyclical reenactment of the sacred past that becomes an eternal present

Statue of Constantine 312 - 315 AD

-His greatest statute was the Colossus of Constatine, which sat in the western apse of the Basilica Nova as a reminder of his power - The white marble head, arms, and fragment of the chest and legs survive while the rest of the body made from bronze over brick and wood framework is lost - The head is 8 foot tall, the whole statue was over 30 foot tall -He is portrayed as seated, with bare chest and with a mantle made from bronze thrown over his lower body - A diadem made of gilded bronze was on his head -This public image contrasted with his portrait as a tetrarch -Here he is beardless, youthful, and has invidualized features such as the cleft chin, and a sharp nose - The intention was to associate his public image with htose of Augustus and Trajan -The upward turn of his eyes is a common feature of late Roman prortraits, and has been interpreted to mean that constitne is the absolute ruler, gazes away form the petty pettioners before him towards the heaven

Augustus Primaporta 1rst century AD

-Adopted the name Augustus, but original name was Gaius Octavianus, and he was born in 27 BCEU -Augustus means the revered one, after reorganizing the government so that all other magistrates were subservient to him -First Roman Emperor, he fully exploited the art of political propaganda to support his rule -His portraits were media outlets, in a world with out newspapers and stuff - His statues were tailored to project particular messages to specific audiences and occasions, but his need to show his 31-year-old power was constant -The idea of showing maturity and age did not fit his youth, so he adopted the greek style of portraiture to idealize him as a hero - The surviving statute is made out of marble, and is from the villa that belonged to his wife Livia north of the primaporta gate of Rome, -The statute portrays Augusts in the role of the *Imperator* - chief military commander, and the head of the roman military force -In contrast to Verism seen in the republic era, Augustus is shown as a classical youth without wrinkles or blemishes. -His portraits never aged, IE they always represented him as youthful -The body type also classicizing elements of *contrapposto*, which the standing human figure is poised such that the weight rests on one leg (called the engaged leg), freeing the other leg, which is bent at the knee. With the weight shift, the hips, shoulders, and head tilt, suggesting relaxation with the subtle internal organic movement that denotes life. -His revival of classical style is a deliberate reference to the new golden age of Augustan peace -He wears a bronze cuirass like breastplate, with his right arm raised in a rhetorical gesture, as if preparing to address his troops this is called *adlocutio* -The small cupid riding a dolphin by his foot serves as a double purpose, steadying the statute but most importantly referring to venus, which Julius caesar and now Augustus claimed as a divine ancestor of the Julio-Claudian family -The complex allegorical relife on the Breastplate depicts a new age of peace under his rule - His *pax Romana* or peace between the roman empire is celebrated by his personification of the heavens, the born man with a billowing cloak over his head the earth, as well as the reclining woman with a cornucopia below. In the middle there is a soldier who wears trousers remains a reference to a diplomatic victory

Dome of the Rock 7th century

-Although not a mosque, it is the first Islamic monument built by the Umayyads in 691 - 692 under the patronage of Caliph Abd al malik - It is a highly symbolic building that represents the religious and political victory of the Umayyads - The structure stands at above the Jewish Solomon's temple, and is once said that it is covering the holy of the holies in the temple and the beginning of the world -Later Muslims began identifying the rock with the story of the Miraj - the night journey of the prophet Muhammad, in which he travels on his human-headed mare from Mecca to the the rock and then to the heavens and back in one night -The dome of the rock overlooks the Holy Sepulcher (Christs burial) and dominates the holy places for the Jews and Christians in Jerusalem

Colosseum 70-80 AD

-Amphitthears meaning double theater was a Roman invention that became an integral part of every roman city -The Colosseum was the largest spectator building constructed by the Romans, and could seat approximately 50,000 people -Started by Vespasian in 72 CE and finished by Titus in 80 CE -Known as the Flavian Amphitheater was constructed by the two emperors as a gift to the people -Titus inaugurated the structure by staging a series of events that lasted 100 days -Performances included blood sports such as gladiatorial fights, wild animal hunts, and public executions - The travertine facade rises in four levels, and each level is defined by rows of half columns surrounding rounded arch opening - The three lower Tuscan ionic and corinthian half columns and the fouth level attic with pilasters -The exterior is built from solid stone held together by iron clamps, while the interior structure is brick and concrete -The foundations are 40-foot thick concrete slab, which has had virtually know settling - One of the few places where the citizens could freely address the emperor -However, all class did not mix -The emperors paid for the games, but citizens needed a token to enter -The token specified which of the 80 numbered ground level entrances to use, and each entrance had a stair case to that specific seat section -They were stratified and no social mixing, senators sat in the front, and then as it went further back the lower the class with slaves in the back

Portrait of Anicia Juliana, folio 6v, from De Materia Medica (462)

-Anika was a highly educated women and poetess related to two emperors - She was rewarded for building a parish church with the gift of a deluxe edition of De Materia Medica, a copy of a pharmacological treatise by the ancient greek physician Dioscorides - The work contained 498 illustrations of different plants, and includes an early example of a *dedication portrait*: the portrait of Anicia Juliana -The use of Parchment or Vellum in a codex, or book made it better ft to hold illustrations - Aniki as portrait shows her seated upon a throne in the center of the dedication page - She is flanked by *personifications* of Prudence and Magnanimity. Gratitude of arts, represented as a cloaked woman bows before her, and lifts a child up a representation of this codex to the princess who, acknowledged its receipt with her extended right hand -The portrait is encircled within a decorative eight-pointed star, the letters of her name, are seen within its triangular borders -In the areas between the letters, there are relief like images of *Putti* engaged in building activities perhaps a reference to the church Anika Built, which resulted in the gift of this manuscript -This proves that their lively behavior contrasts with the solemn stillness of the honoree. -The codex reminds us that the Byzantines embrace of Christianity did not result in a total rejection of the calssical past -Byzantine education focused on two elements: the study of classical text balanced with readings from Christians -The lavisness of Anikias De Materia Medica is more typical of a religous text such as a book of the Gospels, the writings of Mark, Luke, and John, describing the lfe of teachings of Christ

Hagia Sophia Dome

-Arches link the four main piers creating a square base or the circular dome -The transition from square to circle is only possible from four triangular *pendentives* that form the only remaining lower dome - The downward thrust of the dome at the east and west is extended outward by two furthers *apse* that channel some of the weight of the superstructure to the secondary masonry piers, which also open up into two smaller *exedrae* on the western and eastern end of the structure - The dome and the windows in the north and south *tympana* flood the nave with brilliant light

Ara Pacis Augustae Relief Southwest

-At southwest corner of the alter, the most prominently oriented relief is featured which depicts a born figure wth his toga drawn over his head as Roman citizen would do when sacrificing -He is believed to represent Aeneas, a purported ancestor of the Julian family, making a sacrifice upon safely arriving in Italy after fleeing Roy -On the southeast pannel, we find beautiful women holding two lively babies in her lap; this is probably Tellus a personification earth, flourishing at the time of peace -one of the women is seated on a goose and the other on a sea monster they probably refer to two types of breezes flowing over the land and sea respectively

Rashid al-Din, World History (1314)

-Before the Lakhani Period, manuscripts existed but were circulated restricvley -This changed in the 14th century when large-scale illustrated manuscripts were produced for a wider circle of people -They were commissioned by the court, nobles, official, rulers, and the Khans themselves - When the Chingizid laws took place, a great emphasis was placed on genealogy and legitimacy to rule -Therefore the Mongols cultivated a great sense of history and historical awareness -The text called the Jami al-Tawarikh or world history was written by Rashid al-din from 1247 to 1318 - Rashad was one of 2 heads of the viziers or chief ministers at the Lakhani court - He commissioned rulers Ghazanto to write a multi-volume history of the Mongols, their origins, and their genealogies -It also includes lineages of people the Mongols came in contact with like the Chinese, Turks, Franks, Indian, and jews - The work was composed originally in Persian and then Translated into Arabic by Rashid himself - He arranged for two copies, one in Persian and one in Arabic, to be made every year and to be distributed to the cities of the Arab world, and Iran in particular -These volumes ^ were lavishly decorated with paintings - This manuscript that was talking about was made in 714 hajjes and has 90 paintings - It has been renowned for its paintings, original subject matter, and intriguing visual connections with Chinese and other religious treaties

Sarcophagus with Old and New Testament Scenes 270

-Dates to 270, and displays two large figures at its center anchoring the images surrounding them - A standing woman lifts her hands in prayer toward heaven in a *Orant* pose - Seated next to her is a man in a *pallium*, holding a scroll in his hands emphasizing his literary -The sarcophagus was not completed indicating that they were for sale and never found a customer - This^ indicates the wealth of the period by showing that there were people who were rich enough to purchase such a luxury - There is a sleeping youth representing the Hebrew profit Jonah who was swallowed by a whale as punishment from God - He is shown vomited up from the whale after agreeing with God to spread the word of Judaism -There is also a couple in love, and it is Endymion a young shepherd and Selen the moon goddess, Selene wanted her lover to have eternal youth, so he put him to sleep for eternity - There is another scene in which a good shepherd was carrying a sheep on his shoulders and the Baptism of Christ - The odd juxtaposition of scenes from the old testament are unique to this object - They are a visual parallel for the early Christian prayers for the dead known as the commending of the soul -The disjointed scenes were a reminder that that the newly deceased Christian believer was under the same protection as the biblical antecedents

Doors from St. Michael ( Get Picture of all doors) 996-1022

-Each time a monk processed from the monastery into the church, he would pass an imposing set of sixteen and a half foot bronze doors made around 1015 -Each door is cast in a single massive slab of Bronze, using the revived *lost wax method* -The 16 pannels are read in a U shape and tell the story of humanity's fall and redemption -Early Genesis Scenes begin in the upper left with the Creation of Eve and end at the bottom of the column with Eves son abels murder by his brother Cain -Gospel scens from Christs life are shown on the right, beginning with the annciation at the bottom and ending with Christ appearing to Mary Magdaeln after the Resurrection, just before he ascends into heave, at the upper right -Old Testament stories were often said to prefigure the new testament and are juxtaposed evocatively -

Arch of Constantine (Exterior) 315 AD

-Erected by the senate, likely with Constantines consent and participation to commemorate his victory over Maxentius -Unlike other practices, none of the material is newly acquired, and none of the reliefs are freshly carved - The reliefs were taken from monuments of earlier good emperors perhaps as a way of equating Constantine to them - The vertical pannels come from Marcus Aurelius, 8 of the founders are from Hadrian, and the standing figures of captive Dacians in the attic and the relief are from the Forum of Trajan - The heads of the old emperors were recarved to resemble Constantine - The relief depicts a series of contemporary events including the battle of Milvian bridge, and Constantines triumphal procession through Rome - In a particularly detailed scene, Constantine delivers an oration from the rostra, the ancient speaker's platform in Forum Romanum -Although Constantine rarely visited Rome, the arch embedded him in the heart of the empire

Pantheon Interior

-Hadrian wanted people to feel as if they were standing under the sphere of the heavens when they stepped into the rotunda - The dome rises to 142 foot tall, and the diameter is the same length - The interior could hold a perfect sphere emanating the globe of the earth, as well as the geometric perfection of the cosmos - The *Oculus* is the only source of light in the interior linking the earth to the heavens - The floor is sloped to drain water -None of the original decorations of the dome survive, bronze rosettes may have once appeared like stars glittering in the *Coffers* of the dome -The construction was not simple - The walls are constructed with brick-faced concrete, while the dome is entirely concrete -The floor and walls of the drum are entirely marbled panels - The base is concrete and sunk 15 feet into the ground - *coffers* or rectangular panels carved in the dome remove additional weight and provide decoration. -A curved apse is located oppisite the door; the remaining nichtes to the sides are screened by columns and smaller niches are set into the eight wall piers -Since there are 16 of these units but 28 coffers in each level of the dome, they do not always align vertically creating a dunamic disconnect that places a subtle empahssis on the primary axes of the building -The coofers are tappered in order to appear the same shape when viewed from the center of the building - The interior may have been used as a solar observatory with light striking different gods at different times of the yea

Hisham's palace/Khirbat al-Mafjar (+ mosaics)

-Highly sophisticated mosaics covered the floor of the bathhouse featuring a vast display of patterns colors from the late antique period -In the center of the audience hall there was a radiating rosette pattern that empahszied the main axis of the aspace while echoing the central dome above it - The geometric layout of the floor may have mirrored the layout of the building - The niches above the mosaics are occupied with sculptures of female figures, animals, and mythical creatures - The semi-nude female figures represented dancer, musicans, and entertainers, or servants -Such Seductive images associated with the notions of abudance and wealth are linked to representationf courtly pleasures - Scholars have not come to a conclusive answer on the usage of the audience hall; it could have been used for formal dining and reception hall, or for ceremonial entertainment like dancing or banqueting - Symbols of royalty are throughout the palace, like the crown hanging form a strong or in the dome there are celestial motifs often associated with power and authority

Lindisfarne Gospels 635

-In 635 groups of monks founded a monastery on the Scottish island of Lindisfarne - The bishop, Eadfrith, began production of a manuscript known as the Lindisfarne Gospels - The Gospel of St. Matthews opens with a carpet page; a painted page thought to resemble carpet designs, painted with tangled spirals and serpents harmoniously fitted into the 13 by ten space - The dense maze of knots and beasts may serve a *apotropaic* function, confusing the eyes of an enemy who might attempt to work evil with the powerful symbol - The colors, 90 of them, are made from mineral and plant extracts which are suspended in egg white or fish glue - The manuscripts usually would have been made by teams of artisans, but a *colophon* added in the 10th century indicates that Eadfrith made the entire manuscript by himself - The book would have been displayed on the church altar at Lindisfarne where ordinary people could marvel at its intricacies as they south healing at the St. Cuthberts shrine

Harbaville Triptych 1133

-Ivory was reserved for sacred art by the Byzantine until its supply was cut off when Egypt ceased to be part of the empire after the Islamic Invasions -With normalization of the political relations between the empires during the Abbasid Period allowed for Ivory to be used again in important commissions -displays a complex decorative program, similar to the arrangement of figures found in church murals -The small object might have been sued as a private traveling Icon; its wings can be opened allowing the triptych to stand unassisted -The figures are arranged din two rows, with Deesis, a tradition representation of Christ, flanked by his mother mary -They are entreating him on behalf of mankind, and theere is a stron allusion to this taking place during the Last Judgement -Saints, identified by inscriptions, are arranged in groups according to their earthy occupations, Apostles, Bishops, and military saints -The military figures were considered the celestial defenders of the Empire and of the person of the emperor himself -Their cult comes increasingly to the foreground, as the fortunes of the empire become strained by external enemies

Hagia Sophia Exterior (537 -1054)

-Justinian engaged two geometricians Antemios of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus to provide a ground plan for the Cathedral which was executed in 5 years - The structure was a combination of the longitudinal focus of a basilica which served to direct the processions that were an inherent part of church services, combined with an expansive width that could only be accomplished with a vaulted domed roof - The structures core consists of four main and two subsidiaries masonry pierce -Arches link the four main piers creating a square base or the circular dome -The transition from square to circle is only possible from four triangular *pendentives* that form the only remaining lower dome - The downward thrust of the dome at the east and west is extended outward by two furthers *apse* that channel some of the weight of the superstructure to the secondary masonry piers, which also open up into two smaller *exedrae* on the western and eastern end of the structure - The dome and the windows in the north and south *tympana* flood the nave with brilliant light

Hisham's palace/Khirbat al-Mafjar (+ mosaics and statues)

-Located near Jericho in the Jordan Valley, it contains elaborate mosaics, stucco carvings, and cultural designs -Scholars have had difficulties identifying its patron and the name of the site because of the lack of any primary sources and foundation inscriptions -The only inscription is on fragmented marble and reads the name of the Caliph Hisham who ruled from 727 to 743 - It has been suggested that the owner was Walid Ibn Yazid, Hisham's nephew and Successor -Features large walls, main gates, audience hall, a mosque, Residental areas, and a bath complex -The stucco statutes of Scantily clad women and lush floor mosaics point to the lavishness life and the flow of the international market -Palace complex is composed of 3 main areas all enclosed by an outer wall - It is renowned for the mosaics and stucco carvings that adorn the audience halls/ bathhouse which displays links to Byzantine and Sassanian artistic traditions - The size of the audience halls indicate that there were large receptions and entertainment was an important part of the palace life and that they were built for that purpose

Republican portraits (500-27 BC)

-Majority of portraits are men - All depict elderly men, often with obvious signs of age: lined foreheads, receding hairlines, sagging jowls, and crows feet near their eyes. - Utilized the approach of *Verism*, or exaggerated realism that highlights the age of the subject and his particular facial features -Verism was desirable since it promised to reflect the true appearance while emphasizing his honest and his aged wisdom -The face is asymmetrical and exhibits atrophy of facial musculature perhaps maybe because of a stroke -There is a scar on the head suggesting head trauma -Republic portraits almost exclusively feature mature and advanced aged individuals since republic high offices, and high social status was only achievable after prolonged civic or military service -Once someone was important enough to get a statute, they would be old -Scholars think that people may have asked to look older in their busts -Most likely verism developed from or parallel to existing roman funerary practices connected to the cult of ancestor

Forum of Trajan + column and reliefs 106-112 AD

-Marcus Ulpius Trajan was the first of the Roman emperors to be bron in a province of the empire rather than in italy - Through the imperial period emperors monopolized large scale building projects in Rome -To celebrate Trajans victories in Dacia, a captured area that became part of the new Roman province they erected the Forum of Trajan -It was built by Apollodorus of Damascus, an architect, and paid for by Trajan from the spoils of his Dacian campaings - The entrance, no longer survices, was desinged as large trumphal arch, its appearance is known from coins - the main square was twice the size of the earlier fora, and at the center stood a massive bronze statue of Trajan on horsebacks - The colonades framing the forum were lined with statues of captive Dacians -Oppisite entrance stood the Basilica were two lubraries one for greek texts and the other for latin stood -Trajans column stood between the libraries with his tomb in the base, it was a 125 foot tall monument topped with a bronze state of Trajan, it is covered witha 625 foot frieze relief - It was once painted, and it depicts the activies of trajans two military campaings, 1/3 is actual fighting, and the rest is covered with army on the march and taking captives -Some scenes are depicted of real events with mystical elements

Basilica Nova 312 AD

-Maxentius, the son of the former emeperor, employeed a grand architecture to solidify his control of Rome -He began construction of the largest forum in rome on October 28th 306 CE he began called Basilica Nova or New Basilica - The basic shape of the basilica was a massive rectange, approximaley 325 foot long and 215 feet wide -The cental aisle called a nave covered with towering groun vaults, and two barrel vaults that reach 115 foot high - Roman basilicas typuically had flat, wooden roofs supported by columns, but to add granduer Maxentius releid on the arches, valuts, and concrete construction more found in imperial bath complexes - The upper walls of the nave where called celestory and lined the wall with windows to flood light - The walls and floors were marble, and the roof was titled with gilded bronze -The basilica was eventually taken over by Constatine when he won the battle of the Mivian and tansformed it into a christian place of worship

Book of Durrow 650-700

-One of the earliest surviving insular illuminated manuscripts made around 650 - 700 - Its 250 *Vellum* (treated calf skin) *folios* are about ten by 6 inches tall -The codex contains the gospel books of Matthew, mark, luke, and John which tell the story of Christs life as well as numerous folios covered entirely in intricate paintings - The page that opens the gospel of st. Matthew shows his symbol, a man surrounded by a border of red, gold, and green ribbon plaits and spirals glowing against the dark background - the *interlace* contained within the rectangular border and the open space around the man balances the dense patters of the page -The symbolic st Matthew is is bell-shaped with little sideways nose, and mouth abstracted as those on the Sutton Hoo Helmet -The mask like face confronts us squarel, the eyes, nose, and mouth as abstracted as those on the Sutton Hoo Helmet -The body looks as if the Sutton Hoo shoulder clasp has morphed into the shape of a standing man, decorated with *millefirori* glass and checkerboar garnet *cloissonè*demonstrating the direct adpatation of prechristian metal work designs, -the status symbols of local Lords, to the Christian Subject the Most luxurious tecniques and materials are depicted here to indicate the value of St. Matthews words that follow - The most luxurious techniques and materials are depicted here to indicate the value of st. matthews

Great Mosque of Damascus + mosaics (1200)

-One of the most important examples of a hypostyle mosque from the times of the first Muslim dynasty - built between 709 and 715 by the Caliph al-Walid -Not only was it based on the architectural vocabulary of the Late ANtique period, the structure was built on the very spot occupied earlier by the Christian Basilica of St. John -Has become a model for other Mosques -It consisted of a *porticoed* courtyard with piers, columns, and a prayer hall with three wide aisles parallel to the qibla wall, which were cut in the middle by an axial nave

Quran of Sultan Baybars 1304

-Qurans were found everywhere because they spread Gods word -Rulers and other nobility patronized lavish copies of the Quran that were usually used in ceremonies - One example is a 7 volume Quaran commissioned between 1304 and 1306 by the Sultan Baybars al-Jashnagir, who at the time served an important high official at the Mamluk court of Sultan al_Nasir Muhammad - The Quran was copied in the capital city of Mamluks utilize the thulth scrip which was a round cured cursive type of writing -The Calligrapher was Muhammad ibn al0whaid, and the illuminations were made by a team of artist directed by Abu Bakr -Each volume had splendid double-page frontispiece with geometric design and ornamented lush title pages for the beginning of each heading - The center medallion is an octagonal star with the first seventh inscribed in the middle, resting on an intricate background of vegetal scrolls aginst a blue collar -The pannel contain verses from chapter 56 verses 77-80 reading "This is indeed a noble Qur'an, in a well-preserved book which none shall touch bu the purified. It is a revelation from the Lord of the Worlds." -It is written in Kufic and had been used extensively for copying the Qurans in the early centuries of Islam.

Icon of Christ, 6th century (572?)

-Rare panel painting, painted in *encaustic tecnique*, that is with mineral pigments suspended in warm beeswax applied to a panel -Christ is shown here dressed as a philospher in a deep purple mantle and a tunic with a gold verticla decorative strip called a *clavus* -His right hand appears to be making a blessing -There are some artist indiscrepency, with one of the high is larger and the pupils are not at the same level -These odditys might actually be a reminder of a funemdnetal theological understanding regarding the person of Jesus -Othodox Christisans hold that Christ was both a man and a God, pershaps to show the fusion, the artist included these visual inconsitenceies

Ara Pacis Augustae (Monument) 13 BC

-References Augusts as a bringer of peace - An altar complex dedicated to Pax, the roman goddess of peace -The altar itself is inside the walled enclosure, open to the sky - The two long sides of the enclosure feature two *historical reliefs* that commemorate a real-life event: a religious procession celebrating Augusts's return and the laying of the foundation stone of the altar - The state commissioner the Ara Pacis at the time of Augusts return after three years of war in Hispania and Gaul -Since it depicts recent events, the processional frieze likely includes the actual people who participated in the original welcome ceremony and sacrifice; some can be identified by their portraits

Portraits from Roman Egypt

-Roman Egypt portrays of man and women combined Roman and Egyptian portraits that were used to cover sarcophagus

Pantheon 113 -125

-The Pantheon, Begun by Trajan and completed by the emperor Hadrian around 126 AD, is the single best preserved Roman temple - Later Christian rulers in the 7th century turned it into a church - The enormous dome was inspired by the Byzantine, Renaissance, and Baroque builders to match its scale and magnificence -The temple is dedicated to all gods ("pan" meaning "all" then "meaning sacred to a god") - When people enter the Pantheon, they walk through framed portico and enclosed courtyard making the front appear as a normal temple - The 16 column shafts on the exterior are *monolithic* that is cut from single blocks of stone r

Man with portrait busts of his ancestors 1st Century BCE BCE

-There was a roman tradition in where wax portrait masks of deceased ancestors were proudly displayed in the public areas of the house -The masks were also carried in funerary processions and sometimes even donned by participants as if the ancestors themselves were honoring a recently deceased family member - This statute exemplifies the importance ancient Romans placed on preserving and honoring family lineage, and on taking pride in the achievements and virtues of ancestors, convened here through veristic portraits -Roman art emphasizes history, here through family connection, which gives individuals a place in the cultures past

Paris Psalter (449)

-The Paris Psalter (950 - 70 CA) exemplifies the Macedonian Renaissance movement and reveals the twin foundations of Byzantine Culture - The *frontispiece* shows David, the future King of Israel, in the guise of Young Orpheus, the Legendary ancient greek poet, and Musician with a gift of prophesying -Orpheus was often represented playing music surrounded by animals wh were unchanged -The depiction of David evokes that prototype since he too is also surrouned by animals, the prohets og resting at his feet, eeyeing the flock of goats and sheep, peacfully drinking from a stream at the bottom edge of the imagge -Aside from David the other figures are personifactions - Melodia, personification of Melody, leans on Davids' shoulder serving as inspiration to for his song -To the right hiding behind a pillar surmounted by a double handeled vessile is the Greek nymph Echo, whos voice was reduced to being only able to repeat what she heard - Finally, g the swarthy male figure reclining at the lower right and identified by an inscription as Mount Bethlehem is ecstatically attending to davis son -The classicizing appearance of this work displays a surviving living link with antiquity which could be evoked at the discretion and desire of the patron -The visual language of ancient greek art is being utilized to portray a biblical idyll, reconfigured to portray a new spiritual meaning. -The classicizing appearance of this work displays a surviving living link with antiquity, which could be revoked at the discretion and desire of the patron

Pyxis of al-Mughira 968

-The Umayyads were well known for their love of lush fabrics and exquisite painting, intricate jewelry, and various precious objects that were carved, inlaid or painted that featured sophisticated *iconography* - Ivory box or pyxis, Dated 968 and produced at the royal workshop in Cordova for a member of the ruling family - It bears the Arabic inscription that indicates that it was intended for the Umayyad prince al-Mughira, rother of al-Hakem II - Among the carved foliage and real and mythical animals, the pyxis also features for lobbed medallions considered together with an elegant inscription running along the edge of the lid -The medallions, read left to right suggest a particular political message -The first medallion depicts two youths seated on a lion throne, the figures appear in formal postion holding a bottle and a flower, and the lion throne they sit on is known to convey a royal representation - The figures have been identified as the sons of the Caliph, the nephews of al-Mughira

Santa Maria Maggiore (Temple) 432

-The church was dedicated to the Virgin Mary as Theotokos (mother of god), and this significant dedication alludes to settling of issues that rocked the church for years: was christ human, divine, or adopted by God as his sone later in life - The mosaics focus on Christs birth and infancy - The naves clerestory level is pierced by windows, underneath which one finds framed mosaics (27 of 42 survive) narrating stories of the old testament patriarchs, Abraham, Moses, and Joshua - The images depict stories that anticipate the coming of the Messiah (Christ) and thus compliment the New Testament imagery found above the triumphal Arch -In the scene of Hospitality, the father of the Israelites is seen three times; this is an example of *Simultaneous Representation* - Abraham is shown bowing with outstretched hand, greeting three haloed men, understood by Christian theologians as a manifestation of the Holy trinity

Great Mosque Mosaics

-The courtyard was lined wall to wall with mosaics depicting intricate structures, trees, and rivers - Some of the depicted structures have pearl-like oblongs suspended on golden chains in doorways and open windows -Similar combinations of hanging lamps or pearl-like motives already appear in church mosaics from the 5th century in the mediterrranean -Some have interpreted the trees and rivers to be depictions of the Quadrans paradise, but those are very rare in Islamic culture - Others have said that they could symbolically refer to every city and every tree in the world that came under the rule of Islam

Great Mosque Prayer Hall

-The courtyard was lined wall to wall with mosaics depicting intricate structures, trees, and rivers - Some of the depicted structures have pearl-like oblongs suspended on golden chains in doorways and open windows -Some have interpreted the trees and rivers to be depictions of the Quadrans paradise, but those are very rare in Islamic culture - Others have said that they could symbolically refer to every city and every tree in the world that came under the rule of Islam

Church of the Dormition, Daphni Crucifixion Mosaic

-The crucifixion is one of the better-preserved images at Daphni -Christ body is now fully revealed to us; it is no longer obscured by the *Colobium* present in some earlier depictions -His eyes are closed in death, and he is the suffering christ, or Christus Patiens -There is blood and water emerging from Christs side to show Baptism and turning water into wine - Mary is seen pointing to the body of her dead son, and while John invites us to contemplate the mystery -Adams skull is scene at the base of the Golgotha reminding us that the cross was placed above Adams tomb, and that Christ is the new Adam, the one who redeems mankind from Adams sin and fal

Hagia Sophia Mosaics

-The dematerialization of the capitals mirrors the structures construction - there is no visual clue how the dome hangs, floating above the open space of the nave

Rossano Gospels (42)l

-The fragmentary Greek text of the Gospel of Matthew, was written in gold and silver ink (which tarnished and turned black) -In the illustration of the Parable of the Wise and Foolish Virigins, the five foolish virgins are depicted in multi-colored dressess symbolizing their passions - They are shown after having forgotten their oil for their lamps returning to find that the bridegroom (christ) has already arrived the door has been shut on them -Christ with a cruciform halo is shown castigating the foolish virigns - This very famous parable remided the Christians to be spirtually prepared for death and for the Judgement Day, which like the Bridegroom, could come at any unexpected moment -The main subject matter is amplified by the images found below it, where figures of two old testment prophets, David and Hosea, display a scroll with thier writings which alludes to the event represetned above -These figures connect phrophecies from the Old Testament to the New Testament

Icon of Enthroned Mother of God with Angels

-The icon shows the Virgin and Child flanked by two soldier saints, St. Theodore to the left and St. George at the right. Above these are two angels who gaze upward to the hand of God, from which light emanates, falling on the Virgin. -New in our icon is what we might call a "hierarchy of bodies." Theodore and George stand erect, feet on the ground, and gaze directly at the viewer with large, passive eyes. While looking at us they show no recognition of the viewer and appear ready to receive something from us. The saints are slightly animated by the lifting of a heel by each as though they slowly step toward us -The Virgin averts her gaze and does not make eye contact with the viewer. The ethereal angels concentrate on the hand above. The light tones of the angels and especially the slightly transparent rendering of their halos give the two an otherworldly appearance. -the Virgin and Child who are elevated and look beyond us, and the angels who reside near the hand of God transcend our space. As the eye moves upward we pass through zones: the saints, standing on ground and therefore closest to us, and then upward and more ethereal until we reach the holiest zone, that of the hand of God. These zones of holiness suggest a cosmos of the world, earth and real people, through the Virgin, heavenly angels, and finally the hand of God. The viewer who stands before the scene make this cosmos complete, from "our earth" to heaven.

Book of Kells 900

-The manuscript is the most elaborate and highly decorated of its type with ten full-page painting and miniature illuminations on nearly every one of its 340 Vellum folios, each around 14 by 10 inches - The St. Matthew Gospel opens to the Chi Rho Iota page -Chi Rho and Iota are the first letters of Christs name in greek, and this page begins with the early stages of his life -The intersecting loops of the of the chi swoop across the page while the rho and iota are nestled together -In latin the page says and this how christ was born -The latin tet that follows is filled with small errors, emphasizing how the Book of Kells was meant to inspire awe and serve an aid to meditation more than to educate monks who already knew its words by heart -The XPI is outlined in contrasting purples and oranges and then filled with little compartment, each containing its own ornamented world - The Chi-Rho-Iota page shows how monks would have read through the letters of an illuminated manuscript seeking god in mediations inspired by the images -The large letters swim in a sea of knots, triskeles, and hidden surprises: three angels spring with intertwined wings from the left side of the X and create an unusual yellow curl, and lined mustaches pops out of the curled rho -Each little design represents a meaningful Christian symbol, like the moths represent death and resurrection, and the fish represents christ

Mosaic floor in the synagogue of Hamath Tiberias 286-337

-The mosaic floor is made up of three panels featuring the zodiac, and Helios, the sun god. Women who symbolize the four seasons of nature appear in each corner.[4] -The extraordinary mosaic floor of a 4th-century synagogue, which bears the name of the town as a whole, is a colorful stone carpet of wonderful workmanship and - for a synagogue - startling themes. read more: https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/travel/tourist-tip-of-the-day/.premium-1.554419 -Greek and Aramaic inscriptions honor benefactors (including donors to the building fund), while two lions exude power and recall the royal insignia of the Davidic dynasty; fine geometric designs edge the floor. The upper panel of the mosaic contains the quintessential Jewish symbols. A curtained "ark" in the center, probably the cupboard-like structure that contains Torah scrolls in a synagogue, is flanked on either side by a seven-branched menorah (candelabra), a shofar (ram's horn), the incense pan used in the bygone Temple, and a lulav and etrog (palm frond and citron) used during the Sukkot festival. -The images are not only disconnected from Jewish tradition, they appear blatantly to violate it: naked human forms, a Greek mythological theme, and a pagan deity as the centerpiece of a synagogue?! Theories abound. Perhaps they were the product of a regional aberration (though similar zodiacs have surfaced far away to the south), or of a deviant fringe group (though this mosaic was made at the time when nearby Tiberias was the center of mainstream Judaism). Maybe the themes were merely allegorical, the seasons representing the cycle of the year, the zodiac the orderly succession of the months, and Helios the divine daily blessing of daylight and sunshine so essential to life. All is in God's hands, the congregants would have affirmed, but since depicting Him was absolutely forbidden, the community borrowed conventional motifs from another culture to convey the idea. That, too, is just a theory. -

Arch of Titus Apotheosis (Relief)

-The process of divinization was called apotheosis, a greek word literary meaning "achieving the divine level" -On the arch of Titus, a small square relief placed on the underside of the coffered archway depicts Titus's apotheosis: the figure of the emperor is carried heavenward by an eagle the sacred bird of jupiter

Pyxis of al-Mughira Other views

-The second medallion features lions attacking bulls, once again a common metaphor for royal power -In this context, the lions can be associated with two young sons of the caliph, and the heirs in the previous medallion -the third medallion features two men trying to steal eggs from eagles nests, while dogs bite their feet, the eagle is a symbol of royal authority, and it has been suggested that the scene is a warning for whoever tries to break the line of succession - The fourth scene contains a very similar message, showing two riders picking dates from a palm tree while two wolves bite the birds who are trying to eat the seeds of the palm, the warning is clear do not break the branches of the palm tress and eliminate the seeds or fruit - It seems that the prince al-Mughira received a lavish gift containing a strong allegorical political message cautioning him not to disrupt the political stability and succession of the throne -The lavish gift was commssioned for the pricne by the Caliphs wife Subh with a charged message to not disrupt the political throne - Another more modern interpretation was that pyxis was a celebratory fight from al-Mushtaq, who was al-Mughiras mother to her son perhaps commemorating a personal event in his life, the cycle of images on the box was meant to evoke seasonal and astronomical imagery, symbolizing lushness and prosperity

Arch of Titus (South Relief)

-The south relief depicts the parade of spoils taken from the sacked great temple of Jerusalem -The most precious objects from eh temple including the golden table, silver trumpets, and the seven armed menorah are carried on wooden stretchers

Arch of Titus (Arc) 82 AD

-The victory of Titus's campaign in the Jewish wars is alluded to in the Arch of Titus - It is a triumphal arch built about ten years after the campaign, shortly after Titus death - A triumphal arch is a free-standing arch with one or more passageways, usually intended to commemorate a military victory -The arch of Titus was erected over a ceremonial route for triumphal processions through Rome -Gilded bronze statues originally stoop atop the arch and several reliefs such as flying factories carrying palm branches, laurel wreaths, and roman banners decorate it - A large clear inscription reads "The Senate and the People of Rome, To Divus (divine) Titus, son of Divus Vespasian, Vespasian Augusts." -The fact that Titus and Vespasian are referred to as Divine indicates that they were both deceased when the arch was constructed

St. Vitale, Ravenna + mosaics

-Theordora and her retinue are represented on the oppisite wall and can be understood as being in the rear of the procession -They are about to enter the church from the *atrium*, a courtyyard typically found in the front of a church - A courtier pulls a a curtain away from the door, inviting the participants to enter - Theodora is seen slightly off center, but her importance is emphasized by her Halo and which is subsumed by her ornate costume and crown - She holds a chalice containing the wine of the Eucharist, the fight that corresponds with Justinas offering of the *Paten* -A direct connection between the idea of Theodore bringing forward a fight to God is highlighted by the representation of the three magi bringing their gifts forward to the infant christ, shown embroidered on her purple cloak.

Oljeitu's Tomb, Sultaniya, Iran 1313

-This structure is all that remains of Sultaniya, the much praised Mongol city founded c.1285 by the Il-Khan Arghun and dedicated as the capital by his son, Sultan Uljaytu Khudabanda, in 1313. Sultan Uljaytu probably began building his tomb at the time of his accession. Upon converting from Sunni to Shi'ism, the Sultan decided that the large mausoleum would be a shrine for Imam Ali and Imam Husayn, whom he planned to transfer from their resting places in Iraq. This decision resulted in modifications to the building during construction. After reconsideration, the scheme was abandoned and the building eventually became Uljaytu's own tomb, as originally intended. -The plan comprises an octagon with a rectangular burial chamber protruding from the southern side. The exterior is built out with triangles on the northern end, extending the north, east, and west facades. The dome rests on the upper terrace, carried on the interior by the corbels of a thick wall. Minarets rise from the upper terrace at each of the eight corners. The interior is divided into two stories of eight-bay arcades. A third arcade runs below the base of the dome, opening to the exterior and not the interior. -Uljaytu's religious intention for the structure, as the shrine of the Imams, is demonstrated by the presence of the funerary chapel beyond the southern wall; a mihrab included on the qibla wall of this chapel; and externally, the prioritization of the exterior wall facing Mecca, with more opulent decoration. Two phases of interior decoration may also reflect the change in purpose of this structure. The earlier decoration, intended for a religious monument, made extensive use of brick laid in common bond; plaster simulated brick bonding and end plugs; and Kufic inscriptions formed with turquoise glazed squares. Two axes were established by the more elaborate decoration of four of the eight bays, comprising complex geometric patterns assembled in brick and thin strips of glazed and unglazed terracotta cut to shape. The second phase may reflect the need to convert the structure into a space considered more appropriate for secular use. A dado of hexagonal glazed tile was installed, above which the entire interior surface, including the dome, was covered with a coat of plaster. The plaster was painted with decorative patterns and inscriptions, partially in relief. -The exterior decoration was apparently not changed during the conversion from a religious monument. The exterior of the uppermost gallery is decorated with glazed and unglazed terracotta and mosaic faience, the interior surfaced with exquisite painted plaster, visible from the outside. The structure's cornice and the minarets were patterned with dark and light tile. The dome was covered entirely with turquoise glazed brick.

Forum of Trajan Column

-Trajans column stood between the libraries with his tomb in the base, it was a 125 foot tall monument topped with a bronze state of Trajan, it is covered witha 625 foot frieze relief

Arch of Titus (North Relief)

-Two large reliefs commemorating Titus trumph appear within the barrel-vaulted passageway -In the north relief Titus stands in his triumphal chariot, acopieaned by soldiers and personification of the senate and people of Rome -The winged goddess victory crowns him with a laurel wreath.

Hagia Sophia Nave (re do 283

=The brilliance of the light was originally intensified by a huge expanse of refractive gold mosaics that once covered the upper nave -The walls of the church from the floor to the *springing level*, where the vaulting begins, are sheathed with precious revetments, thin veneers of variegated colored marbles that were opened up to create mirroing patters -The side aisles and balconies are separated from the nave by colonnades of monolithic columns which bear the names Justinian and his wife, Theodora

*Byzantine*

Byzantine art is the name for the artistic products of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from Rome's decline and lasted until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453,[1] many Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree the Muslim states of the eastern Mediterranean, preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward. A number of states contemporary with the Byzantine Empire were culturally influenced by it, without actually being part of it (the "Byzantine commonwealth"). These included the Rus, as well as some non-Orthodox states like the Republic of Venice, which separated from the Byzantine empire in the 10th century, and the Kingdom of Sicily, which had close ties to the Byzantine Empire and had also been a Byzantine possession until the 10th century with a large Greek speaking population persisting into the 12th century. Other states having a Byzantine artistic tradition had oscillated throughout the Middle Ages between being part of the Byzantine empire and having periods of independence, such as Serbia and Bulgaria. After the fall of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453, art produced by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire was often called "post-Byzantine." Certain artistic traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly in regard to icon painting and church architecture, are maintained in Greece, Cyprus, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day.

*Late Antique/Early Christian*

Early Christian art and architecture or Paleochristian art is the art produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity to, depending on the definition used, sometime between 260 and 525. In practice identifiably Christian art only survives from the 2nd century onwards.[1] After 550 at the latest, Christian art is classified as Byzantine, or of some other regional type.[2] It is hard to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a persecuted group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion of the lower classes in this period[citation needed], the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage, and simply small numbers of followers. The Old Testament restrictions against the production of graven (an idol or fetish carved in wood or stone) images (see also Idolatry and Christianity) may also have constrained Christians from producing art. Christians may have made or purchased art with pagan iconography, but given it Christian meanings, as they later did. If this happened, "Christian" art would not be immediately recognizable as such. Early Christianity used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included fresco, mosaics, sculpture, and manuscript illumination. Early Christian art not only used Roman forms, it also used Roman styles. Late classical style included a proportional portrayal of the human body and impressionistic presentation of space. Late classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, which include most examples of the earliest Christian art.[3] Early Christians adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the "Good Shepherd". Early Christians also developed their own iconography, for example, such symbols as the fish (ikhthus), were not borrowed from pagan iconography. Early Christian art is generally divided into two periods by scholars: before and after either the Edict of Milan of 313, bringing the so-called Triumph of the Church under Constantine, or the First Council of Nicea in 325. The earlier period being called the Pre-Constantinian or Ante-Nicene Period and after being the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils.[4] The end of the period of Early Christian art, which is typically defined by art historians as being in the 5th-7th centuries, is thus a good deal later than the end of the period of Early Christianity as typically defined by theologians and church historians, which is more often considered to end under Constantine, around 313-325.

*Islamic*

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onward by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by or ruled by culturally Islamic populations.[1] It is thus a very difficult art to define because it covers many lands and various peoples over some 1,400 years; it is not art specifically of a religion, or of a time, or of a place, or of a single medium like painting.[2] The huge field of Islamic architecture is the subject of a separate article, leaving fields as varied as calligraphy, painting, glass, pottery, and textile arts such as carpets and embroidery. Islamic art is not at all restricted to religious art, but includes all the art of the rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies as well. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians.[3] Apart from the ever-present calligraphic inscriptions, specifically religious art is actually less prominent in Islamic art than in Western medieval art, with the exception of Islamic architecture where mosques and their complexes of surrounding buildings are the most common remains. Figurative painting may cover religious scenes, but normally in essentially secular contexts such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry. The calligraphy and decoration of manuscript Qur'ans is an important aspect, but other religious art such as glass mosque lamps and other mosque fittings such as tiles (e.g. Girih tiles), woodwork and carpets usually have the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art, although with religious inscriptions even more prominent. "Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, Early Christian art, and Byzantine styles were taken over in early Islamic art and architecture; the influence of the Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia was of paramount significance; Central Asian styles were brought in with various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences had a formative effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles."[4] Though the whole concept of "Islamic art" has been criticised by some modern art historians,[5] calling it a "figment of imagination"[6] or a "mirage",[7] the similarities between art produced at widely different times and places in the Islamic world, especially in the Islamic Golden Age, have been sufficient to keep the term in wide use by scholars.[8] There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque. The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God.[9] Mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection, although this theory is disputed.[10][11][12] Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns, whether purely geometric or floral, and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry[13] and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Qur'an. Human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic art, above all in the more private form of miniatures, where their absence is rare. Human representation for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is duly forbidden in some interpretations of Islamic law, known as Sharia law. There are also many depictions of Muhammad, Islam's chief prophet, in historical Islamic art.[14][15] Small decorative figures of animals and humans, especially if they are hunting the animals, are found on secular pieces in many media from many periods, but portraits were slow to develop.

*Early Middle Ages*

The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast scope of time and place, over 1000 years of art in Europe, and at times the Middle East and North Africa. It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, revivals, the artists crafts, and the artists themselves. Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into major periods and styles, often with some difficulty. A generally accepted scheme includes the later phases of Early Christian art, Migration Period art, Byzantine art, Insular art, Pre-Romanesque, Romanesque art, and Gothic art, as well as many other periods within these central styles. In addition each region, mostly during the period in the process of becoming nations or cultures, had its own distinct artistic style, such as Anglo-Saxon art or Norse art. Medieval art was produced in many media, and the works that remain in large numbers include sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, stained glass, metalwork and mosaics, all of which have had a higher survival rate than other media such as fresco wall-paintings, work in precious metals or textiles, including tapestry. Especially in the early part of the period, works in the so-called "minor arts" or decorative arts, such as metalwork, ivory carving, enamel and embroidery using precious metals, were probably more highly valued than paintings or monumental sculpture.[1] Medieval art in Europe grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and the iconographic traditions of the early Christian church. These sources were mixed with the vigorous "barbarian" artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce a remarkable artistic legacy. Indeed, the history of medieval art can be seen as the history of the interplay between the elements of classical, early Christian and "barbarian" art.[2] Apart from the formal aspects of classicism, there was a continuous tradition of realistic depiction of objects that survived in Byzantine art throughout the period, while in the West it appears intermittently, combining and sometimes competing with new expressionist possibilities developed in Western Europe and the Northern legacy of energetic decorative elements. The period ended with the self-perceived Renaissance recovery of the skills and values of classical art, and the artistic legacy of the Middle Ages was then disparaged for some centuries. Since a revival of interest and understanding in the 19th century it has been seen as a period of enormous achievement that underlies the development of later Western art.

St. Michaels Doors Crucifixion Scene

The tempting tree is twisted into a knotty cross, echoing the crucifixion to the right the resonance between the two scenes is felt all the more since the legend holds that Christs cross was made from the Adam and Eve Tree that bore the forbidden fruit

Forum of Tajan Relief

it is covered witha 625 foot frieze relief - It was once painted, and it depicts the activies of trajans two military campaings, 1/3 is actual fighting, and the rest is covered with army on the march and taking captives -Some scenes are depicted of real events with mystical elements