BIL 330 Exam 1

kim bostwick

manocan-- how are the birds behaving how are they making that noise-- sound comes from wing tips--

the separation and joining of continents established six distinct biogeography regions that contain unique groups of organisms

neurotic, neotropical, afrotropical, palearctic, indomalayan, australian

clay is

negatively charged and attracts positive ions such as Ca2+ and K+

Permutation importance

randomizes the values associated with the environmental variable in question and measures the resulting drop in AUC

and ___ in wet warm zone

rapid

example of a provisioning service

taxol: more than 1.5 billion dollars in annual sales and more than 800 pharmaceutical chemicals have been derived from natural origins

blood shunting

when specific blood vessels shut off so less of animals warm blood flows to cold extremities where heat would be lost

condensation

when the temperature of saturated air decreases

competition

when two organisms that depend on the same resource have a negative effect on each other (-/- interaction)

mutualism

when two species benefit from each other (+/+)

commensalism

when two species live in close association and one receives a benefit, where as the other is unaffected (+/0)

precipitation

when vapor content exceeds saturation, water condenses to liquid or ice

manipulative experiments

where a hypothesis is tested by altering a factor hypothesized to be the cause of a phenomenon

summer

northern hemisphere tilts toward the sun

C

weakly altered material resembling plant material

(community) boundaries

are not always rigid and may cover small or large areas

ecosystem boundaries

are often not distinct

the means of two treatments may be identical

but the variance around those means can be very different

most plants are

c3 plants

biomagnification

the process by which the concentration of a contaminant increases as it moves up the food chain

how many species have received latin names?

1.3

predation, parasitism and herbivory are all

(+/- interactions)

end of mesozoic

(65 mya) south america separate from africa

Potential evapotranspiration

(PET) the amount of water that could be evaporated from the soil and transpired by plants given the average temperature and humidity; provides and overall index of energy input into the environment

ultraviolet light

(UV) shorter wavelength energy (<400nm)

hyperosmotic

(freshwater fish) tissue solute concentrations are higher than surrounding water-- excrete water and retain / intake solutes

hyposmotic

(saltwater fish) tissue solute concentrations are lower than surrounding water (retain/ intake water) and excrete solutes

biodiversity hotspots

1.4% of total land area, but 44% of plants and 35% of terrestrial vertebrates

most life processes occur within the temperature range of liquid water

0-100*C

across many different groups of organisms, the slope (z) ranges from

0.2 to 0.35 across scales of 1m^2 to the area of an entire country

the united nations convention on biological diversity estimates that the extinction rate over the past 50 years is

1,000 times historic rate

examples of constraints

1. linear (mean) 2. quadratic (variance) 3. product (covariance) 4. threshold (proportion)

Cost-Benefit Evalutation

1/1000 in annual gross world product to protect ~70% of species

sumatran tiger territory

1/2 the size of NYC

how many new species are described each year

15,000

How much money is estimated to go to ecosystem services?

150 trillion a year

example of overharvesting

1500 years ago, the arrival of humans on madagascar caused the extinction of 14 lemur species and 6 to 12 species of large flightless birds

example of fragmentation

1940, forests of costa rica covered much of the country- as human populations increased, forests were cleared. today, forests that exist in many small fragments

fourth mass extinction

200 mya: hypotheses for this extinction include volcanic activity, asteroid collisions and climate change

second mass extinction

359 mya much of the ocean lacked oxygen

third mass extinction

248 mya: causes are uncertain.. 96% of all species went extinct

collapsed fisheries occur in more than

25% of species assess of the coast of the northeastern U.S.

air cools and sinks at

30*N or S and returns to tropics at surface

elephants-- how far do they go? where do they hangout? what is their role?

40 miles, fruiting trees and openings, mining them for minerals, they are the forest engineers in shaping the jungle and distributing seeds

visible light

400nm (violet) to 700nm (red)

first mass extinction

443 mya most species lived in the oceans; an ice age caused sea levels to drop and ocean chemistry to change

how many mass extinctions in the past 500 million years?

5

only about ___ % of introduced species become established in a new region

5%

how many are left in the wild and how many have been seen?

500 and idk

how much heat is needed for evaporation?

500cal/g

which drive polar cells

60-90*N and S

fifth mass extinction

65 mya volcanic eruptions generated cold weather, followed by an asteroid impact in the yucatan peninsula-- dust from the asteroid impact blocked the sun's rays, making earth much less hospitable to dinosaurs and many other groups

ocean water near the equator expands as it warms, causing water to be

8 cm higher in elevator

how much heat removal is required to freeze water?

80cal/g

oceans and lakes cover

81% of southern hemisphere and 61% of northern hemisphere

recognizes

9 zones from equatorial (tropical rainforest) to polar (tundra)

at equilibrium there is

A continuous turnover of species, resulting in a temporarily variable species composition

plants convert blank and blank into organic molecules

CO2 and water

water dissolves soluble minerals and replaces elements with

H+ ions derived from carbonic acid and in the later and decomposition of organic material

what are the most prevalent greenhouse gases?

H20 and CO2,,, also N2O (nitrous oxide) and methane (CH4) and ozone O3

infrared

IR longer wavelength energy (>700nm)

volume increases as the cube of

L

What does our teacher study?

Microbial plant biology

example of hibernation

chipmunks slow breathing and heart rates down and reduce body temp to close to 0*C

prokaryotes can utilize sources of energy that most other organisms cannot such as

N2 and H2S gas

equation for species area curve

S=cA^z where c and z are constants to fit the data

phenotypic plasticity

a single genotype can produce multiple phenotypes

what is one of the most widely used anti cancer drugs (biomedical contributions)

Taxol --- comes from an endophytic fungus

fungi is more closely related to animals than plants?

True

phenotypic trade-off

a given phenotype experiences higher fitness in one environment, whereas other phenotypes experience higher fitness in other environments

thermohaline ciruclation

a global pattern of surface- deep water currents that flow as a result of variations in temperature and salinity that change the density of water

species area curve

a graphical relationship in which increases in area (A) are associated with increases in the number of species (S)

in palo verde national park in costa rica

a beautiful tropical birds and monkey generate ecotourism

boreal forests

a biome densely populated by evergreen needle-leaved trees, with a short growing season and severe winters. litter decomposes slowly and accumulates, forming the largest reservoir of organic carbon on Earth. soils are acidic and podsolized. species diversity is low, but the biome is a major source of lumber and paper (ALASKA)

natural selection

a change in the frequency of genes in a population through differential survival and reproduction of individuals that possess certain phenotypes

evolution

a change in the genetic composition of a population over time

if you were born after 1977 you have yet to live through

a colder than average year or less than 30 years old

dormancy

a condition in which organisms dramatically reduce their metabolic processes (4 types of dormancy)

instrumental value of biodiversity

a focus on the economic value a species can provide (e.g. the value of lumber and crops)-- many species remain undiscovered so the value of species and ecosystems can be difficult to estimate

intrinsic value of biodiversity

a focus on the inherent value of a species, not tied to any economic benefit--preserve the worlds species-- difficult to prioritize conservation efforts based on intrinsic value

legacy effects

a long-lasting influence of historical processes on the current ecology of an area

atmospheric processes tend to have

a longer duration than marine processes

variance of the mean

a measurement indicating the spread of data around a mean after measuring al members of a population

leaching

a process in which groundwater removes some substance by dissolving them and moving them down to lower soil layers

podsolization

a process occurring in acid soils typical of cool moist regions where clay particles break down in the E horizon and soluble ions are transported down to the lower B horizon

rain shadow

a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side

randomization

a requirement for manipulation experiments, every experimental unit must have an equal chance of being assigned to a particular treatment

example of species sorting

a researcher sowed seeds of 20 wetland plant species in artificial wetlands that varied in features such as soil fertility and flooding rate; only certain species from the regional pool survived under each wetland combination

equilibrium theory of island biogeography

a theory stating that the number of species on an island reflects a balance between the colonization of new species and the extinction of existing species

control

a treatment that includes all aspects of an experiment except the factor of interest

sample variance

a value similar to that of the variance of the mean but it accounts for how many samples of the population were measured (n)

severe el nino events occur irregularly

about once ever 10-12 years

habitat types overlap and

absolute distinctions rarely exist

chlorofluorocarbons, unnatural at low concentrations but

absorb more infrared radiation and persist in the atmosphere for hundreds of years

chlorophyll

absorbs red and violet light --reflects green and blue

species that prefer edge habitat increase in

abundance when fragmentation occurs

fungi secrete

acids and enzymes to digest food internally

ultimate hypothesis

address the fitness costs and benefits of a response (rhizobia increase plant fitness/ reproduction)

proximate hypotheses

addresses the cause of immediate changes in individual phenotypes or interactions (rhizobia increase nitrogen levels)

constraints

make the value of a certain statistic over the predicted probability distribution close to the value observed for that statistic over the set of known presences

increased concentration of CH4, N2O due to

agriculture, landfills, and fossil fuel combustion

Biosphere

all ecosystems on Earth- distinct ecosystems are linked together by exchange of wind and water and by the movement of organisms

soil

altered material that overlies bedrock

reducing the harvest of a declining species often increases its abundance

although some species can take a long time to recover (elephant seals)

natural experiments

an approach to hypothesis testing that relies on natural variation in the environment to test a hypothesis

phenotype

an attribute of an organism (e.g. behavior, morphology)

adaptation

an environmentally induced change across generations-- slow slow fluctuations favor slow responses

acclimation

an environmentally induced change in individual's physiology...very rapid-- rapid environmental fluctuations favor rapid responses--reversible-- olympians train at high altitudes

homeostasis

an organisms ability to maintain constant internal conditions in the face of a varying external environment

example of fragment edges

an unfragmented piece of land with an area of 1 ha has a total edge length of 400m..the same area divided into 16 smaller square habitats has a total edge length of 1600m.

upwelling

an upward movement of ocean water

in general, warm tropical water circulates up along western reaches of ocean basins toward poles,

and cold polar water circulates down along eastern reaches.

difference in solar radiation due to?

angle of the sun striking the earth, depth of the atmosphere that the energy passes through, seasonal changes in the position of the earth relative to the sun

when water is scarce,

animals exhibit numerous adaptations

another example

arctic hare

animals accumulate fat or cache food supplies

as a reserve of energy for periods of harsh weather when food is inaccessible

defining hotspots

at least 1500 endemic plant species and 70% or more habitat loss .. initially 25 hotspots then 35 and now 2016 new hotspot!!

mean

average observation values for a treatment

Boreal and temperate climate zones

average temps below 5*C.. boreal forest (taiga) develops between 5*C and -5*C.. tundra develops at temps below -5*C

gravity pulls the higher water

away from the equator

prokaryotes

bacteria and archaea

currents causing upwelling reverse during el nino resulting in

barren

why did this occur

because habitat features (e.g. resource types) were heterogenous among streams and different birds preferred different habitat characteristics

whittakers biome scheme

begins with vegetation types, places these on a graph of mean annual temperature and precipitation...finds a triangular area with corners representing following conditions: warm -moist, warm-dry and cool dry

organisms must exhibit

behavior to acquire or remove solutes to maintain the proper concentrations of water and solutes

foraging is a plastic behavior because different feeding strategies represent different

behavioral phenotypes

replication

being able to produce a similar outcome multiple times (i.e. the number of experimental units per treatment.

the naturally occurring greenhouse effect is

beneficial

supporting services

benefits of biodiversity that allow ecosystems to exist (e.g. primary production, soil formation, nutrient cycling)

Provisioning services:

benefits of biodiversity that humans use, including lumber, fur, meat, crops, water and fiber.

regulating services

benefits of biodiversity that include climate regulation, flood control and water pollution

cultural services

benefits of biodiversity that provide aesthetic, spiritual or recreational value (e.g. hiking, camping)

since large areas can support large populations with low extinction rates... setting aside a single large area will

better protect biodiversity than will several small areas

Ecological systems:

biological entities that have their own internal processes and interact with their external surroundings

Since deep water tends to be high in nutrients, upwelling zones are often areas of high

biological productivity

detritivores

break down dead organic matter (i.e. detritus) into smaller particles

decomposers

break down detritus into simpler elements that can be recycled

rainfall increases plant production and

breaks down parent material

example of adaptation for resources

burnese python doubles the length of its intestine to accommodate the extra tissue

species reintroductions from captivity

california condors-- took away their eggs so they would reproduce more and then put them back into habitat

mixotrophs

can switch between being producers and consumers

biomes

categories that group communities by dominant plant forms

alternating periods of cooling and warming caused the advance and retreat of ice sheets over north america

caused the composition of plant species to change as species and migrated back and forth across the landscape (trees go north) -- using pollen from soil cores to determine tree movement

adaptations to salinity

change the osmotic potential of the body fluids by synthesizing large quantities of organic solutes

thermal pollution

changing the temperature of an environment via human discharges (e.g. effluent from nuclear power plants)

dry climate

characterized by low precipitation and a wide range of temperatures

polar climate

characterized by very cold temps and relatively little precipitation

moist subtropical mid latitude climate

characterized by warm dry summers and cold wet winters

tropical climate

characterized by warm temps and high precipitation

glycerol and glycoproteins

chemicals present in some animals that prevent freezing by reducing the strength of hydrogen bonds or via super cooling (coating of ice seeds)

this produces insoluble materials such as

clay

human influence on ecological systems

climate change, over harvesting of resources, pollution, habitat destruction

large scale spatial variation

climate, land topography, and soil

constrained by basin configuration

clockwise: in northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in southern hemisphere

reserves also need to be

close enough to allow dispersal but far enough to reduce dispersal of diseases and parasites

more insects recolonized islands

closer to the mainland and species richness of islands was similar to values before fumigation

boreal

cold temps with cool summers and long winters, evergreen, frost-hardy needle leaved forest (taiga)

concentration of CO2 has increased over the past two centuries due to

combustion of fossil fuels

green house gases

compounds in the atmosphere that absorb infrared heat energy emitted by Earth and then emit some of the energy back toward Earth. High amounts of these gases can increase average Earth temperatures

focuses on

conditions of moisture and temperature stress that determine plant form

humans act as ecosystem engineers by

constructing buildings, dams, irrigation channels, etc.

scavengers

consume dead animals

islands of similar size, but closer

contained more bird species than far islands

temperate grassland

continental, arid with warm or hot summers and cold winters, grasslands and temperate deserts

producers

convert chemical energy into resources

sea surface temper:

cool upwelling waters are purple

result

cooling and drying trend at high altitudes

example of risk-sensitive

creek chub feed on worms but with worms comes predators...past a certain threshold of resource abundance, creek chub will risk feeding in an area with predators, below that threshold creek chub avoid areas with predators

how does roman dial get from the top on one tree to another in borneo?

cross bow

current habitat heterogeneity is a reflection of ___ and ___ events caused by ___ and ___ forces

current habitat heterogeneity is a reflection of recent and historical events caused by natural and human forces

upwelling occurs in locations along continents where surface

currents move away from the coastline

the relationship between species richness and area is

curvilinear when area and species are plotted on a regular scale and linear when plotted on log scales

example of fragment size effects

damming of large river in venezuela created islands of varying sizes. predators on small islands quickly went extinct because there were not enough herbivore prey to sustain populations. increased herbivore abundance on small islands led to an increase in tree mortality and a decrease in tree recruitment.

who suggested that such an insect might exist?

darwin 150 years ago--no one believed darwin that this moth existed

zika mosquito

day active... prefer associations with humans

O

dead organic matter

temperate seasonal rainforests have

deciduous trees (maple, beech, oak)

Declines in genetic diversity can be caused by

declining population sizes, inbreeding depression, and the bottleneck effect

many fungi are

decomposers

high albedo of snow at the poles cures

decrease in temp

global patterns: from the equator towards the poles

decreasing temp and decreasing precipitation

example hermaphroditic common pond snail

delays egg-laying if mates are unavailable. self-fertilizing snails lay fewer eggs

ecosystem approach

describes the storage and transfer of energy and matter

examples

desert kangaroo rat conserves water by hunting during the night and staying below ground during the day. also has larger kidneys that permit increased water retention

why do we need ecological understanding

develop public policy, manage environmental support systems -- agricultural lands, wetland,s forests, solve or prevent environmental problems.

example of a niche

different species of insects prefer to feed on different crop species that may be growing in the same field

why does the angle of the sun matter

direct path means a lot of solar energy, right angle covers less space is heated, oblique angle more space is covered and therefore heated

solutes

dissolved substances in water

horizons

distinct levels of soil

fire shapes vegetation toward

drier end

after

drifting continents impeded the circulation of oceans

el niño also favors

drought conditions in indonesia and australia.

consequences of severe el ninos

drought in south america, africa and australia, increased precipitation outside of tropics and disruption of fisheries and seabird populations (upwelling nutrients stops)

glacial advances

drove temperate species southward-- restricted tropical species to isolated refugee

under average conditions the trade winds blow from

east to west across the tropical pacific

coriolis effects and prevailing trade winds push surface water

east to west in the N and west to east in the S

environments dominated by humans (e.g. cities and farms) are also

ecological systems; humans depend on the proper functioning of these systems

steve blake and mombellami and mike are studying what?

elephants-- tracking to see where the elephants go using a satellite location of a collar on the elephants

marine iguana

eliminates salt in their drinking water through specialized salt secreting organs

energy gain per unit time =

energy benefit/ handling time

tropical rain forest

equatorial, always moist and lacking temperate seasonality. evergreen tropical rainforest

example of legacy effect

eskers: remnants of streams of water that flowed inside glaciers, as the streams flowed, they deposited soil and rock on the stream bed.-- after the glaciers melted, the streams appeared as long, winding hills

deeper currents

established by gradients of temperature and salinity

protists

eukaryotes that include some protozoa, some algae, and slime molds-- some protists can grow very large and look like plants (kelp)

mass extinction events

events in which at least 75% of the existing species go extinct within a 2 million year period

temperate rainforests have

evergreen forests (coast red wood and douglas fir)

biosphere approach

examines movements of energy and chemicals over the Earth's surface

population approach

examines variation in the number, density, and composition of individuals over time and space

moist continental mid latitude climate

exists in the interior of continents and is characterized by warm summers, cold winters and moderate rain

longer intestines can help

extract more nutrients from ingested food

many plants have roots to

extract water from soil or air

some habitats in the matrix may contain

favorable conditions for dispersal, whereas other might be inhospitable

hot

few living things survive temperatures in excess of 45*C

jeremy and gavin

first clear record of the tiger in its jungle habitat

this includes the

flow of material from "pools" of elements, such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen

central place foraging

foraging behavior in which acquired food is brought to a central place (e.g. a nest with young birds)

risk sensitive foraging

foraging behavior that is influenced by the presence of predators

glacial retreat (18,000ya)

forest trees in eastern N.A. migrated back north

albedo

fraction of solar energy reflected by an object

effects of fragment edges

fragmentation causes an increase in the amount of habitat compared to the original unfragmented habitat.

effects of fragment size

fragmentation decreases habitat area and increases patch number, edge size, and isolation

human activities have caused widespread

fragmentation of large habitats throughout the world

cold

freezing is generally harmful to cells and tissues

examples of habitats

freshwater, marine, coastal, streams, forests, deserts, grasslands

geographic distribution of biomes correspond closely to

major climate zones

bat food:

fruit, nectar, insects, fish, frogs, lizards, mice

how does this influence the animals like the draco flying lizard

gliding is the best way to move through the forest

climate diagrams

graphs that plot the average monthly temperature and precipitation of a specific location on Earth-- plant growth is constrained by temperature when the temperature line goes below the precipitation line and vice versa

fire favors

grasses and forms over woody plants

example of phenotypic plasticity

gray tree frog tadpoles produce a phenotype that allows fast escape when predators are present and fast growth when predators are absent

the eastern pacific water temperature rises and there is

greater precipitation in the eastern pacific and sometimes flooding in south american countries (peru)

high chlorophyll concentrations in

green and yellow

example of local and regional diversity

in a survey of birds along 27 streams in vermont, researchers found that each stream supported ~17 species (alpha) whereas the combination of streams supported 101 species (gamma)

species richness often increases from the local to landscape scale because

habitat diversity increases along this gradient

human activity causes

habitat heterogeneity

most animals do not consume a single food item and base their diet decisions on

handling time and energetic and nutritional value of various resources

Congo, massive bat migrations were studying using

heat sensitive cameras

consumers

heterotrophs obtain their energy from other organisms

currents causing upwelling are strengthen by La nina resulting in

high concentrations of chlorophyll (lots of nutrients)

islands nearer to source habitat should have

higher colonization rates

smaller islands should have

higher extinction rates

mutualists that support multiple partners will have

higher fitness than will specialists

nailing nadkarni

hot air baloon

temperate grassland / cold desert

hot dry summers and cold winters dominated by grasses and non-woody flowering plants and drought-adapted shrubs.. prairies, pampas, steppes. tall grass prairies occur in areas with high rainfall.. soils are low in acidity and high in nutrients...unproductive cold desserts when precipitation is really low (COLORADO AND WASHINGTON)

woodlands/ scrublands

hot dry summers and mild wet winters a combination that factors the growth of drought-tolerant grasses and shrubs. mediterranean climate. chaparral. 12 month growing seasons, but dry summers and cold winters limit plant growth. dominated by sclerophyllous vegetation which has small and durable leaves that resist desiccation (CALIFORNIA AND CAPE REGION SOUTH AFRICA)

subtropical deserts

hot temps, scarce rainfall, short growing season, sparse vegetation, associated with dry descending air of hadley cells.. soils are shallow and devoid of organic matter and neutral in pH. moister sites allow cacti, shrubs and small trees (MEXICO AND ARIZONA)

overharvesting

human technology has allowed us to harvest species at more rapid rates and drive some species to extinction

A1

humus rich

desert kangeroo

hunts during the night and stays grounded during the day.. also has larger kidneys that permit increased water retention

hypotheses

ideas that potentially explain a repeated

example of storage plant

in habitats that frequently burn, perennial plants store food in fire-resistant root crowns that send up new shoots after fires

example

in mammals the hypothalamus triggers increased metabolic when body temperature is below 37*C and sweating when body temp is above

adaptations to water availability

in response to scarce water, plants will close their stomata or adjust their relative allocations of energy and material to grow longer roots

example

in the southwestern U.s. 26 species of mammals prefer to live in mountaintop habitats.. researchers questioned how mountaintop size and isolation from source habitat affect species richness...more species on larger and less isolated mountaintops

example:

income from tourists can exceed what would be received from clearing a forest or using land for housing or industry

corridors

increase gene flow and genetic diversity

Percent contribution -

increase in likelihood associated with constraints based on the environmental variable in question

sixth mass extinction

increases in human population during the past 10,000 years has initiated a sixth mass extinction event

separation of continents allowed species to

independently evolve in different regions of the earth; joining of continents allowed groups of organisms unique to one land mass move into new ares

population

individuals of the same species living in a particular area

hibernation

individuals reduce the energetic costs of being active by lowering heart rate and decreasing the body temperatures; common in mammals

species

individuals that are capable of interbreeding or share genetic similarities

hermaphrodites

individuals that produce both male and female gametes, individuals are able to fertilize their own eggs with their own sperm (self compatible)

three requirements of natural selection

individuals vary in their traits, traits are hereditable, variation in traits causes some individuals to experience higher finess (survival and reproduction)

climate indirectly affects the distribution of plants and animals through its

influence on the development of soil

what kind of technology does jersey use

infrared cameras

what kind of technology is decries using for the moth?

infrared light

example of diapause

insects facing draught conditions by dehydrating themselves. some form an impermeable outer layer to prevent further dessication

human activity has influenced the

intensity, frequency, and ecological influence of natural forces.

diapause

involves a partial or complete physiological shutdown in response to unfavorable conditions; common in insects

photosynthesis occurs in two steps

known as the light reactions and the calvin cycle

solar energy is absorbed differently in

land, water and latitude, and is redistributed by winds and ocean currents

gyres

large scale water circulation pattern between continents

fires create habitat heterogeneity at

large spatial scales.. and small spatial scales

when temperature varies it is easier for a ___ animal to maintain a constant internal temp

larger

since heat transfer occurs across an organisms surface area

larger individuals lose and gain heat less rapidly then smaller individuals

later mesozoic

laurasia and gondwana (144 mya)

soil processes

leaching, weathering, podsolization, lateralization

example of mutualism?

legumes and rhizobia or mycorrizhal fungi or honey bees that pollinate flowers in return for nectar

among habitats with similar levels of productivity...

less heterogeneous habitats will support fewer species

terrestrial animals with internalized gas exchange surfaces are

less vulnerable to respiratory water loss than plants

terrestrial animals, with internalized gas exchange surfaces are

less vulnerable to respiratory water loss than plants

young soils have

less weather, fewer cations and are less fertile

what is the primary source of energy for the biosphere?

light

equatorial and tropical climate zones

located within 20* of the equator..daily temp variation exceeds monthly variation through the year.. environments are largely distinguished by differences in the seasonal pattern of rainfall. frost is not a factor. plants and animals cannot tolerate freezing

microhabitats

locations within a habitat that differ in environmental conditions from the rest of the habitats

what is another way to solve it

log S = log c + z log A (an equation for a line with a y intercept of log c and a slope of z)

shallow roots are able to take up water after brief rainfall events

long roots can access deeper waters

processes that affect large areas also tend to last

longer

B

low organic matter, decomposition of clays

water does not evaporate at blank temperatures

low temps

cold atmosphere has

low water vapor

oceans have increased species richness at

lower latitudes (highest at the tropics and lowest near the poles)

example of matrix habitat

many butterflies feed in meadows and disperse between meadows through matrix habitats. researchers in colorado questioned whether butterflies preferred to disperse through matrix habitats containing willow thickets or through coniferous forests... four of the six groups were 3 to 12 times more likely to disperse through willow thicket habitats than through coniferous forests

example

many reptiles, bask, which is the behavior of lying flat against the ground to gain heat by conduction and solar radiation.

what kind of data is he gathering and what does he use it for

map of the jungle to make a physical make up of the jungle using laser beams

North American Coastal Plain Hotspot

massachusetts to Florida keys and west to Mexico

first law of thermodynamics

matter and energy cannot be created or destroyed but can change form

competition for resources

may spend more time looking for food or alter their digestive morphology

osmoregulation

mechanisms organisms use to maintain a proper solute balance

woodland/shrubland

mediterranean: winter rainy season and summer drought, shrubs and woodlands

semipermeable membranes

membranes that allow only particular molecules to pass through; reduces free movement of solutes

temperate rainforests

mild temps, abundant precipitation, evergreen forests...warmer conditions are due to nearby ocean currents.. in N.A. these forests are dominated by coast redwood and douglas fir 60-70m tall low species diversity (CALIFORNIA)

soils are comprised of

minerals from the parent material, organic material from plants, water, air, living plant roots, microorganisms, and decomposing organisms

temperate seasonal rainforests

moderate temp and precipitation conditions dominated by deciduous trees. conditions fluctuate because forests are not near warm ocean currents, precipitation exceeds transpiration.. soils are podsolized, slightly acidic and support a layer of small plants beneath the dominant trees, warmer drier parts of the biome are dominated by pines (NEW YORK AND MASS)

grassland and shrub biomes where

moisture is intermediate (sufficient productivity for fuels to accumulate) and seasonal droughts occur (fuels dry out sufficiently enough to burn)

Growing season:

months that are warm enough to allow plant growth (i.e. temp >0*C)

shorter wavelengths contain

more energy

how does the SE asian forest differ from neotropical forests

more open space between trees

larger islands contain

more species

as more species colonize the island,

more species are subject to possible extinction due to chance and negative interactions (e.g. competition, predation, parasitism).

at sites further away, birds should spend

more time searching for food and bring back more food to offset the extra travel time

phil devries is searching for an insect in madagascar

moth

continental drift:

movement of landmasses across Earth's surface

osmosis

movement of water across a semi permeable membrane...to equalize solute concentrations in different locations

boundaries can be

natural (e.g. forest edges) or political (e.g. state lines)

experimental units may be

natural (e.g. lakes) or artificial (e.g. microcosm) and may vary in size by several orders of magnitude

habitat heterogeneity

natural forces (e.g. tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, mudslides and fires) continue to cause habitat heterogeneity

can two species have the same niche?

no because each has unique phenotypes that determine the conditions it can tolerate

why wasn't NACP recognized sooner

no lists of endemic taxa, seems flat, coastal and low in elevation,

during past 2 my

no more gradual cooling instead violent oscillations (ice age)

since resources vary in space and time

no single foraging strategy can maximize an animals fitness

in the northern hemisphere species richness of most animal and plant groups increase from

north to south

winter

northern hemisphere tilts away from the sun

temperate seasonal forest

numeral: moderate climate with winter freezing, frost resistant, deciduous temperate forest

the scientific method

observations, hypothesis, test the hypothesis

50- 20 mya

oceans extended from polar to tropical regions: warmer polar climates

ecosystem

one or more communities of living organisms interacting with their non-living physical and chemical environments

other examples?

organisms that do not have access to freshwater (e.g. marine iguana) eliminate the salt in their drinking water through specialized salt-secreting organs

poikilotherms

organisms that do not have constant body temperatures

endotherms

organisms that generate metabolic heat to raise body temp higher than the external environment

homeotherms

organisms that maintain constant temperature, this allows biochemical reactions to work most efficiently

phenotypic plasticity allows

organisms to achieve homeostasis if environmental conditions vary

ectotherms

organisms with body temps determined by their external environment (not necessarily poikilotherms)

eukaryotes

organisms with distinct organelles

how to solve problem of road construction through forest?

overhead corridors (like a bridge) with surfaces of soil and vegetation

bacteria increased the abundance of

oxygen in the atmosphere, allowing other plants and animals to survive

early mesozoic era

pangea (200mya))

cyanobacteria can

photosynthesize

nutrients are important for

phytoplankton which are the primary producers that provide food for animals (e.g. birds, fish, and mammals)

corridors can be

pieces of persevered habitat or they can be constructed for the specific purpose of allowing species dispersal

chlorophylls and carotenoids are

pigments inside the thylakoids that absorb light

podsolization often occurs when

plant material is broken down slowly which produces acidic soils

and many fungi are

plant mutualists

small scale variation

plant structure and animal behavior

example of commensalism

plants (burdock) that containing fruits that have tiny barbs that stick to animals receives the benefit of the seeds being dispersed while the animal is unharmed

matrix potential decreases as

plants extract more water from the soil-- past 1.5 map, known as the wilting point, most plants cannot extract more water.

adaptations to enemies

plants have the ability to respond to the presence of herbivores

for every 10*C in temperature

plants require an additional 20mm of monthly precipitation

tundra

polar: very short cool summers and very long very cold winters. low evergreen vegetation, without trees and growing over permanently frozen soils.

warm tropical waters carry heat

poleward

community

populations of species living together in a particular are

countercurrent circulation also helps to conserve heat by

positioning arteries that carry warm blood away from the heart alongside veins that carry chilled blood from the extremities back to the heart

consequences for ecological processes

positions influence climate and barriers to dispersal are dynamic

mycorrizhal fungi and rhizobia have a blank effect on plant size

positive effect

the number of species found in a given location is

positively correlated to the amount of solar energy and precipitation

PET often

positively correlates with species richness but eventually plateaus as increasing temp becomes a stressor

communities include many types of interactions such as

predation and competition

combining the effects of island area and isolation revelas

predictions regarding S

photosynthesis

process of combining CO2, H2O and solar energy to produce glucose (C6H12O6) -- 6CO2 + 6H20 + photons --> C6H12O6 + 6O2

nitrogen balance

produce metabolic by-products that can accumulate in higher concentrations than NH3 because that is mildly toxic. -- producing these compounds conserves the water that is needed to remove excess nitrogen, but they are energetically costly to make.

what were the first organisms?

prokaryotes or single-celled bacteria and archaea without distinct organelles

a predator should always eat the prey species that

provides the highest amount of energy gained per unit time

during el nino, the trade winds

relax in the central and eastern pacific and upwelling of colder water from below is inhibited

animals

rely on the consumption of other organisms for resources

mathematical models

representations of a system with a set of equations that correspond to hypothesized relationships among the system's components

patterns of diversity exist at the global scales

richness is highest near the tropics and declines toward the poles

example of human fragmentation of habitats

road construction through forests

example of an adaptation to salinity

rocky tidal pools receive seawater from the splash of high waves. as water dries, salinity increases. in response, the copepod tigriopus synthesizes amino acids...this is costly; during synthesis respiration rate declines to conserve energy, and then increases as salinity decreases to break down amino acids

while desert vegetation is less productive than marsh vegetation, the greater heterogeneity of the desert landscapes provides

room for more species of plants

plants may store nutrients and energy in their

roots

the benefits and disadvantages of edge habitat must be considered;

round areas have less edge-to-area ratios than rectangular areas

equation for sample variance

s^2 = n/ n-1 x (E[X^2] - E[X]^2)

jeremy is the

scientist and gavin is the camera man

ice melting leads to

sea level rise and loss of low-lying land areas

the time spent obtaining food at a site

searching time

drives

secondary temperate cells (30-60* N and S of equator)

example of introduced species

sewer vine introduced in south florida ornaments often escape cultivation, invade forests form dense blankets over the forest canopy...native plants cannot grow in the unnaturally dense shade

structural adaptations (plants)

shallow roots, to take up water long roots to access deep water rains and waxy cuticles to protect plants from direct sunlight and slow water loss spines and hairs provide protection and produce a boundary layer of still air that traps moisture and reduces evaporation. small leaves with high density of veins prevent loss of leaf tissue via embolisms, or air bubbles in views, which are common in water stressed environments.

what is the equation?

sigma ^2 = sum of (X^2) - E(X)^2

the effects of patch size and isolation are

similar across multiple types of habitats

the biome concept

similar dominant plant forms occur under similar conditions

energy-diversity hypothesis

sites with higher amounts of energy are able to support more species and higher abundances of individual species. higher energy inputs may accelerate evolution and speciation rates

thus formation

slow in arid zone

stepping stones

small intervening habitat patches that dispersing organisms can use to move between large favorable habitats; useful for flying organisms that do not need continuous corridors to disperse

stepping stones

small intervening habitat patches that disposing organisms can use to move between large favorable habitats; useful for flying organisms that do not need continuous corridors to disperse

small habitats have

small populations which are more likely to go extinct

higher angle =

smaller area

greenhouse effect

solar radiation striking earth, concerted to infrared radiation and being absorbed and re-emitted by atmospheric gases

example

some archaebacteria can live in hot springs at temperatures up to 110*C

increase in the average temp on earth

some may become colder some regions may become up to 4*C warmer

because of this cost,

some species wait until self-fertilization becomes the last chance for reproduction

chloroplasts

specialized cell organelles found in eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms

hypothesis 1

species are continually created over time and without limit; because tropical regions have not experienced glaciation... these areas have had more time to accumulate species

threatened

species at high risk of extinction

near-threatened

species likely to become threatened in the future

theory of island biogeography

species richness increases with island area, and islands closer to the mainland appeared to receive more colonizing species

least-concern

species with abundant populations

chloroplasts contain

stacks of membranes (thylakoids) surrounded by fluid filled space (stroma)

topography affects small scale climate

steep slopes typically drain well, leading to dry conditions. bottomlands moist supporting riparian forests, even in arid lands. in N hemisphere, south-facing slopes are warmer and drier than north-facing slopes

cromwell currents

stirs ocean on west side of galapagos and brings cool nutrient-rich water up

late tertiary

stratification of temperate and tropical biotas

Example of beta diversity

stream A contains five species not found in stream B and stream B contains three species not found in stream A, the beta diversity is 8

Florida

sub-tropical hammocks in keys, pine rocklands (N.A. most threatened habitats),. florida scrub

subtropical desert

subtropical (hot deserts) highly seasonal, arid climate..desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface

jeremy holden and gavin thurston

sumatran tiger

why would it be such a big deal to get a picture of this animal in the wild?

sumatran tiger is endangered

spring and fall

sun aims directly at equator

root pressure

when osmotic potential in the roots of a plant draws in water from the soiled forces it into the xylem; can raise water to ~20m

temperate zone is characterized by

temps between 5-20*C at low elevations with frost throughout the zone: found between 30*N and 45*N in N.A. and between 40* N and 60*N in Europe. biomes are differentiated by: total amounts and seasonality of precipitation and length of frost-free season or growing season

ectotherms

tend to be organisms with low metabolic rates or small body sizes (reptiles, amphibians, insects) -- they can adjust their temp behaviorally by changing their orientation with the sun, adjusting their contact with warm substrates, or moving in and out of shade

many fungi have hyphae

that extract nutrients from dead or living tissues

thermoregulation

the ability of an organism to control the temperature of its body

an increase in edge habitat changes

the abiotic conditions (e.g. ground temperatures in a forest) and the species composition of a habitat.

negative feedbacks

the action of internal response mechanisms that restores a system to a desired state, or set point, when the system deviates from that state

handling time

the amount of time that a predator takes to consume a captured prey

if the highest energy prey is rare,

the animal should include less profitable items in its diet

extinct

the animal was known to exist in the year 1500 but no individuals remain alive today

walters climate classification scheme

the annual course of temperature and precipitation

intertropical convergence zone

the area where two hadley cells converge and cause large amounts of precipitation

laterization

the breakdown of clay particles, which results in the leaching of silicon from the soil, leaving oxides of iron and aluminum to predominate throughout the soil profile.

example of species that prefer edge habitat

the bronzed cowbird is a nest parasite that reproduces by placing its eggs into the nests of other birds, allowing it to reproduce without the cost of parental care.. cowbirds spend most of their time in fields but enter the forest to find nests to parasitize. in the southern united states, an increase in edge habitat has led to an increase in cowbird abundance. increased cowbird parasitism has decreased abundance of species whose nests are parasitized

tundras

the coldest biome, characterized by a treeless expanse above permanently frozen soil (permafrost)-- upper soils thaw during brief summer growing season.. precipitation is very low, soils are acidic and nutrient poor, plants grow low to the ground to gain protection under snow and ice.. alpine tundras occur at high elevations in temperate and tropical latitudes, they have a longer growing season (CANADA)

Regional species pool

the collection of species that occurs within a region; serves a source of species of all local sites within a region

adiabatic cooling

the cooling effect of reduced pressure on air as it rises higher in the atmosphere and expands

inbreeding depression

the decrease in fitness caused by matings between close relatives due to offspring inheriting deleterious alleles from both the eggs and the sperm.

coriolis effect

the deflection of an objects path due to the rotation of the earth

example of a microhabitat

the desert iguana regulates its body temperature by basking on rocks, seeking shade, or burrowing in the ground.

declining populations in habitat patches can be sustained by

the dispersal of organisms between patches via habitat corridors

darwin termed ecology as

the economy of nature

the speed of rotation is faster at

the equator

the circumference of the planet is larger at

the equator than at the poles

geographic range

the extent of land or water in which a population lives

treatment

the factor that we want to manipulate in a study

landscape ecology

the field of study that considers the spatial arrangement of habitats at different scales and examines how they influence individuals, populations, communities and ecosystems.

osmotic potential

the force with which a solution attracts water by osmosis

adiabatic heating

the heating effect of increased pressure on air as it sinks toward the surface of Earth and decreases in volume

parent material

the layer of bedrock that underlies soil

saturation

the limit of the amount of water vapor that air can contain

composition

the makeup in terms of age, gender or genetics

individuals

the most fundamental unit of ecology-- acquire nutrients and energy and produce waste -- have a membrane boundary that separates internal processes from the external environment

ecosystem research is focused on

the movement of energy and matter b/w physical and biological components

cohesion

the mutual attraction of water molecules; allows water to move up through empty remains of xylem cells

laurasia

the northern landmass that separated from pangea ~~150 mya and split into north america, europe and asia

density

the number of individuals per unit area

this model only predicts

the number of species at equilibrium not the species composition at equilibrium.

local diversity (alpha)

the number of species in a relatively small area of homogeneous habitat such as a stream

regional (gamma)

the number of species in all of the habitats that comprise a large geographic area.

hypothesis 2

the number of species in an area reflects an equilibrium between the processes of speciation and extinction... higher number of species in the tropics results of higher speciation rates and lower extinction rates.

beta diversity

the number of species that differ in occurrence between two habitats

experimental unit:

the object to which we apply a manipulation

extinct in the wild

the only individuals remaining are in captivity

el niño souther oscillation

the periodic changes in winds and ocean currents in the south pacific, causing weather changes throughout much of the world

example of biomagnification

the pesticide DDT was used to control crops pests and mosquitos, when DDT entered water, it bound to algae and became 10x more concentrated on the algae than it was in water...through predation DDT became 276,000x more concentrated in fish-eating birds than it was in the water--lead to the decline in many predatory birds -- US banned DDT in 1972

weathering

the physical and chemical alteration of rock material near Earth's surface occurs when water penetrates to parent material and reacts with minerals

habitat

the place or physical setting where an organism lives, distinguished by physical features such as dominant plant type

matrix or matrix potential

the potential energy generated by the attractive forces between water molecules and soil particles; occurs because water molecules and soil particles have electric charges

transpiration

the process by which leaves generate water potential as water evaporates from the surfaces of leaf cells

biotic homogenization

the process by which unique species compositions originally found in different regions slowly become more similar due to the movement of people, cargo and species

species sorting

the process of sorting species in the regional pool among localities according to their adaptations and interactions

habitat between fragments

the quality of habitat between fragments (i.e. matrix habitat) helps to determine whether organisms can move between fragments

niche

the range of abiotic and biotic conditions an organism can tolerate

thermal inertia

the resistance to change in temp due to a large body volume

ecology

the scientific study of the abundance and distribution of organisms in relation to other organisms and environmental conditions

genotype

the set of genes an organism carries-- determines an organisms phenotype

pangaea

the single landmass that existed on earth ~~250 mya and subsequently split into Laurasia and Gondwana

minimum viable population

the smallest population size of a species that can persist in the face of environmental variation

gondwana

the southern landmass that separated from pangaea and split into south america, africa, antartica, and india

the surface area of an organism increases as

the square of its length (L)

low albedo of forests causes

the tropics at the equator with high temps

hadley cells

the two circulation cells of air between the equator and 30*N and 30*S latitudes

assuming that the species pool of potential colonizers is a fixed size,

then the rate of new species colonizing the island declines as a function of how many species have already colonized the island

at any given latitude

there are more species where there is greater ecological heterogeneity

some bacteria are

thermophilic (heat-loving) and can live at temperatures up to 110*C

given that the island continues to experience colonization and extinction of species

these opposing forces should result in an equilibrium point of species richness on the island S.

isozymes suited for different temperature ranges

useful for organisms that must cope with variable temperatures

smaller molecules (e.g. clay) have a larger surface area relative to their volume so that

they can hold more water but that water is held very tightly.

example of human influence

throughout the 20th century, natural fires were suppressed in yellowstone national park. in 1988 hundreds of fires were ignited by human activity and natural forces-- patterns of burning depended on landscape characteristics (e.g. amount of plant litter, wind patterns).

why do we need carotenoids

to absorb the other wavelengths (Colors)

abundance

total number of individuals

foraging decisions depend on the time needed to travel round trip to the site with resources

traveling time and

laterization occurs in

tropical and subtropical regions where soils weather to great depths.

tropical seasonal forest/ savanna

tropical: summer rainy season and winter dry season..seasonal forest, scrub or savana

warm moist air rises in the

tropics and spreads north and south

R

unaltered parent material (bedrock)

individual approach

understands how adaptations or characteristics of an individuals morphology, physiology, and behavior enable it to survive in an environment

community approach

understands the diversity and interactions of organisms living together in the same place

ocean currents distribute

unequal heating of the Earth's water and influence the location of different climates

As water moves away, cold water from ocean depths is drawn

upward

rainfall slows

upward movement of new clay particles

some plants have evolved alternative ways of obtaining nutrients..

venus fly trap and the parasitic dodder

examples of human activity

villages and farms built by the romans were abandoned by the fourth century CE. ancient building materials broke down and contributed to minerals to the soil; introduced crop species remained in the landscape.. recently researchers found that sites closer to settlements had high soil pH, more phosphorous and greater species richness

example of adaptation to enemies

virginia peperweed is eaten by herbivores, the plant develops leaf hairs (trichomes) and gluocosinolate compounds that make the leaves difficult to consume

tropical rainforests

warm and rainy with multiple layers of lush vegetation (30-40m trees) with an understory containing smaller trees, shrubs, epiphytes and vines. highest species diversity, organic matter decomposes quickly, and vegetation rapidly takes up nutrients, soils are devoid of humus and clay and retain nutrients very poorly (emergent layer, canopy, understory, shrub layer, ground layer)

temperate rain forest

warm temp, occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum. temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost sensitive

tropical seasonal forests/ savannas

warm temps and pronounced wet and dry seasons, dominated by deciduous trees that she leaves during the dry season, savannas have long dry periods and contain grasses and occasional trees. fires and grazing maintain savannas...soils do not hold nutrients but the warm climate favors rapid decomposition and fast growth (AFRICA AND COLOMBIA)

photosynthetically active region

wavelengths of light that are suitable for photosynthesis; includes wavelengths from 400nm (violet) to 700 nm (red) i.e. visible light

humans consume massive amounts of energy and resources and produce large amounts of

waste

animals acquire mineral ions in the

water and food they consume

cold regions with high rainfall is rare because

water does not evaporate at low temps

mammal species richness also increases to the

west--due to the heterogeneity of the mountains probably

this allows warm water to pile up in the

western pacific while upwelling of colder water occurs in the eastern pacific

example of a regulating service

wetlands absorb water and prevent flooding during rainy periods; wetland plants remove contaminants from water, which makes it more suitable for drinking

predation

when an organism kills and consumes an individual

dynamic steady state

when gains and losses are in balance

historic climate change

when oceans extended from the tropics to polar areas, currents distributed heat more eveny and temperate climates could be found closer to the poles. based on fossil evidence, large portions of north america and europe once had tropical climates that reached into russia and canada. the antarctic land connection between south america and australia supported temperate vegetation and abundant animal life. as antartica drifted over the south pole and as north america and eurasia encircle the northern polar ocean, the subsequent creation of a circumpolar ocean current around antarctica caused cooler temps at higher latitudes

herbivory

when one organism consumes producers

parasitism

when one organism lives in or on another organism

ocean surface currents propelled by

winds

do continents float?

yes

A2

zone of leaching