Behavior of Domestic Animals Test 4

Proestrus

- period when female exhibits signs of sexual interest in conspecifics - immediately precedes true estrus a. In cows, Proestrus may begin 40 hours before the onset of true estrus

Attractiveness

to females may depend on secondary sexual characteristics 1. Body size and physical adornments (brightly colored feathers and body parts, antlers, horns, tusks) 2. Relative male vigor as it interacts with female 3. Many secondary sexual characteristics are controlled by androgen; thus, females often choose dominant males with relatively high levels of androgens as their mating partners

Dominance

is an attribute of a relationship between 2 or more individuals, and is achieved and maintained by agonistic behaviors a. Dominance is expressed by the ability of an animal to displace another in competitive and spontaneous interactions b. Dominance may involve displacement of another in animal from i. A fixed geographical area (territory) ii. Non-fixed objects or conspecifics (food, mates, offspring) iii. The area surrounding itself (personal space)

Despotism

1. Simplest form of the dominance hierarchy is _________ a. One individual is dominant over all other members of the group (no rank distinctions among subordinates) b. _________ rarely occurs i. May be an artifact of rearing animals in close confinement where subordinates cannot escape the presence of a dominant conspecific c. _________ may be the prevailing social order among hens housed in small cages

Sexual behavior

has both motivational and performance components i. Motivational component of ______ ________ is referred to as libido ii. Performance component is based on both libido and motor patterns that characterize each ______ ________ exhibited

Social behavior of horses

1. 2 types of social organization have been observed in wild horses a. bachelor groups of stallions without harems i. colts tend to form a bachelor group after splitting from their family group at about 12 months of age (fillies may or may not join group) ii. groups of young males have a loose social organization with members leaving to form other groups for a period then rejoining the original bachelor group iii. older stallions without a harem often live as solitary individuals b. The family group of a stallion with as many mares as he can muster (harem) and their foals i. Normal size of a harem among horses is 7 or 8 years ii. Fillies remain with their mothers for 2 or more years in the wild iii. When fillies leave their mothers, they frequently change groups (often joining older mares with foals of another group) c. Stallions usually drive younger males to the perimeter of their groups by kicks and bites i. Will not show any aggression attitudes towards them if they remain on the perimeter 2. Groups roam about, overlapping each other's grazing area and exchange of individuals occurs between the groups a. In herds of both sexes, colts and fillies tend to separate from mares and stallions b. Stallion will round up the mares on the periphery of his harem but will ignore or repel fillies 3. Horses show a form of social order when they live in groups and a social hierarchy becomes established within these groups a. Older and larger horses are usually found to be high in the dominance order b. Stallions do not necessarily dominate geldings or mares, but have a significant role in defense of the group c. Dominant horse often dictates movement of the herd through grazing areas and will sometimes break up agonistic exchanges between other horses d. Socially dominant horses are sometimes found to have more aggressive temperaments than others 4. While being a typical herd species, horses also show a marked preference for certain individuals of their own species a. Mares that have been kept together will continue to associate closely and consistently when put with other mares b. Such close associations are not formed in mares from different harems even though most individual mares are found to associate with certain individuals

Buller syndrome

1. 2.5% of feedlot steers will either stand like estrous females to be mounted by other males or be followed and mounted when the opportunity arises a. steers being mounted are called "bullers". Whereas steers performing the mounts are called "riders" b. buller steers are often injured from persistent mounting by pen-mates or debilitated to the point that they must be removed from the group and housed separately i. Normal response of steers receiving mounts is to exhibit avoidance behaviors or turn and exhibit aggressive behaviors (threaten, butt) 2. Rider steers rarely exhibit an erection or attain rectal intromission when mounting and do not show aggression towards other riders when pursuing bullers a. Riders often take turns mounting bullers without interacting with each other b. Riding typically stops when the buller is removed from the pen c. Bullers do not mount one another when housed together in pens 3. Causes include co-mingling of strange cattle, aggressive genetic traits, weather factors and the moon 4. Blood estrogen concentrations are typically elevated in buller steers but not riders a. Suggests partial feminization of some steers given estrogen-based or estrogen-androgen combination growth implants and or improper implanting techniques b. But, buller syndrome occurred before widespread use of growth-promoting implants 5. Bullers may simply be steers that lack an aversion to being mounted and riders may take advantage of their submission behavior 6. Observing mounting activity of conspecifics is sexually stimulating to male cattle 7. Rider steers may have been castrated later or incompletely

Mating systems used in captive animal breeding

1. 4 basic ______ _______ used In breeding captive animals 2. all eliminate male-male competition and female choice a. multi-sire mating b. single-sire mating c. controlled (hand) breeding d. Artificial insemination 3. Elimination of male-male competition and female choice in captive animal breeding systems has led to considerable variability in sexual motivation, behavioral compatibility of pairs, and reproductive success a. Loss of female choice (referred to as "forced pairing") can increase the incidence of behavioral incompatibility and breeding failure b. Long-term forced cohabitation of animals prior to breeding may lead to a kind of "assumed kinship" and incest-related mating failure

Hatching behaviors

1. Although female bird lays eggs over a period of many days (1 egg per day), young birds hatch at about the same time due to synchronized hatching a. Synchronized hatching is adaptive for birds with precocious young because late-hatching young would be left behind if hen led earlier hatched birds away from the nest b. If an egg is in physical contact with another egg that had been incubated 24 hours longer, the younger fetus will hatch ten hours sooner c. Fetuses of many birds emit peeping and clicking noises and these clicking noises promote hatch synchrony among eggs in physical contact d. Fetal chick and turkey cuts its way out of the eggshell using hard, sharp tubercle on the tip of its bell (egg tooth) and its large neck muscles e. Once hatched, they follow their mother about and quickly learn that nestling under their hen's wings and body provides warmth and protection

Dominance features of goats

1. Both males and females will establish social dominance in their respective groups through head to head fighting a. Biting accounts for about 1/3 of the agonistic behaviors in goats i. Biting is more frequent in goats 3 years or older ii. Biting is more frequent in polled goats than in horned goats b. Butting behavior is more frequent in higher-ranking individuals, whereas social hierarchy does not influence the frequency of biting behavior 2. Antagonistic goats stand about 3 to 6 feet apart, then rear up with their body at right angles to their opponent a. They then pivot, lunge forward, and come together with a loud attack b. Unlike sheep which move back in order to take a run, goats directly rear on their hind legs and bump forwards and downwards 3. Most individual relationships between goats in a group can be peaceful 4. Goats use threat behavior to minimize fighting between individuals a. Threat behavior consists of a lowered head and stretched neck b. If threat fails, males engage in rearing and butting to establish their dominance within the group

Rearing environment

1. Common farm practice to isolate females from males after weaning to prevent unwanted pregnancies 2. Males may be reared individually to control disease, nutritional requirements, and prevent injury from aggressive interactions 3. Social isolation can impact sexual performance of intact males 4. Physical isolation from birth did not affect bull sexual performance as adults a. Only difference between isolate-reared and group-reared bulls was the isolate-reared bulls initially exhibited a greater number of disoriented mounts directed at the side or front of estrous cows i. mount attempts aimed towards the side or front usually result in getting butted or avoided by female b. did not take very many more exposures to estrous cows for isolate-reared bulls to learn to mount from the rear i. group-reared males learn to mount from the rear early in life by mounting other calves (and trying to mount their dams)

Genetic variation in Libido

1. Considerable genetic variation in libido and sexual performance a. High heritability estimate (h^2 =.59) for sexual performance in beef bulls b. Low to moderate heritability estimate (h^2=.22) for sexual performance in rams 2. Ever-increasing evidence for a significant genetic component to sexual libido and performance a. An untapped source of genetic variability which could be used to improve mating efficiency of farm animals

Stability of a dominance hierarchy

1. Dependent on several factors a. Individuals must be able to recognize one another i. Chickens recognize one another primarily by features of the head and neck (size and shape of the comb) ii. House mice and other non-primate mammals recognize one another primarily by odor iii. Sheep make use of sophisticated physical cues from the face and body, as well as olfactory cues from the body and wool of other sheep iv. Familiarity in young pigs is based on being housed together v. Individual recognition is more readily achieved in smaller populations supports the observation that hierarchies in smaller groups are more stable 2. Stability is the dependent on the continued reinforcement of dominant-subordinate relationships by agonistic displays a. Agonistic displays are energy efficient and less stressful compared to physical combat b. Older, high-status individuals may sometimes direct intense dominance displays toward low-ranking individuals in the presence of more able contenders for their position c. Eventually, older, higher ranking individuals are tested physically by vigorous individuals and they lose their high-ranking position i. Older alpha animals can be demoted to the omega position in a short period of time 3. Another contributing factor to the stability of the dominance hierarchy is group integrity a. Introduction of unfamiliar individuals into the group increases the frequency and intensity of agonistic interactions until the social status of the newcomers is decided b. Newcomers initially isolate themselves from residents of the social group for some time 4. Spatial integration and social assimilation into the dominance hierarchy may not necessarily occur simultaneously a. Assimilation into the social order usually follows the spatial integration of newcomers and residents b. Time required for newcomers to become part of the social order will vary based on: i. Size and age structure of the 2 populations ii. Amount of space available to the animals iii. Degree of competition for resources (and so on) 5. Stability is usually not affected by removing individuals from the group; however, reinstating individuals who have been temporarily removed may result in increased aggression and temporary loss in social stability 6. Time away from the group is an important variable, because it can determine whether or not the identity and social rank is remembered by the residents a. Ewbank and Meese found dominant pigs could be absent from groups of 8 pigs for up to 25 days without disrupting social hierarchy b. Arey reported individual pigs could be removed 6 weeks in groups of six pigs disrupting hierarchy upon return c. Chickens fail to recognize pen mates after 2 weeks of separation

Social behavior of poultry

1. Domestic chick shows early social responses while still in the shell to adult calls and to chicks from other embryos a. Newly hatched chicks are attracted to the hen by warmth, contact, clucking, and body movements b. They develop the behaviors of maintenance - in particular to eat, drink, and avoid enemies - in the company of their mother c. In chicks, the most sensitive period for learning is normally between 9 and 20 hours after hatching 2. The clutch is the basis of flock organization and even after it has dispersed, chickens need company 3. Pecking order is a social control system and adult flock formation depends on tolerant association a. Hens and cocks have separate peck orders b. Males prohibit aggression between females c. Moving, pecking, or mating of each bird is regulated by its dominant neighbor d. Strange birds are initially attacked and are only gradually integrated into the flock e. Newcomers are relegated to positions near the bottom of the peck order and only active fighting will change its position f. Most associations, even feeding places, involve little fighting or aggressive pecking 4. Although hens are flock animals, their behavior synchronization is not general a. They have pronounced behavior synchronization when seeking night rest b. If a chicken in a flock finds something edible and the another also discovers it, all others will run over c. If a brooding hen is carrying out a particular edible, this motivates her chicks to join her in the activity i. Brooding hen has greater synchronizing effect than any chicks in the group d. Brooded chicks have a higher social synchronization in activity during adulthood than non-brooded chickens

Dominance features of sheep

1. Dominance between individuals and by social status is settled by physical contact in the form of nudging and butting by the head a. Commonly seen between rams during mating season b. Ram moves back in order to take a run for fast, hard attack with his head against the opponent 2. Allogrooming as a way to indicate domination and subdomination does not occur in sheep 3. During encounters, sheep adopt certain positions against conspecifics a. A direct stare of one sheep at another appears to be an aggressive posture (subordinates look away from dominants) i. Sheep tend to rest in such a manner as not to face each other directly (only dominant sheep are free to look in all directions) ii. When sheep are close together, they tend to face in the same direction to minimize staring b. Very common threat of sheep is a very resolute and quick lifting of one foreleg and immediately hitting the ground with it c. Threats between individuals are shown by indicating increased size (by raising head and neck) i. Submission is indicated in lowering and twisting the head sideways (or departure from the spot) ii. Antagonists approach each other and butt head on iii. The clash can be preceded by individuals jumping just before starting a sudden attack and running forehead against forehead

Social dominance

1. Dominant rams were more successful than subordinate males in mating estrous ewes 2. Effects of social dominance on male sexual behavior are more obvious in mixed-aged groups of males than in groups of young males of similar age a. Dominant bull in each group could not prevent some subordinates from accessing and mating estrous females b. Larger 5-year-old bulls suppressed sexual activities of subordinate bulls in mixed-age groups than in same-age groups c. Greater dominance displayed by older bulls in mixed-age groups was not a reproductive advantage 3. Dominant males can inhibit sexual activities of subordinate animals merely by their presence a. Sexual behaviors of rams were inhibited when dominant rams were restrained in full view of subordinates (referred to as the "audience effect") b. Subordinate males become conditioned to fear and avoid dominant conspecifics 4. Sexual performance (particularly libido) is not necessarily correlated with aggressiveness or social dominance

Factors influencing dominance

1. Dominant-subordinate relationships can quickly establish in animals with substantial differences in body size and weight 2. One fact that can compensate for smaller size is the presence or absence of horns a. Having horns was dominant 85% of the time in heifers of smaller BW b. Heavier animal dominates 90% of the time when both subjects have horns c. Heavier animals with horns dominate light, polled animals 98% of the time d. Lighter animals with horns can dominate heavier polled animals 75% of the time

Social behavior of Sheep

1. Except for the breeding season, sheep live in small family groups of ewes and their offspring (including males up to 2 years of age), with mature males in a separate group a. Each group has its own home range within the overall flock home range b. These home ranges are passed from generation to generation i. Lambs (particular females) of a ewe occupying the same home range as their mother c. Sheep have a social system that is based on a single dominant leader d. Sheep do not defend the territory that is their home range as do other ungulates e. 1st social bond a sheep develops is with its dam f. once the bond is established it remains in females unless broken by separation i. during first 4 weeks postpartum, ewes and lambs are found to stay within 10 meters of each other over 50% of the time g. formation of "weaner" flocks break this social bond i. a new social organization has to be developed with the formation of small groups in which the inter-animal distances are low h. gradually, these groups become larger until a flock is eventually formed i. size of subgroups increases with age from weaning up to 4 months (unrelated to the size of the paddock or available space) ii. even as late as 11 months of age, subgroups may be formed iii. normal adult flocking behavior appears to be established by 15 months of age i. flock density is strong for adult sheep and members within contact distance immediately run together when disturbed 2. 3 characteristics of flock structure have been described a. tight knit flock b. a flock widely dispersed but with uniform spacing between individuals c. a flock split into subgroups but that remains a social entity with memberships of subgroups continually changing 3. The flock is held together by visual and, to some extent, auditory contact between individuals a. A sheep is considered able to identify all the other individuals in the flock b. Studies of unknown animals confronted with each other show that this will trigger measurable stress 4. Sheep show a pronounced flock and follow behavior when moving from one place to another 5. Flock affiliation is so strong that an animal separated from the flock is almost impossible to control (it is usually panic stricken) a. May become very vocal when separated from the flock b. Will show signs of great anxiety and restlessness c. Research shows that isolation from the flock produces stronger stress responses than short or long duration transportation 6. When resting, social distance is greatly reduced' a. Sheep occupy an area of 10 square meters/sheep b. Distance to nearest neighbor is one attribute of social arrangement, whereas the cohesion of all members of a flock is another c. This cohesion varies with environmental factors i. Average distance between neighboring sheep when grazing ranges from 4-19 meters ii. Average distance to nearest neighbors among sheep of all breeds is within 5 meters, but breeds differ on this basis 1. Merinos< lowland breeds <hill breeds <mountain breeds iii. Sheep tend to stay closer together when aware of humans iv. Nearest neighbor distance also decreases as vegetation quality and consistency increases 7. Sheep pay little attention to a sick or disabled member of the group, except for butting it 8. Sheep use threat behavior to help minimize fighting between individuals a. Helps lessen the risk of injury b. Threat behavior consists of a lowered head and a stretched neck c. If the treat fails to deter a potential rival, then males engage in rearing and head butting 9. When a flock of sheep moves quietly from one place to another, the flock usually walks in a row and follows well-worn paths a. When flock sets itself in motion, or a few individuals initiate the movement, whereupon all others follow b. If one older ewe starts moving in a certain direction, the whole flock will follow c. If the leading ewe stops, the others stop d. At times it appears that there are several potential leaders i. Sometimes one older ewe, other times another, function as the leading sheep 10. A flock of sheep does not show the high behavioral synchronization at grazing as cattle a. Individual sheep graze in different directions b. Sheep do not commence or cease grazing at the same time i. Time from 1st to last sheep to commence grazing can vary by up to 45 minutes in large flocks

Social behavior of cats

1. Feline social organization is very variable a. Group size varies from fewer than ten on most farms to more than 30 in some urban areas where food source is abundant and located in a confined area b. Although fewer cats are associated with other particular individuals, a cat may often be found associated with 1 other or a small group of other cats

Female mate preferences

1. Females largely control mate choice in sexually dimorphic species a. Females avoid mating with young, inexperienced males 2. May also reject males who exhibit overly vigorous pre-mating behaviors 3. Some females are just plain "picky" for reasons not apparent to humans a. Domestic female cats and dogs tend to fall into this category 4. Lack of social experience with conspecifics (proper socialization) can result in responses toward certain males (fear or aggression) which compete with sexual activity a. Certain female dogs will not mate subordinates, whereas others are indifferent to social status 5. Estrous sows prefer adult intact males to younger ones and barrows 6. Female goats also show preferences for older, more sexually active males (particularly those with strong buck odor) 7. Avoidance of young, overly aggressive and or socially subordinate males is characterized by: a. Moving away from the male when approached b. Covering the vulva with the tail c. In some cases, aggressive threats directed at the pursuing male

Dominance features of cattle

1. Follow several patterns a. A cow demonstrates dominance through lowering her head against another cow or sometimes by just a throw of the head directed towards the other b. Submission is demonstrated through bending the head sideways and, among cows loosely kept, by moving away c. Grooming behavior can reveal dominance relationship (lower-ranking cow often licks the higher-ranking cow) d. As a rule, age within the group gives a higher dominance than either BW or strength 2. Flights seldom occur among cows which have been kept together in the same group for a long time (visual signals are sufficient to confirm dominance relationships between individuals) a. During the first hours after confined cows are let loose on pasture, fights are normally seen between young cows i. Fights decline and eventually cease when dominance order is established b. Aggression between individuals, however, occurs readily in narrow passages and other confined spaces i. Social signals between individuals cannot be exchanged normally when the distance between individuals is not maintained 3. Cows show aggression by lowering head and sometimes pawing the ground a. Bulls sometimes scratch the ground with their horns b. Before an attack, bulls usually bend their back vigorously c. In bulls and cows, an attack occurs by a rapid rush with lowered head towards the adversary - trying to butt and gore the other d. Attacks by bulls are performed with far greater force than attacks by cows

Photoperiodism

1. For domestic animals that show seasonal breeding, natural light stimulus is complex, involving absolute quantities of light or dark and relative quantities of daily light 2. When photoperiod fails to adequately stimulate the animal, a refractory period develops during which the breeding performance is arrested a. Male dogs and cats are sexually active throughout the year b. Female dogs are more likely to come in heat during spring than winter c. Female cats often come into heat when the day length increases around the spring equinox d. Female mink and foxes are strictly seasonal, coming into heat in the spring

Advantages of dominance rank

1. High ranking individuals have greater access to resources in short supple 2. Often the first in the group to feed and breed, as well as prime space is theirs for the taking a. Dominant animals have a better chance to leave more offspring than subordinates i. In many highly social species, only dominant females produce offspring b. When more than 1 female is in estrus at a given time, subordinate males will sometimes find the opportunity to mate with unattended females while dominant male is actively engaged in mating or driving other males away c. Dominance does not always ensure greater productivity i. Dominant males may not leave the most offspring if they are sterile or possess genital abnormalities ii. Dominance rank is not correlated with milk production in dairy cattle

Polygamy

1. In ________, individuals frequently control or gain access to multiple mating partners 2. May occur either simultaneously or sequentially 3. Pair bonds are either temporary or nonexistent a. Relationship is promiscuous 4. Parental care is not shared 5. __________ species are favored for domestication because only a few males are needed to impregnate many females a. Reduces the total number of animals needed to maximize the reproductive successs of the population b. Lack of pair bonding and promiscuous mating behavior permit males to impregnate large numbers of females in relatively short period of time 6. Two forms of ________ polygyny, polandry

Weather and temperature

1. In cattle, a sudden spell of cold weather is associated with a decline in umber of cows in estrus a. Goats indigenous to areas having equable climates but marked periods of rainfall, show degrees of seasonal breeding related to rainy seasons i. Breeding becomes intensified with precipitation and associated rapid growth of herbage b. Some breeds of cattle in west Africa show increased reproductive activity in relation to rainy seasons 2. Cold daily temperatures are considered to be slightly beneficial for reproductive behavior in sheep 3. More cows come in heat during good weather, but poor, deteriorating weather leads to a reduction in the incidence of estrus a. Weather conditions and occurrence of estrus are strongly correlated 4. Daily peaks of mating activity are associated with fluctuations in male libido a. Bulls and boars exposed to high temperatures (especially summer in hot climates) show marked reductions in libido b. Libido is inhibited in bulls in air temperatures of 104 to 122 degrees Fahrenheit i. These effects are transient, however, if affected males are cooled and libido quickly returns to normal (but semen quality may not)

Manipulating Photoperiod

1. In ewes, natural stimulus for breeding is shortening day length a. Estrus can be induced in ewes treated with 16 to 17 hours of darkness for 1 month b. Rams lacking libido in the anestrus period can breed out of season when subjected to controlled lightness/darkness 2. Extra-seasonal breeding can be induced in goats treated with artificial control of light-to-dark ratio a. Gradual reductions in light: dark can induce heat period in goats, but increasing light results in cessation of estrous cycling b. Natural need for a light: dark ratio of approximately 1:1 for full breeding function in goats 3. Mares with a very restricted breeding season can be made to come in heat by irradiation with strong artificial light a. Because they are long-day breeders, increased light is the positive stimulus

Birth/hatching behaviors

1. In female mammals, parturition involve the rupture of the amnion and expulsion of the fetus(es) and placenta (in that order) 2. Parturition in many mammals is characterized by rapid increase in estradiol to progesterone ratio and dramatic increases in synthesis, storage and release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary a. Distension of uterus, cervix and vagina during expulsion of fetus stimulates release of oxytocin into circulatory system and simultaneously release in the brain stimulates maternal behavior 3. Endogenous opioid peptides also increase at parturition to facilitate maternal behavior and raise the animal's pain threshold 4. Labor and expulsion of the fetus is accompanied by restlessness - lying down for a period of time followed by brief periods of circling and standing 5. Offspring are usually born while the mother is lying down 6. Birth is typically followed by standing and licking (grooming) the offspring (often with soft vocalizations) a. Grooming stimulates newborn of precocious species to stand and engage in teat seeking b. Mother cats, dogs and rodents lick the anogenital region of their young to stimulate urination and defecation c. Odor and taste of amniotic fluids on newborn stimulates grooming by mother d. Licking young removes amniotic fluids which would otherwise cause body heat loss in cold environments e. Amniotic fluid becomes attractive to female several hours before parturition, but its attractiveness fades within several hours of parturition 7. Females giving birth to altricial young cuddle (or crouch over) their newborn to keep them warm 8. Altricial young are not able to control their body temperature fully for some time after birth a. Young kittens begin to regulate their temperature by 3 weeks of age i. Complete temperature control is not attained until they are 7 weeks old b. Even precocious young seek their mother's warmth c. Newly hatched chicks are not able to generate normal body temperature fully until 3 weeks after hatching i. Periodically nestle under their mother's wing or body for warmth

Association

1. In groups of social animals, it is common for animals to _________ - spend time closer to one another than the mean group inter-individual distance 2. It is often found that discrete pairings through mutual selection of each other's company is a common social strategy a. Operates to the advantage of both, particularly in agonistic situations involving other dominant animals b. ___________ characteristics of animals are now recognized as a clear manifestation of their choice for company that must represent a basic need

social behavior of goats

1. In the wild, goats live in social groups usually composed of near-related females, kids, and young animals (including males<2 years of age) a. Adult billies from separate subgroups, except during mating 2. A band of goats is held together with visual, olfactory and auditory contact between individuals 3. Goats have a social system that is based on a single dominant leader 4. Goats show pronounced flock behavior and strong desire to remain with group mates a. Become very vocal when separated from band b. Forced isolation may cause behavior disturbances and serious, even fatal, consequences c. Kids show more intense vocalization and excitement than lambs if isolated from the band i. However, goats show less anxiety than sheep when separated from the flock 5. Goats do not defend the territory that is their home range like sheep a. Goats (in particular bucks) often show aggressive behavior against conspecifics that come to close or when dominance relations are not settled b. If dominant feels threatened, then they will attack by butting c. When new animals are introduced into the band, aggression may occur d. Goats can identify conspecifics visually, whereby aggression can be avoided 6. Goats exhibit "flocking" and "following" behavior, but not the same behavioral synchronization as cattle or sheep a. Goats do not commence or cease grazing at the same time (express individuality to a greater extent) b. Social ranking and group behavior in goats also differ from those in sheep 7. When a band has to be driven, they generally move in family groups, with the oldest female first 8. When moving from one place to another, they do not walk in a line to the same extent as sheep 9. Gaze following is a benefit to goats that live in social groups

Leadership

1. In their affiliative movements, animals often respond to the initiative of a lead animal by following 2. All herding and flocking animals show "follow reactions" in various social circumstances a. __________ among sheep is often provided by an older ewe i. Status of this ewe in the social hierarchy isn't a determining factor b. Dairy cows organize themselves into a specific order for entering the milking parlor for according to their relative milk yield i. Higher-yielding cows take advanced positions, whereas the rear-end cows are the lower-producing cows 3. Types of __________ in cattle have been subdivided into 3 categories a. __________ during movement and from locations of eating, drinking, and sleeping establishes a movement order b. __________ in the initiation of grazing and resting i. When an individual cow initiates activities different from the remainder, it will return to the activities of the rest of the herd if the remainder do not follow ii. Drifting occurs when a neighbor cow begins to follow, until the behavior policy of the whole group is changed c. __________ in direction during grazing d. Each animal is dependent on the herd influence and leadership ranking is not simply a measure of individual preference in effecting reactivity i. Milking order may not be the same as the order when traveling and travel order may differ from the order going through the gate ii. Under free range conditions, older grazing stock can transfer to their offspring information about seasonal pathways, areas of good grazing and watering places if this familial bond is not disrupted before weaning 1. Home ranges can be established more efficiently through these familial bonds 2. Familial __________ and its social cohesion contribute to social facilitation

Male effects on estrous cycle

1. Introduction of male (or male secretions) can facilitate the onset of estrus in many species 2. In anestrous sheep, onset of estrous cycling is advanced 2 weeks to 2 months by the introduction of an adult ram (referred to as the ram effect) a. Ram effect also serves to synchronize estrous cycles among ewes b. 50% of ewes will experience their 1st ovulation by the 3rd day after ram introduction c. This ovulation is typically not accompanied by estrous behavior (termed "silent estrus") d. 2nd ovulation accompanied by estrous behaviors - usually occurs about 17 days later e. ram effect is mediated largely by olfactory substances on the ram's wool 3. Introduction of male mice into a cage of females that induces and synchronizes estrous cycles is referred to as the "Whitten effect" 4. Beef cows are usually bred before their calves are weaned to maintain a 12-month reproductive cycle a. Nursing slows their return to ovulation and behavioral estrus following parturition b. Introduction of bull into herd of nursing postpartum cows stimulates them to ovulate and exhibit behavioral estrus sooner than they would otherwise c. However, exposure of high milk-producing, postpartum dairy cows to the bull does not advance onset of their return to estrous Cyclicity

Social behavior of dogs

1. Larger canines normally live in social groups based primarily on kinship, with a flexible social organization a. Pack size depends upon the size of the main prey species b. Urban dogs are either solitary or form small groups (2 or 3 dogs), whereas rural dogs form slightly larger packs (2 to 5 dogs) c. Dogs in packs are more dangerous to humans than solitary dogs d. Individual dogs may spend much of their lives associating with certain other dogs in their pack

Social structure

includes all of the relationships among individuals in the group and their consequences for spatial distribution and behavioral interactions

Employment of Intromittent organ

1. Male deposits semen directly into the appropriate female reproductive orifice using an Intromittent organ (penis) 2. Male waterfowl have a penis because they commonly mate in water when cloacal contact would be inefficient 3. In most domestic animals, successful copulations are completed within a few seconds 4. The boar has the longest ejaculation time (3 to 20) minutes and the greatest volume of (250 ml) 5. Once the male dog mounts an immobile female, the bulbus glandis at the base of the penis engorges/enlarges rapidly within the female's vagina following intromission a. Engorgement of bulbus glandis and contraction of vaginal muscles after intromission results in copulatory lock b. Male will dismount and turn around so that male and female are facing opposite direction while ejaculation occurs c. Coital lock may last 10 to 30 minutes, after which the bulbus glandis "deflates" and the pair separates

Male-Male Mounting

1. Male dogs, horses, sheep, cattle, pigs and many other species will mount other males when females are not present a. Long-standing debate about whether ____ ________ is an expression of general stimulation, sexual libido, or that certain males use mounting to reinforce their social status b. Moving bulls to new locations will often stimulate male-male mounting i. Suggests that general stimulation is sufficient to stimulate ____ ____ _______

Secondary sexual characteristics

1. Males better at gaining access to females and who are most attractive to females will be favored in sexual selection 2. Larger males will be favored over smaller males 3. Males which vigorously attend to females will more likely attract their interest 4. More impressive adornments or weapons will be favored over less impressive ones a. Tail length, length of ear tufts, and presence of black points in the wattle positively influence hen choice of ring-neck pheasant cocks b. Mature big horn rams weigh 75% more than adult ewes and possess much larger horns for their age 5. _________ ______ _______________ are expressed most extravagantly by more vigorous males in the population a. Females can assess the relative health and vigor of males by their _________ ___ _______________ b. Females can use sex-specific chemosensory cues to assess mate quality c. Females are believed to obtain information about mate quality by observing male-male interactions d. Females prefer males with genetically based indicators of health and vigor

Canada Geese

1. Monogamous and mate for life 2. Males participate in care of young and both parents stay with offspring through first year of life 3. Adult _____ lead young on first migration and back to breeding grounds 4. Consequently, populations of ______ _____ don't intermix 5. The result is different races in different parts of country

Linear hierarchy

1. More commonly, dominance hierarchy possess multiple ranks in a more or less ______ sequence a. In strict ______ (unidirectional) hierarchy, a top ranking (alpha) individual dominates all others b. A second ranking (beta) individual dominates all but alpha and so on down to the most subordinate individual in the group (omega), who dominates no one c. ______ hierarchies are most common in relatively small groups of animals and typically stabilize over time d. Sometimes, agonistic interactions reinforcing dominant-subordinate relationships are so subtle it is difficult for a human to determine the social status of certain pair combinations 1. sometimes complicated by triangular, or other relationships a. In triangular relationships between 3 individuals, no one individual is dominant over either of the other 2 b. In such cases, the onus is on the observer to determine that these associations are real and not the failure of the human to document the relationships of animals involved adequately

Cloacal contact

1. Most bird species have no Intromittent organ 2. Males mount female and copulation is achieved when semen is transferred from male to female by rapid apposition of male's engorged phallic folds and females everted cloaca a. _______ _______ in chickens and turkeys is maintained for a brief period of 1 second or less while sperm is transferred 3. Female's everted cloaca is immediately retracted as male dismounts 4. Male chickens may copulate up to 30 times a day a. Typically, only half accompanied by semen transfer

Male preferences

1. Most males show ___________ for certain females a. In multi-female groups, some females receive ample inseminations to attain pregnancy, whereas other in close proximity are ignored b. Rams prefer older ewes to young ewes c. Color or odor may influence ___________ of stallions for certain mares i. Mares show individual preferences for stallions ii. ___________ are influenced by stallion's vocal behavior 1. More the stallion neighs, the more likely the mare is to approach him

Dominance features of chickens

1. Natural group of jungle fowl consists of 5 to 30 individuals (a dominant male, females and their young) a. Juvenile males are subordinate to the dominant male and may even be expelled from the group when they mature b. Flock moves within its home range, but each flock returns to a specific roosting site as dusk falls 2. Differences from the natural group composition can have consequences for the social organization of the domesticated flock 3. Presence of males reduces aggression between females 4. Increased aggression can be a problem under commercial conditions, resulting in high prevalence of pecking wounds a. In caged chickens, agonistic behavior increases with increased number of birds in the cage (stocking density) b. Broody hens behave in an aggressive way towards other hens i. Even though aggression is low in loose housing, it is high in front of the nest boxes 5. Even in cages where birds are kept in small groups, a pecking order exists (absence of males increases this aggressive behavior) 6. Aggression in poultry can take the form of subtle threats and avoidance, pecks and even flights and chases a. During a flight, a bird leaps at the other, holding forward the spurs on the backs of its legs b. The beak is a dangerous weapon and pecks from one bird to the comb of another often leave small wounds c. Fights consist of repeated pecks, but usually pecks occur singularly (even one peck can be sufficient to establish dominance) d. Pecks are nearly always directed at the head of the other bird and are made with a hard downward stabbing movement 7. Submissive gestures are when a bird lowers its head or turns away a. Sometimes these gestures are so subtle that it is difficult for an observer to recognize the threat or submissive signal 8. In mixed-sex flocks, males and females generally develop separate dominance hierarchies and rarely show aggression towards one another 9. Young birds are almost always subordinate to adults

Monogamy

1. Neither sex monopolizes additional members of the opposite sex 2. Reproduction typically involves one male and female 3. Pairs may associate for a season or for as long as their mate lives 4. Reproductive fitness is often maximized through shared parental care of offspring a. Both male and female have significant roles in the nurturing of young 5. For males, ________ reduces the risks associate with prolonged competition for females 6. In the _________ California mouse, biparental care is required a. Offspring are rather helpless when born and cannot control their body temperature b. Mother and father take turns huddling over young to keep them warm c. If male leaves or is taken away, the female will abandon or kill her pups 7. Scientist have distinguished between social ________ and sexual ________ a. Social ________ refers to _________ pair associations involving one male and female b. Sexual ________ refers to pairs that confine sexual relations to one another c. Social ________ does not guarantee sexual ________ d. Estimated that only 3to 10% of mammals are socially _________ i. Even smaller percentage is sexually _________ 8. In captive populations of _________ animals, care must be taken if one wishes to breed males to more than one female a. Fox breeders are careful not to allow males to return with females for more than a few hours b. In nature, we assume that socially _________ pairs consist of individuals who are mutually compatible i. Display relatively low levels of aggression towards one another and high levels of affiliative behaviors ii. Often, however, when humans pair captive animals, little concern is given to whether pairs are behaviorally compatible iii. As a result, pairings often fail to produce offspring and sometimes individuals are injured or even killed

Nest building

1. Nest sites are important for these species because of the difficulty in moving large number of offspring, particularly when the young are born in a relatively helpless (altricial) state and lack mobility (rodents, cats, dogs) 2. ____ ________ behavior consists of 2 distinct factors - gathering nest materials and arranging it by rooting and nosing a. Sows will excavate a bowl-shaped depression in the ground and cover it with branches, twigs, and grass some 7 to 14 hours prior to parturition b. Sows in a pen provided nesting material will build nests - 16 hours before parturition (will maintain the nest for several days postpartum if provided fresh materials) 3. Female cattle, sheep, goats and horses on pasture often isolate themselves from conspecifics in the hours preceding parturition, which offers them privacy during the birth process a. Less interference from inquisitive conspecifics as the mother bonds to her offspring b. Encourages the young to stand and nurse 4. ____ ________ and incubation in chickens/turkeys is triggered by release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland a. Free-living/free-ranging chickens and turkeys form bowl-shaped nests with grass and small twigs b. Eggs are laid in nest and incubated by female until the young hatch, usually after 21 (chicken) or 27 (turkey) days

Evolutionary Considerations

1. Not all male farm animals exhibit adequate sexual performance when exposed to females 2. In captivity, males are typically selected with little concern for sexual performance a. Natural selection for libido is relaxed b. Reported that 17% of all stallions had inadequate sexual behavior c. Reported that 20% of male pigs in the U.S. exhibited inadequate sexual performance (many lack sexual libido) 3. Sexual performance in meat animals may be suppressed inadvertently by artificial selection for other economically important traits like body size and conformation a. Increased body size may reduce physical dexterity and ability to copulate i. Best illustrated by clumsiness and copulatory inefficiency of domestic turkeys 4. Effects of relaxed selection on libido and emphasis traits that may have detrimental effects on male sexual performance are reflected in relatively high levels of variation in sexual performance a. Mean number of ejaculations attained by rams when exposed to estrous ewes for two 60-minute periods ranged from 0 to 6.5 b. Mean number of ejaculations attained by bulls in six 40-minute sexual performance tests ranged from 1.8 to 5.5

Dominance hierarchy of cats

1. Not all species of domestic animals have a strict dominance hierarchy, even when living in relatively small groups a. In laboratory setting, a stable dominance hierarchy among small groups of domestic cats has been reported; however, groups of cats are generally organized in a loose fashion or don't have any recognizable social hierarchy i. Dominance is most commonly exhibited by large males ii. Living conditions of cats and manner in which they obtain food can influence the nature of the hierarchy iii. Domestic cats are naturally less social than species with more (or less) strict linear hierarchies

Spermatophore transfer

1. Occurs when the male and female don't come in contact with one another a. After a period of courtship, male deposits a gelatinous capsule containing sperm somewhere near the female b. Female picks up the _____________ with the lips of her cloaca and fertilization takes place internally c. _____________ ________ is common among salamanders and wide variety of invertebrates

Measuring libido

1. One approach is to measure male motivation to seek out and or remain in close proximity to potential females a. Libido scores based on "time near females" where physical contact cannot be made are of limited usefulness b. Males soon learn that contact and mating are not possible and wander away from the females 2. Another approach is to measure the frequency with which males engage in pre-mating behavior and mounting when intromission is prevented a. Price et al. (1992) tested rams exposed to estrous females under 3 treatments i. Only when premating activities were allowed ii. Pre-mating activities plus mounting (copulation prevented) iii. Pre-mating activities plus mounting and copulation 1. Libido scores in the 1st 2 treatments were found correlated with ejaculation rate when copulations were permitted (3rd treatment)

Duck Species

1. Pair bonds in most duck species last only until the female begins to incubate her eggs a. Male leaves and seeks new mating opportunities b. Females abandon young late in brood-raising period c. Offspring disperse during migration to join birds from other areas d. Result is pair bonds are formed between ducks hatched in different parts of country, precluding development of races or subspecies

Social groups

Animals living in long lasting ______ ______ tend to show social facilitation of behavior and to be involved in synchronized activities i. Generally beneficial to individuals and promotes their survival

Social behavior of pigs

1. Pigs are gregarious animals and spend most of their lives in groups; however, these groups do not usually consist of large numbers of pigs a. Wild boars establish droves which mostly consist of 2-4 sows and their offspring from the previous year b. Bond between sow and her offspring remains even after the offspring have reached adult age in the wild c. Young boars stay in the sow herd until they are 1 to 2 years old i. Thereafter, they abandon these groups because they cannot compete with larger older boars ii. Will sometimes form their own droves 2. Older boars (> years of age) live solitary and roam larger areas than the sows' family groups a. When sows are in heat, these boars seek the sow herds and then there are fights between rival boars 3. Pigs interact closely with other group members, nose one another and often lie together 4. Within groups, pigs form stable social structure, which are maintained with little aggressive behavior a. Dominance hierarchy is a result of the interaction of a number of factors b. Dominant pigs direct most of their aggression to the rank immediately below them c. Within sow groups, older sows are typically dominant over younger ones d. In young pigs, there is a strong relation between size and dominant status 5. Social organization of groups include the establishment of various friendly relationships and a social hierarchy 6. Size of drove and space allocated to it are important for the social hierarchy to function properly 7. Within a stable group, agonistic behavior occurs mainly in connection with feeding 8. Pigs in groups maintain body, vocal and visual contact with other pigs 9. Even if pigs are not as gregarious as sheep and cattle, they show an obvious behavioral synchronization and following behavior when danger threatens a. Estrus is highly synchronized in wild, feral and domesticated sows within groups (not necessarily between groups)

Behavior prior to Birth/Hatching

1. Preparturient behavior to refers to those behaviors preceding and associated with the birth of offspring (parturition) by female mammals 2. Females of most species show an increase in general activity as parturition approaches 3. Female swine, cats, dogs and rodents build nests

Benefits of a stable dominance hierarchy

1. Primary benefit of the dominance hierarchy is that it stabilizes the social relationships of group-living animals by minimizing psychological and physical stress related to competitive interactions a. Individuals in groups with stable dominance hierarchy acknowledge and "respect" the "right of access" of animals with higher social status than themselves b. Stability not only minimizes stress but also improves survival, growth, and reproduction of the entire group

Social behavior of rabbits

1. Rabbits are gregarious animals preferring to live in the company of others in stable, territorial breeding groups with a defined social hierarchy a. Within this main grouping, rabbits will live in closer, smaller groups i. Either in male/female pair or in groups of 2 to 8 individuals b. Within the group, a hierarchy exists where males will not tolerate the presence of other males (older males drive out younger ones) 2. Dominance hierarchies are formed within each sex for each breeding group (remain stable over time) a. Dominant buck will choose a doe as a permanent mate b. More dominant bucks will also mate with 1, or more, additional does a sort of harem 3. Young bucks normally move to a new social group before starting their first breeding season, whereas young does stay on to breed in their natal group 4. Rabbits engage in "amicable" activities, such as lying together, grooming and nuzzling a. These activities may occupy a considerable portion of each day 5. Rabbits show no apparent behavioral synchronization

Primary Functions of courtship

1. Reproductive isolation a. Matings between individuals of different species is typically prevented by pre-mating behaviors (allow for a period of social testing of potential mates) b. Incompatibilities due to species differences in behavior preclude mating i. Minimizing gamete wastage and preserving species integrity c. Cross-species matings are uncommon among domestic animals largely because of human control over breeding process i. Relatively large species difference 2. Advertisement of sex and sexual receptivity a. Important function in promiscuous species where contact between male and female can be fleeting and periods of sexual receptivity for the female are often very short b. Male pre-mating behaviors include an active search for females i. Once females are found, they include behaviors which advertise the male's sexual readiness and test female receptivity ii. Male turkey and peacocks strut in front of females with their tail feathers spread out in the shape of a fan iii. Bulls approach cows and rest their chins on the female's back or rump iv. Rams and billies raise their forelegs to make physical contact with females 1. Often uttering grumbling sounds and nudging female with their head v. Boars nudge sows with their snouts while emitting characteristic courtship grunt c. Non-receptive females will avoid and move away from males exhibiting pre-mating behaviors d. Females often solicit attention and copulation by approaching males i. Sexually receptive ungulates and pigs stand immobile when approached and mounted ii. Receptive mares rhythmically expose the clitoris with a series of labial muscle contractions (known as clitoral winking) iii. Queen cats show a darting behavior, where she will repeatedly run a short distance from the tom e. Most obvious components of courtship behavior of male chickens are: i. Waltzing - male drops 1 wing and approaches the hen with short, shuffling side steps ii. Rear approach - male holds the comb or neck of the hen or flaps his wings over her iii. Sexually receptive turkey hens assume a crouching posture in response to the strutting behavior of the tom 1. Male fans out his tail feathers, drops his wings (tips scrape the ground), and paces back and forth in a deliberate motion while "trumpeting" a series of deep notes

Development of Reproductive behavior

1. Sex of the animal is determined at the moment of conception a. Chromosomal sex will determine whether the indifferent fetal gonad develops into an ovary or testis b. However, potential for masculine and feminine behavior remains in both sexes i. Absence of testosterone results in the formation of female reproductive tract and feminization of the brain ii. High levels of androgens (particularly testosterone) results in formation of male reproductive tract and masculinization of the brain iii. Because testosterone is converted into estrogen in the male brain by the process of aromization 1. Moderate levels of estrogen in developing fetus induce female phenotype 2. Sensitive period for sexual differentiation of the genitalia and nervous system occurs prenatally in most precociously born species of domestic animals 3. Hormones have both an organizing effect on anatomical structures (genitalia/brain)and activating effect on target organs a. An animal requires a certain level of hormones for normal sexual behavior, but a higher level of hormones will not increase libido or receptivity b. Unless there is a deficiency, hormonal treatment will not cure a deficiency in sexual behavior

Time of day

1. Sexual behavior tends to occur at particular periods of the 24-hour day a. Sheep mate mostly around the hours of sunrise and sunset i. Onset of mating activity becomes more uniformly distributed in time as the breeding season progresses ii. Although 1st signs of estrus are at dawn, evening twilight exists as a secondary peak period of initial estrus behavior b. Unlikely that the diurnal incidences of mating in sheep reflects fluctuations in libido because rams have satisfactory libido throughout the day i. Points to the role of the female in the crepuscular mating character of sheep ii. Preference of mating during evening/night is evident in Brahman cattle 1. Does not preclude day-time breeding

Sexual recptivity

1. Single most important female behavior signaling______ ___________ is willingness to stand immobile or (crouch) to be mounted and served by the male 2. ______ ___________ normally occurs just before and or during the period of ovulation 3. Sometimes females will ovulate and not exhibit sexual behaviors, commonly referred to as "silent ovulation" or "silent heat" a. Periods of silent ovulation are most common during i. 1st or send ovulation after reaching sexual maturity ii. 1st ovulation following parturition iii. At beginning of the breeding season in seasonally polyestrous species 4. Females locate males either by: seeking them out; attracting males via displays of advertising sexual readiness; or auditory/olfactory cues a. Females of most domestic farm animal species exhibit male seeking to some extent during periods of ______ ___________ b. Male seeking is expressed most strongly by estrous ewes i. Both ram seeking and other estrus-related behaviors are estrogen dependent c. Proceptive behavior has been assigned to female behaviors associated with seeking out and soliciting males 5. Female-female mounting is one of the more obvious visual displays advertising sexual readiness in cattle, goats and swine a. Estrous females may form sexually active groups and take turns mounting one another b. Males are attracted to these sexually active groups from a distance (observing mountings is sexually stimulating to males) c. Estrous females sometimes try to mount males in close proximity 6. Sexually active males often sniff the anogenital region of estrous females and touch this area with their tongue a. Non-receptive females typically run away from the male in response to anogenital sniffing (often stop to urinate) b. Pursuing males may sniff their urine and then exhibit flehmen response c. Odor and urine of vaginal secretions convey information to sexually experienced males about female's receptivity 7. If female does not run away from the male, he tests her readiness to stand immobile for mounting by: a. Either placing his chin on the female's back or rump (cattle and goats) b. Contacting the female with foreleg kicks (sheep and goats) c. Showing an intention to mount by shifting his weight to his hind legs and raising his head while making contact with the female's back or rump (all species) 8. IN response to these male behaviors, sexually receptive females stand immobile (most important signal to a male that she is ready to be mounted) a. In sheep and goats, the courted female will wag her tale periodically b. Mare raises her tail, exposing the clitoris and often assumes a urination stance c. Receptive sows become immobile when pressure is applied to her back d. Estrous cat and rat assume a lordosis posture (back arches downward with raised pelvis) when mounted e. Sexually receptive female chickens and turkeys solicit copulations by assuming sexual crouch in response to approaches and courtship by male

Dominance features of horses

1. Subdominant horses lower their head, turn it aside, and show submission when dominant horses approach 2. Aggressive horses show an increasingly pronounced behavior, indicating an increased warning of approaching attack a. Horse with its ears laid back is prepared for a fight b. Sideways beats with the tail is another signal of social aggression (can indicate irritation) c. If ignored, can be followed by increased threat like lifting a hind leg and possibly a kick d. A highly irritated horse lifts its head and tail and moves with high steps (gives impression of being larger than it is e. Head swing and open mouth with bared teeth are preludes to a bite f. A bite is usually preceded by wrinkling of the muzzle 3. Serious fights often develop from skirmishing by colts 4. When 1 horse eventually succumbs, it takes flight 5. Serious adult fighting can occur in mare groups or between stallions 6. Horse attacks with bites, kicks with their hind legs or strikes with their foreleg

Dominance features of pigs

1. Subordinate pig lowers its head, turns and shows submissive behavior to the approaching dominant pig 2. Aggression between piglets hardly ever occurs in nature or under semi-natural conditions a. If 2 piglets in a litter have selected and settled on the same teat after parturition, there often arises an intense fight between the two b. Such aggression can go on for days (even weeks) and they often inflict face and ear wounds on each other c. Screams of aggression can disturb milk ejection, especially in nervous sows 3. Signs of imminent aggression in pigs include a. Short moment of distinct eye fixation on the opponent at the same time as the ears are twisted forwards and upwards b. Next moment there can be a violent, rapid and often a very dangerous bite (especially in adult pigs) c. Adult boars use their tusks to cause flesh wounds, especially to the ears, face, neck, and flank regions d. Aggression is practically always accompanied by loud screams from both combatants e. Aggressive boars chomp their jaws, causing the tusks to clack (greater amounts of foamy saliva can be generated) f. If a sow with her litter or a sick/injured sow/boar is showing signs of aggression against a person, it can quickly develop into a violent biting attack

Dominance features of dogs

1. There is considerable controversy about whether dogs have strict dominance hierarchies a. Dominant dog assumes a T-position in relation to the submissive dog's shoulder b. The submissive dog turns its head away, avoiding eye contact that might elicit an attack c. Submissive dog often remains stationary because running usually elicits an attack or a chase 2. Territorial aggression includes dogs barking at one another from their respective territories and dogs threatening or actually attacking dogs (or people) that encroach on their territory a. A typical dog fight involves bites to the head and disproportionately to the eyes and thoracic region b. Males are more likely than females to be the aggressors 3. Fear-induced aggression is the type of aggression that most often directly confronts people a. Fear-biting dog will be most apt to attack when its personal space has been invaded b. Fear and aggression are sometimes ambiguous in that a dog may be guarding a scarce resource (dominance), but be afraid of confrontation (fear) 4. Sprayed females tend to be more aggressive that intact bitches a. Possibly because the source of progesterones has been removed b. Especially a problem when spray females are outnumbered by males in their litter 5. Lactating bitches may aggressively protect their puppies a. Pronounced aggression with a large litter may be a sign of lactation tetany (disease) and not territorial protection per se

Enhanced libido and fertility

1. This pre-estrous period of courting (or tending) females enhances their libido and fertility when mating occurs a. In bulls, the quantity and quality of sperm in the ejaculate is correlated with the amount of pre-mating stimulation b. Semen volume, sperm concentration, sperm motility, percentage of live sperm and conception rates are all improved when bull is exposed to 1 or more cows for a few minutes before it is allowed to copulate 2. Boar courtship involves anogenital sniffing, nosing(massaging the sides of the female with the snout), and chanting (a specific courtship vocalization) a. Females receiving the most nosing from the boar had the highest conception rates i. Anogenital sniffing and chanting were not correlated with fertility b. Boar courtship - particularly nosing - improves sperm transport in the uterine horns c. Courtship in pigs may also advance onset of ovulation (improve timing of ovulation relative to mating)

Dominance features of cats

1. When 2 cats approach each other aggressively, they walk on tiptoe, slowly lashing their tails about the hocks, and turning their heads from one side to side while making direct eye contact a. This threat may intimidate a subordinate so that it slinks off b. Even matched rivals, however, will continue to approach one another c. They walk slightly past each other before one cat will spring, trying to grip the nape of the opponent's neck d. The attacked cat throws itself on its back, thereby protecting the nape e. The 2 adversaries will both lie on the ground belly to belly while they claw, vocalize, and bite at each other f. After a few moments, on cat (usually the original attacker) will jump free g. The other cat may adopt a defensive posture, attack, or run away h. The victor usually pursues the vanquished cat 2. Cats that are aggressive towards other cats are not necessarily aggressive towards people and vice versa 3. When placed together in a home or on a farm, cats will form dominance hierarchies, but marked aggression may persist in this originally solitary species 4. In feral cats, a hierarchy emerges that varies with body size in females and age in males a. More closely related cats are less aggressive b. Rank of cats for food may differ from their rank in social space i. But is the same in a large group of neutered cats of both sexes confined to a single household and yard c. Larger, older cats and males tend to be dominant over smaller, younger female cats 5. Cats can form harmonious social groups, but adding a new cat leads to fighting in 50% of households a. Greater risk of fighting if cats are allowed outdoor access b. 10% of cats are still aggressive a year after introduction of a new cat

Seasonal/Climatic Breeding responses

1. Whether "breeding" is taken to mean mating or parturition, it is plain that, when seasonal breeding occurs, the newborn is provided with environmental circumstances favoring its survival 2. In seasonal-breeding species, reproductive activity by both sexes is intensive in the breeding season and subdued, reduced or absent during the remainder of the seasons 3. Duration and intensity of estrus have been observed to alter with seasons a. In the mare, estrus is normally longer in duration during the season of full breeding than at other times b. In some breeds of cattle, it has been noted that differences in duration of estrus occur with season c. Libido in billies is strong in autumn, but is relatively weak from spring to autumn d. In sheep that breed throughout most of the year, intensity and duration of estrus still have significant seasonal variation 4. When the breeding season is very limited, the intensification of motivation for mating is evident in the male animals as well

Social Facilitation

1. Within groups, the activity of certain individuals - usually rapidly followed by the majority - seems to direct behavior policy for all 2. This group effect serves as a basis for the holistic strategies of group behavior a. _______ ___________ in flocks and herds is involved in daily movements (including stampedes, marches, and migration) that persist as outstanding behavior phenomena in animals 3. _______ ____________ is more likely where there is: a. Adequate association b. Ability to communicate and react c. Potential for mimicking activities d. Similarity of motivational states e. Suppression of intra-species aggression (stable social order) 4. Examples of social facilitation are a. Increased likelihood of pecking by a chick where another chick is seen or heard pecking b. Cows in a field are more likely to start grazing or lying if others in the herd do so c. Satiated pigs or calves will consume more food in the presence of a second hungry animal

Masturbation

1. ___________ is commonly noted among many domestic animal species but causes no known reproductive problems 2. Generally frowned upon on an anthropomorphic basis 3. Sperm quality or counts are not correlated with frequency of this vice 4. Bulls perform pelvic thrusts (with back arched) with a partially erect penis, thereby causing penis to move in and out of the sheath until ejaculation occurs 5. Stallions flip the erect penis against the ventral abdominal wall, but ejaculation rarely occurs i. Stallions masturbate 4 times daily, spending 30 minutes with an erect penis sometimes accompanied by ___________ ii. Stallion ___________ may occur in association with recumbency 6. ___________ using inanimate objects can be observed in most puppies, but becomes an insignificant behavior in normally socialized adult dogs a. Although mounting can be an aspect of sexual behavior, it is also a sign of dominance b. Castration of male dogs will decrease or eliminate ____________

Seasonal breeding

1. relative length of the light period of each day is a factor determining breeding behavior in some domestic animals a. seasonal breeding is largely determined by the changes in the daily photoperiod (physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night) 2. photoperiodism operates in 2 principle ways a. long day breeders i. some animals exhibit their reproductive activities during the portion of the year during which the daily light period is long ii. normal breeding season for horses commences in the spring as the light is becoming stronger and number of daylight hours increase b. Short day breeders i. Some animals confine their breeding to that portion of the year characterized by the minimum amount of daily light ii. Normal breeding season for sheep and goats commences in the autumn as the light is diminishing and number of daylight hours decreases

General reproduction

1. reproductive activities are not ever-present features of behavior a. induction requires processes of maturation and stimulation, which enables the animal to produce efficient reproductive activities and responses 2. reproductive effort is all of the resources expanded by an individual on reproduction in a season 3. reproduction capability often exists only one season of the year a. its initiation depends on a stimulus or a combination of stimuli

Polygyny

In ________, males have multiple mating partners in each breeding season i. 3 forms of ________ 1. in female defense ________, males control access to females directly (usually by virtue of female gregariousness) a. male elk defend groups of females from other males during the breeding season b. control of female is aided by their gregarious behavior 2. In resource defense ________, males control access to females indirectly by monopolizing critical resource a. Individual male ring-neck pheasants defend territories during the breeding season b. Female pheasants are attracted to the resources in those territories i. Gives the male territory holder preferential access to these females 3. Male dominance ________ occurs when it is not feasible for males to monopolize mates or critical resources a. Males aggregate during the breeding season and females select mates from these aggregations b. More dominant males mate with multiple females i. Male and female grouse gather in groups on traditional "strutting grounds" (aka leks) during the breeding season ii. Dominant males are most successful in attracting females and intimidating rival males

Polyandry

In _________, females mate with more than one male b. 2 forms of _________ i. In resource defense _________ females control access to males indirectly by monopolizing critical resources 1. Female wading bird divides up breeding sites into relatively small male-held territories (these female "super-territories" may encompass the nesting area of several males) 2. Females lay clutches of eggs for males on their respective territories and provide replacement of clutches if nests are lost through predation 3. Breeding females are much larger than males and provide little parental care 4. Females specialize in egg production while males do incubating ii. In female dominance _________, females do not defend resources essential to males but gain access to males through dominance 1. Honey bee queen does not defend critical resources 2. Their status in the hive allows them to mate with multiple males (drones) c. Great rheas are interesting because males are simultaneously polygynous and females are sequentially polyandrous i. As mating season approaches, adult males associate with and defend a harem of 2 to 12 females ii. Together, they participate in nest building, mating, and egg laying over a period of 30 to 45 days iii. Females then depart, leaving the male with incubation duties and care for young iv. Temporarily unattached females subsequently become integrated into another male's harem, lay eggs and the cycle is repeated

Performance component

It is possible to quantify frequency, duration or intensity of most male sexual behaviors, but, in doing so, it is the performance component that is being measured and not just the libido

Socially

Most domestic animal species live ________ when wild and individuals actively associate with one another when they can do so in domesticated conditions

Incest Avoidance

______ (breeding of close relatives) generally results in reduced reproductive success and vigor of offspring due to the concentration and expression of lethal (deleterious) genes 2. Animals in nature avoid ______ and inbreeding by natural tendency for one or both of sexes of offspring to disperse from their birth site and ability to recognize kin a. Ability to identify unfamiliar kin is attributed to "phenotype matching" i. An individual learns a common phenotype for familiar kin during early development and then applies this template when discriminating between unfamiliar conspecifics ii. Common phenotype may be based on visual, auditory or olfactory characteristics shared by kin but different in non-kin

Dominance hierarchy of wolves

______ ________ ______ typically form dominance hierarchies with alpha, beta, and eventually omega animals a. Such packs often consist of unrelated and previously unacquainted animals b. In nature, ____ pack is not organized by a relatively rigid dominance order, but is a family group c. The alpha male and female are merely the breeding animals (parents of the pack) and dominance contests are very rare d. Parents monopolize food and allocate it to their youngest offspring

Castration effects

_______ _ ___________ on sexual behavior of males varies with species, the individual, and the animal's age at the time of castration a. Ejaculatory response is usually the 1st component of sexual behavior that deteriorates following __________ b. __________ during adulthood typically results in a decline in sexual libido and performance i. However, in some species, certain sexually experienced individuals continue to exhibit mounting and behavioral ejaculation for years after surgery 2. __________ prior to sexual maturity usually results in reduced libido and unpaired sexual performance as an adult (depends on the species and individual) a. Prepuberally castrated rabbits and cats exhibit greatly impaired sexual function i. Rats, hamsters, guinea pigs, bulls and chimpanzees display more elements of the compete sexual pattern b. Early __________ of beagles had no effect on their libido or attractiveness to estrous females i. Most noticeable deficiency was loss of ejaculatory reflex 1. Inability to attain coital lock with females c. Male domestic cat typically loses all interest in females

Courtship (pre-mating) behavior

_________ ________ in our common domestic animals tend to be short-lived and sometimes difficult to distinguish from mating behavior per se a. _________ is typically more prolonged and elaborate in monogamous species b. Not surprising that pre-mating behaviors are difficult to distinguish considering that most of our domestic animal species are promiscuous i. Do not form stable male-female pair bonds 2. __________ ___________ can improve sexual libido and fertility in some species a. Libido of bulls, rams and billies is enhanced by a short 5-10 minute exposure to estrous females before mating is permitted i. In pasture breeding, males use odor to identify females coming into estrus (flehmen response) and will stay in close proximity to these females - courting and waiting for them to become receptive to mounts and copulation 3. _________ behaviors are important in synchronizing the reproductive behavior and physiology a. _________ has a critical role in stimulating the release of FSH (from anterior pituitary) and resulting release of estrogen (from ovary) needed to initiate reproduction in birds b. Pre-mating behaviors are particularly important in synchronizing the release of eggs and sperm in species with external fertilization (aquatic vertebrates and amphibians), where fertilization of eggs takes place in water

Sexual selection

_________ ___________ can be defined as natural selection between members of the same sex (intrasexual selection), which results in the evolution of traits that enhance an individual's ability to acquire mates a. Is a form of natural selection in which individual males or females compete with conspecifics of the same sex to gain the favor of the opposite sex b. In polygynous mating systems, there is male-male competition for the opportunity to mate with females 2. Breeding success of males depends, in part, on their ability to prevent other males from gaining access to females a. Largest, most attractive and most dominant males - by virtue of their competitive abilities - will be most successful in gaining access to females i. Will leave the most offspring for the next generation b. Competition between males can be costly in terms of energy expenditure, injury and survival 3. Male-male competition and resulting intrasexual selection among males is significant in species exhibiting polygyny because males are expendable a. One male can inseminate many females b. Males do not participate in parental care c. Male-male competition can take place without serious interference with the reproductive potential of the population as a whole 4. Breeding success among polygynous species is not only dependent on the ability of males to compete with one another for access to females but on their relative attractiveness to females once contact has been made a. Females choose their mating partners and males compete to be chosen b. Female choice in mating is commonplace in polygyny, presumably because females have a much greater investment in each offspring than the male 5. ______ _________ is sometimes influenced by non-genetic mechanisms, such as when females cope the mate choices of other females a. Female Japanese quail are allowed to observe a non-preferred male who had proven his success i. Females subsequently switched their preference to the previously non-preferred male who had proven his success b. Conversely, when male Japanese quail were allowed to observe preferred females mate or court with other males, their subsequent preference for the "taken" female declined

Dependence

a. Where a species has a complex social organization, the individuals have some ___________ on the other in their group i. May find it difficult to adapt to isolated living conditions

Sexual motivation

at any given time is determined by the capacity to become sexually aroused and the quality and quantity of sexual stimuli perceived a. Also affected by the negative effects of other competing and distracting stimuli b. Capacity to become sexually aroused is affected by not only the maturational and physiological factors (hormonal effects on neural centers), but also by social and sexual experience (learning) 2. As young animal matures and gains sexual experience, it becomes sexually aroused by an increasing number of sexual stimuli associated with positive sexual experiences 3. Sexually receptive females are more attractive to an aroused male than non-receptive females 4. Males develop sexual preferences for certain females and vice versa 5. However: a. Lack of socialization may lead to reduced sexual behavior and direction of sexual attentions to members of the same sex b. Stimuli associated with negative sexual experiences lose their ability to arouse and may inhibit arousal completely i. Male may encounter a sexually receptive female but have his arousal limited by the presence of a dominant or aggressive competitor ii. Animals can be classified based on their general propensity to become sexually aroused, but the degree of ______ __________ actually exhibited is dependent on a host of relevant internal and external factors 1. Extremely inclement weather will depress ______ __________ (more in males than females)

Cyclicity of female reproductive

behavior 1. Sexual receptivity in females is cyclic in nature 2. Polyestrous females cycle until they conceive a. Adult female cattle and swine exhibit continuously repeated estrous cycles 3. Seasonally polyestrous females exhibit repeated estrous cycles during specific seasons of the year only a. Ewes and nannies (short-day), mares (long day) and cats (increasing day length) are seasonally polyestrous 4. Female dogs are monoestrous because they only have 1 estrous period at a time a. 1 to 4 periods a year (2 is most common about every 6 months) 5. Estrous cycle in female cattle, swine, goats horses, and cats are about 21 days in duration, whereas its between 16 and 17 days in female sheep 6. Duration of "true estrus" - when the female will permit copulation by males - varies from a few hours to 10 days depending on the species 7. Proestrus - period when female exhibits signs of sexual interest in conspecifics - immediately precedes true estrus a. In cows, Proestrus may begin 40 hours before the onset of true estrus 8. Metestrus is the period immediately following true estrus when sexual interest is waning and females no longer permit copulation 9. Estrous odors produced by cows are present up to 3 days prior and 1 day after true estrus a. Duration of estrus includes the period of time between the end of Metestrus and beginning of Proestrus to the end of Metestrus 10. Diestrus is the period between the end of Metestrus and beginning of the next Proestrus in polyestrous species 11. Anestrus refers to the period of time when seasonally polyestrous females are not cycling 12. Female rodents (mice, rats, gerbils) frequently experience a post-partum estrus and become pregnant within days of parturition

Mating systems

determine the relative roles of males and females in providing progeny for next generation 2. 2 types of mating systems a. Monogamy b. Polygamy can have profound effects on species integrity 1. There are 19 recognized races of Canada geese living in the U.S. and differences are based primarily on variation in plumage, coloration, and size a. Conversely, most duck species found in the U.S. look the same externally, whether they are hatched on the east or west coasts b. Differences between Canada geese and ducks in morphological integrity are based on their social behavior and mating systems

Hierarchy

is an order of individuals or groups of individuals in a social group based upon some ability or characteristic a. Is most frequently used where ability assessed is that of winning fights or displacing other individuals b. ________ may involve just 2 levels, but usually refers to a series of levels or to a linear series with some triangular relationships in it c. Such an order might reflect an ability to dominate other individuals (subordinates), restricting their movement and access to resources

Dominance hierarchy

is common among domesticated animals because of their tendency to live in social groups/units and share space a. Sometimes referred to as the "pecking order" because some of the first studies on _________ _________ were conducted on chickens 2. _________ _________ is characteristic of groups - not individuals - even though it is established and maintained by social behavior of individuals a. Frequency and intensity of agonistic interaction - particularly aggressive behaviors - are greatest when unfamiliar individuals are first housed together b. Aggressive behavior declines quickly once the dominant-subordinate relationship becomes established i. Its occurrence is relatively infrequent in a stable dominant hierarchy c. Stable hierarchies and territories are advantageous because they reduce social interactions, thereby freeing up more time and energy for other behaviors important to survival and fitness 1. Dominance hierarchies are evident both when animals interact "spontaneously" in the absence of competition and when they compete for tangible resources (food, mates, shelter) a. Spontaneous interactions may be initiated simply by a desire for status or to protect one's personal space b. Variation in rank-based access to different resources can be due to individual differences in motivation for those resources or for the same resource at different times c. Expression of the hierarchy may even be abandoned in some competitive situations

Great variety of learning

is possible in social groups 1. Individuals may copy the actions of others 2. Establish cooperation or alliances because of social experiences 3. Able to learn more readily because of the stability that social relationships support can bring 4. Sophisticated learning is much more likely to occur when responses are encouraged by social bonds

Group cohesion

is the duration of association of the members of the group and frequency of fission in which 1 or more members leave the group

Controller

is the individual that determines whether or not a new group activity occurs, when it happens, and which activity it is a. _________ can also reduce the likelihood that individuals show certain activities b. _______ may sometimes be extended by force or threat, but the more common situation is that in which members of a group look to the __________ before changing activity or moving as a group c. Initiators may try to start such group movements but be unsuccessful unless the __________ decides to move

Leader

is the individual that is in front during an orderly group progression

Initiator

is the individual that is the first to react in a way which elicits a new group activity

Diestrus

is the period between the end of Metestrus and beginning of the next Proestrus in polyestrous species

Metestrus

is the period immediately following true estrus when sexual interest is waning and females no longer permit copulation

Competition

is the situation where individuals seek to obtain the same resource a. Need not involve any physical confrontation between rivals i. Faster mover may often succeed in obtaining a food item ii. Cleverest may be successful over the strongest or the fastest

Physical structure

is the size of the group and its composition in respect to age, sex, and degrees of relatedness of group members

Sexually dimorphic species

it is common for adult males and females to establish separate hierarchies a. In free ranging herds of cattle, adult males dominate all females and seldom show aggression towards them b. Mixed-age populations of ________ _________ _______ (like cattle) often exhibit transitionally heterosexual hierarchies in which young males are initially dominated by mature females c. But, these males become dominant over these mature females at some point during the maturation process i. Adolescent bull start working their way up through the adult cow hierarchy starting at 1-2 years of age and dominant most cows by - 2-3 years of age d. At that time, they occupy the lowest positions in the adult bull hierarchy

Mating behaviors

lead to gamete fertilization 2. Fertilization occurs either externally or internally a. In external fertilization, courtship behaviors bring male and female in close proximity and male deposits spermatic fluids directly over the extruded eggs b. Internal fertilization is achieved in 3 different ways i. Spermatophore transfer ii. Cloacal contact iii. Intromittent organ use

Mating efficiency

may be defined as: i. Total number of females impregnated by a male during a restricted breeding period ii. Proportion of estrous females in a group that were inseminated (or impregnated) at least once by a male iii. Number of mounts per ejaculation b. Most efficient males impregnate the greatest number of females in the shortest period of time with the fewest total number of mounts and ejaculations

Social behavior cattle

often lie in groups and grazing animals often stand within a few yards of one another 2. Domestic _______ in a free-range situation move from place to place in groups in which individuals maintain close proximity to one another a. Associations during movement, other active periods, and resting periods are not random i. When ______ are moved, one and the same cow is usually the leader cow (rarely is she the most dominant cow) ii. When the cow group moves, animals far down the social hierarchy, however, are always among the last b. When a cow group moves voluntarily, cattle usually go in some sort of near single file order 3. Knowledge of the memory function and memory capacity of cattle is limited a. It is, however, assumed that cows are capable of remembering the appearance of 50 to 70 other individuals i. Explains why subgroups are created in large herds on pasture b. Cows seem to have the ability - by vision and probably olfaction - to recognize their stockman c. Cows recognize their calves through olfactory, visual, and auditory cues very soon after calving 4. Among domestic animals, cattle and sheep are the most pronounced group behavior synchronized animals a. Cows in a herd essentially perform resting and grazing simultaneously i. However, during rest, it is not uncommon to observe single cows rising, eating a little grass, defecate, and then lie down again on their side b. During grazing, cows are mostly oriented in the same direction

Complete undirectional dominance

one animal is clearly dominant over another (subordinates almost never exhibit attacks or threats toward higher-ranking individuals) a. In partial (or bidirectional) dominance, less dominant animals sometimes threaten or attack more dominant conspecifics i. Young (immature) animals often exhibit partial dominance (especially when they are in groups of similar size) ii. Sexually mature animals are more likely to exhibit complete dominance 1. Bulls typically do not show complete dominance until they are three years old 2. Animals maintained longer are more likely to display complete dominance iii. Establishment of complete dominance leads to a reduction in the frequency and intensity of agonistic behavior, particularly physical combat

Estrous odors

produced by cows are present up to 3 days prior and 1 day after true estrus a. Duration of estrus includes the period of time between the end of Metestrus and beginning of Proestrus to the end of Metestrus

Serving capacity

refers to the number of ejaculations attained in a given period of time i. However, an animal that attains a relatively low serving capacity score will not necessarily mean it lacks libido ii. Low score may be due to locomotor problems resulting from structural deficiencies, pathological conditions, genital abnormalities, or lack of mating experience

Anestrus

refers to the period of time when seasonally polyestrous females are not cycling

Stability of social relationships

require: 1. Recognition between individual animals 2. Established social positions 3. Memory of social encounters that established the social status 4. Memory of observations of the behavior of social group members