BIL 330 Exam 1
kim bostwick
manocan-- how are the birds behaving how are they making that noise-- sound comes from wing tips--
the separation and joining of continents established six distinct biogeography regions that contain unique groups of organisms
neurotic, neotropical, afrotropical, palearctic, indomalayan, australian
clay is
negatively charged and attracts positive ions such as Ca2+ and K+
Permutation importance
randomizes the values associated with the environmental variable in question and measures the resulting drop in AUC
and ___ in wet warm zone
rapid
example of a provisioning service
taxol: more than 1.5 billion dollars in annual sales and more than 800 pharmaceutical chemicals have been derived from natural origins
blood shunting
when specific blood vessels shut off so less of animals warm blood flows to cold extremities where heat would be lost
condensation
when the temperature of saturated air decreases
competition
when two organisms that depend on the same resource have a negative effect on each other (-/- interaction)
mutualism
when two species benefit from each other (+/+)
commensalism
when two species live in close association and one receives a benefit, where as the other is unaffected (+/0)
precipitation
when vapor content exceeds saturation, water condenses to liquid or ice
manipulative experiments
where a hypothesis is tested by altering a factor hypothesized to be the cause of a phenomenon
summer
northern hemisphere tilts toward the sun
C
weakly altered material resembling plant material
(community) boundaries
are not always rigid and may cover small or large areas
ecosystem boundaries
are often not distinct
the means of two treatments may be identical
but the variance around those means can be very different
most plants are
c3 plants
biomagnification
the process by which the concentration of a contaminant increases as it moves up the food chain
how many species have received latin names?
1.3
predation, parasitism and herbivory are all
(+/- interactions)
end of mesozoic
(65 mya) south america separate from africa
Potential evapotranspiration
(PET) the amount of water that could be evaporated from the soil and transpired by plants given the average temperature and humidity; provides and overall index of energy input into the environment
ultraviolet light
(UV) shorter wavelength energy (<400nm)
hyperosmotic
(freshwater fish) tissue solute concentrations are higher than surrounding water-- excrete water and retain / intake solutes
hyposmotic
(saltwater fish) tissue solute concentrations are lower than surrounding water (retain/ intake water) and excrete solutes
biodiversity hotspots
1.4% of total land area, but 44% of plants and 35% of terrestrial vertebrates
most life processes occur within the temperature range of liquid water
0-100*C
across many different groups of organisms, the slope (z) ranges from
0.2 to 0.35 across scales of 1m^2 to the area of an entire country
the united nations convention on biological diversity estimates that the extinction rate over the past 50 years is
1,000 times historic rate
examples of constraints
1. linear (mean) 2. quadratic (variance) 3. product (covariance) 4. threshold (proportion)
Cost-Benefit Evalutation
1/1000 in annual gross world product to protect ~70% of species
sumatran tiger territory
1/2 the size of NYC
how many new species are described each year
15,000
How much money is estimated to go to ecosystem services?
150 trillion a year
example of overharvesting
1500 years ago, the arrival of humans on madagascar caused the extinction of 14 lemur species and 6 to 12 species of large flightless birds
example of fragmentation
1940, forests of costa rica covered much of the country- as human populations increased, forests were cleared. today, forests that exist in many small fragments
fourth mass extinction
200 mya: hypotheses for this extinction include volcanic activity, asteroid collisions and climate change
second mass extinction
359 mya much of the ocean lacked oxygen
third mass extinction
248 mya: causes are uncertain.. 96% of all species went extinct
collapsed fisheries occur in more than
25% of species assess of the coast of the northeastern U.S.
air cools and sinks at
30*N or S and returns to tropics at surface
elephants-- how far do they go? where do they hangout? what is their role?
40 miles, fruiting trees and openings, mining them for minerals, they are the forest engineers in shaping the jungle and distributing seeds
visible light
400nm (violet) to 700nm (red)
first mass extinction
443 mya most species lived in the oceans; an ice age caused sea levels to drop and ocean chemistry to change
how many mass extinctions in the past 500 million years?
5
only about ___ % of introduced species become established in a new region
5%
how many are left in the wild and how many have been seen?
500 and idk
how much heat is needed for evaporation?
500cal/g
which drive polar cells
60-90*N and S
fifth mass extinction
65 mya volcanic eruptions generated cold weather, followed by an asteroid impact in the yucatan peninsula-- dust from the asteroid impact blocked the sun's rays, making earth much less hospitable to dinosaurs and many other groups
ocean water near the equator expands as it warms, causing water to be
8 cm higher in elevator
how much heat removal is required to freeze water?
80cal/g
oceans and lakes cover
81% of southern hemisphere and 61% of northern hemisphere
recognizes
9 zones from equatorial (tropical rainforest) to polar (tundra)
at equilibrium there is
A continuous turnover of species, resulting in a temporarily variable species composition
plants convert blank and blank into organic molecules
CO2 and water
water dissolves soluble minerals and replaces elements with
H+ ions derived from carbonic acid and in the later and decomposition of organic material
what are the most prevalent greenhouse gases?
H20 and CO2,,, also N2O (nitrous oxide) and methane (CH4) and ozone O3
infrared
IR longer wavelength energy (>700nm)
volume increases as the cube of
L
What does our teacher study?
Microbial plant biology
example of hibernation
chipmunks slow breathing and heart rates down and reduce body temp to close to 0*C
prokaryotes can utilize sources of energy that most other organisms cannot such as
N2 and H2S gas
equation for species area curve
S=cA^z where c and z are constants to fit the data
phenotypic plasticity
a single genotype can produce multiple phenotypes
what is one of the most widely used anti cancer drugs (biomedical contributions)
Taxol --- comes from an endophytic fungus
fungi is more closely related to animals than plants?
True
phenotypic trade-off
a given phenotype experiences higher fitness in one environment, whereas other phenotypes experience higher fitness in other environments
thermohaline ciruclation
a global pattern of surface- deep water currents that flow as a result of variations in temperature and salinity that change the density of water
species area curve
a graphical relationship in which increases in area (A) are associated with increases in the number of species (S)
in palo verde national park in costa rica
a beautiful tropical birds and monkey generate ecotourism
boreal forests
a biome densely populated by evergreen needle-leaved trees, with a short growing season and severe winters. litter decomposes slowly and accumulates, forming the largest reservoir of organic carbon on Earth. soils are acidic and podsolized. species diversity is low, but the biome is a major source of lumber and paper (ALASKA)
natural selection
a change in the frequency of genes in a population through differential survival and reproduction of individuals that possess certain phenotypes
evolution
a change in the genetic composition of a population over time
if you were born after 1977 you have yet to live through
a colder than average year or less than 30 years old
dormancy
a condition in which organisms dramatically reduce their metabolic processes (4 types of dormancy)
instrumental value of biodiversity
a focus on the economic value a species can provide (e.g. the value of lumber and crops)-- many species remain undiscovered so the value of species and ecosystems can be difficult to estimate
intrinsic value of biodiversity
a focus on the inherent value of a species, not tied to any economic benefit--preserve the worlds species-- difficult to prioritize conservation efforts based on intrinsic value
legacy effects
a long-lasting influence of historical processes on the current ecology of an area
atmospheric processes tend to have
a longer duration than marine processes
variance of the mean
a measurement indicating the spread of data around a mean after measuring al members of a population
leaching
a process in which groundwater removes some substance by dissolving them and moving them down to lower soil layers
podsolization
a process occurring in acid soils typical of cool moist regions where clay particles break down in the E horizon and soluble ions are transported down to the lower B horizon
rain shadow
a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side
randomization
a requirement for manipulation experiments, every experimental unit must have an equal chance of being assigned to a particular treatment
example of species sorting
a researcher sowed seeds of 20 wetland plant species in artificial wetlands that varied in features such as soil fertility and flooding rate; only certain species from the regional pool survived under each wetland combination
equilibrium theory of island biogeography
a theory stating that the number of species on an island reflects a balance between the colonization of new species and the extinction of existing species
control
a treatment that includes all aspects of an experiment except the factor of interest
sample variance
a value similar to that of the variance of the mean but it accounts for how many samples of the population were measured (n)
severe el nino events occur irregularly
about once ever 10-12 years
habitat types overlap and
absolute distinctions rarely exist
chlorofluorocarbons, unnatural at low concentrations but
absorb more infrared radiation and persist in the atmosphere for hundreds of years
chlorophyll
absorbs red and violet light --reflects green and blue
species that prefer edge habitat increase in
abundance when fragmentation occurs
fungi secrete
acids and enzymes to digest food internally
ultimate hypothesis
address the fitness costs and benefits of a response (rhizobia increase plant fitness/ reproduction)
proximate hypotheses
addresses the cause of immediate changes in individual phenotypes or interactions (rhizobia increase nitrogen levels)
constraints
make the value of a certain statistic over the predicted probability distribution close to the value observed for that statistic over the set of known presences
increased concentration of CH4, N2O due to
agriculture, landfills, and fossil fuel combustion
Biosphere
all ecosystems on Earth- distinct ecosystems are linked together by exchange of wind and water and by the movement of organisms
soil
altered material that overlies bedrock
reducing the harvest of a declining species often increases its abundance
although some species can take a long time to recover (elephant seals)
natural experiments
an approach to hypothesis testing that relies on natural variation in the environment to test a hypothesis
phenotype
an attribute of an organism (e.g. behavior, morphology)
adaptation
an environmentally induced change across generations-- slow slow fluctuations favor slow responses
acclimation
an environmentally induced change in individual's physiology...very rapid-- rapid environmental fluctuations favor rapid responses--reversible-- olympians train at high altitudes
homeostasis
an organisms ability to maintain constant internal conditions in the face of a varying external environment
example of fragment edges
an unfragmented piece of land with an area of 1 ha has a total edge length of 400m..the same area divided into 16 smaller square habitats has a total edge length of 1600m.
upwelling
an upward movement of ocean water
in general, warm tropical water circulates up along western reaches of ocean basins toward poles,
and cold polar water circulates down along eastern reaches.
difference in solar radiation due to?
angle of the sun striking the earth, depth of the atmosphere that the energy passes through, seasonal changes in the position of the earth relative to the sun
when water is scarce,
animals exhibit numerous adaptations
another example
arctic hare
animals accumulate fat or cache food supplies
as a reserve of energy for periods of harsh weather when food is inaccessible
defining hotspots
at least 1500 endemic plant species and 70% or more habitat loss .. initially 25 hotspots then 35 and now 2016 new hotspot!!
mean
average observation values for a treatment
Boreal and temperate climate zones
average temps below 5*C.. boreal forest (taiga) develops between 5*C and -5*C.. tundra develops at temps below -5*C
gravity pulls the higher water
away from the equator
prokaryotes
bacteria and archaea
currents causing upwelling reverse during el nino resulting in
barren
why did this occur
because habitat features (e.g. resource types) were heterogenous among streams and different birds preferred different habitat characteristics
whittakers biome scheme
begins with vegetation types, places these on a graph of mean annual temperature and precipitation...finds a triangular area with corners representing following conditions: warm -moist, warm-dry and cool dry
organisms must exhibit
behavior to acquire or remove solutes to maintain the proper concentrations of water and solutes
foraging is a plastic behavior because different feeding strategies represent different
behavioral phenotypes
replication
being able to produce a similar outcome multiple times (i.e. the number of experimental units per treatment.
the naturally occurring greenhouse effect is
beneficial
supporting services
benefits of biodiversity that allow ecosystems to exist (e.g. primary production, soil formation, nutrient cycling)
Provisioning services:
benefits of biodiversity that humans use, including lumber, fur, meat, crops, water and fiber.
regulating services
benefits of biodiversity that include climate regulation, flood control and water pollution
cultural services
benefits of biodiversity that provide aesthetic, spiritual or recreational value (e.g. hiking, camping)
since large areas can support large populations with low extinction rates... setting aside a single large area will
better protect biodiversity than will several small areas
Ecological systems:
biological entities that have their own internal processes and interact with their external surroundings
Since deep water tends to be high in nutrients, upwelling zones are often areas of high
biological productivity
detritivores
break down dead organic matter (i.e. detritus) into smaller particles
decomposers
break down detritus into simpler elements that can be recycled
rainfall increases plant production and
breaks down parent material
example of adaptation for resources
burnese python doubles the length of its intestine to accommodate the extra tissue
species reintroductions from captivity
california condors-- took away their eggs so they would reproduce more and then put them back into habitat
mixotrophs
can switch between being producers and consumers
biomes
categories that group communities by dominant plant forms
alternating periods of cooling and warming caused the advance and retreat of ice sheets over north america
caused the composition of plant species to change as species and migrated back and forth across the landscape (trees go north) -- using pollen from soil cores to determine tree movement
adaptations to salinity
change the osmotic potential of the body fluids by synthesizing large quantities of organic solutes
thermal pollution
changing the temperature of an environment via human discharges (e.g. effluent from nuclear power plants)
dry climate
characterized by low precipitation and a wide range of temperatures
polar climate
characterized by very cold temps and relatively little precipitation
moist subtropical mid latitude climate
characterized by warm dry summers and cold wet winters
tropical climate
characterized by warm temps and high precipitation
glycerol and glycoproteins
chemicals present in some animals that prevent freezing by reducing the strength of hydrogen bonds or via super cooling (coating of ice seeds)
this produces insoluble materials such as
clay
human influence on ecological systems
climate change, over harvesting of resources, pollution, habitat destruction
large scale spatial variation
climate, land topography, and soil
constrained by basin configuration
clockwise: in northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in southern hemisphere
reserves also need to be
close enough to allow dispersal but far enough to reduce dispersal of diseases and parasites
more insects recolonized islands
closer to the mainland and species richness of islands was similar to values before fumigation
boreal
cold temps with cool summers and long winters, evergreen, frost-hardy needle leaved forest (taiga)
concentration of CO2 has increased over the past two centuries due to
combustion of fossil fuels
green house gases
compounds in the atmosphere that absorb infrared heat energy emitted by Earth and then emit some of the energy back toward Earth. High amounts of these gases can increase average Earth temperatures
focuses on
conditions of moisture and temperature stress that determine plant form
humans act as ecosystem engineers by
constructing buildings, dams, irrigation channels, etc.
scavengers
consume dead animals
islands of similar size, but closer
contained more bird species than far islands
temperate grassland
continental, arid with warm or hot summers and cold winters, grasslands and temperate deserts
producers
convert chemical energy into resources
sea surface temper:
cool upwelling waters are purple
result
cooling and drying trend at high altitudes
example of risk-sensitive
creek chub feed on worms but with worms comes predators...past a certain threshold of resource abundance, creek chub will risk feeding in an area with predators, below that threshold creek chub avoid areas with predators
how does roman dial get from the top on one tree to another in borneo?
cross bow
current habitat heterogeneity is a reflection of ___ and ___ events caused by ___ and ___ forces
current habitat heterogeneity is a reflection of recent and historical events caused by natural and human forces
upwelling occurs in locations along continents where surface
currents move away from the coastline
the relationship between species richness and area is
curvilinear when area and species are plotted on a regular scale and linear when plotted on log scales
example of fragment size effects
damming of large river in venezuela created islands of varying sizes. predators on small islands quickly went extinct because there were not enough herbivore prey to sustain populations. increased herbivore abundance on small islands led to an increase in tree mortality and a decrease in tree recruitment.
who suggested that such an insect might exist?
darwin 150 years ago--no one believed darwin that this moth existed
zika mosquito
day active... prefer associations with humans
O
dead organic matter
temperate seasonal rainforests have
deciduous trees (maple, beech, oak)
Declines in genetic diversity can be caused by
declining population sizes, inbreeding depression, and the bottleneck effect
many fungi are
decomposers
high albedo of snow at the poles cures
decrease in temp
global patterns: from the equator towards the poles
decreasing temp and decreasing precipitation
example hermaphroditic common pond snail
delays egg-laying if mates are unavailable. self-fertilizing snails lay fewer eggs
ecosystem approach
describes the storage and transfer of energy and matter
examples
desert kangaroo rat conserves water by hunting during the night and staying below ground during the day. also has larger kidneys that permit increased water retention
why do we need ecological understanding
develop public policy, manage environmental support systems -- agricultural lands, wetland,s forests, solve or prevent environmental problems.
example of a niche
different species of insects prefer to feed on different crop species that may be growing in the same field
why does the angle of the sun matter
direct path means a lot of solar energy, right angle covers less space is heated, oblique angle more space is covered and therefore heated
solutes
dissolved substances in water
horizons
distinct levels of soil
fire shapes vegetation toward
drier end
after
drifting continents impeded the circulation of oceans
el niño also favors
drought conditions in indonesia and australia.
consequences of severe el ninos
drought in south america, africa and australia, increased precipitation outside of tropics and disruption of fisheries and seabird populations (upwelling nutrients stops)
glacial advances
drove temperate species southward-- restricted tropical species to isolated refugee
under average conditions the trade winds blow from
east to west across the tropical pacific
coriolis effects and prevailing trade winds push surface water
east to west in the N and west to east in the S
environments dominated by humans (e.g. cities and farms) are also
ecological systems; humans depend on the proper functioning of these systems
steve blake and mombellami and mike are studying what?
elephants-- tracking to see where the elephants go using a satellite location of a collar on the elephants
marine iguana
eliminates salt in their drinking water through specialized salt secreting organs
energy gain per unit time =
energy benefit/ handling time
tropical rain forest
equatorial, always moist and lacking temperate seasonality. evergreen tropical rainforest
example of legacy effect
eskers: remnants of streams of water that flowed inside glaciers, as the streams flowed, they deposited soil and rock on the stream bed.-- after the glaciers melted, the streams appeared as long, winding hills
deeper currents
established by gradients of temperature and salinity
protists
eukaryotes that include some protozoa, some algae, and slime molds-- some protists can grow very large and look like plants (kelp)
mass extinction events
events in which at least 75% of the existing species go extinct within a 2 million year period
temperate rainforests have
evergreen forests (coast red wood and douglas fir)
biosphere approach
examines movements of energy and chemicals over the Earth's surface
population approach
examines variation in the number, density, and composition of individuals over time and space
moist continental mid latitude climate
exists in the interior of continents and is characterized by warm summers, cold winters and moderate rain
longer intestines can help
extract more nutrients from ingested food
many plants have roots to
extract water from soil or air
some habitats in the matrix may contain
favorable conditions for dispersal, whereas other might be inhospitable
hot
few living things survive temperatures in excess of 45*C
jeremy and gavin
first clear record of the tiger in its jungle habitat
this includes the
flow of material from "pools" of elements, such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen
central place foraging
foraging behavior in which acquired food is brought to a central place (e.g. a nest with young birds)
risk sensitive foraging
foraging behavior that is influenced by the presence of predators
glacial retreat (18,000ya)
forest trees in eastern N.A. migrated back north
albedo
fraction of solar energy reflected by an object
effects of fragment edges
fragmentation causes an increase in the amount of habitat compared to the original unfragmented habitat.
effects of fragment size
fragmentation decreases habitat area and increases patch number, edge size, and isolation
human activities have caused widespread
fragmentation of large habitats throughout the world
cold
freezing is generally harmful to cells and tissues
examples of habitats
freshwater, marine, coastal, streams, forests, deserts, grasslands
geographic distribution of biomes correspond closely to
major climate zones
bat food:
fruit, nectar, insects, fish, frogs, lizards, mice
how does this influence the animals like the draco flying lizard
gliding is the best way to move through the forest
climate diagrams
graphs that plot the average monthly temperature and precipitation of a specific location on Earth-- plant growth is constrained by temperature when the temperature line goes below the precipitation line and vice versa
fire favors
grasses and forms over woody plants
example of phenotypic plasticity
gray tree frog tadpoles produce a phenotype that allows fast escape when predators are present and fast growth when predators are absent
the eastern pacific water temperature rises and there is
greater precipitation in the eastern pacific and sometimes flooding in south american countries (peru)
high chlorophyll concentrations in
green and yellow
example of local and regional diversity
in a survey of birds along 27 streams in vermont, researchers found that each stream supported ~17 species (alpha) whereas the combination of streams supported 101 species (gamma)
species richness often increases from the local to landscape scale because
habitat diversity increases along this gradient
human activity causes
habitat heterogeneity
most animals do not consume a single food item and base their diet decisions on
handling time and energetic and nutritional value of various resources
Congo, massive bat migrations were studying using
heat sensitive cameras
consumers
heterotrophs obtain their energy from other organisms
currents causing upwelling are strengthen by La nina resulting in
high concentrations of chlorophyll (lots of nutrients)
islands nearer to source habitat should have
higher colonization rates
smaller islands should have
higher extinction rates
mutualists that support multiple partners will have
higher fitness than will specialists
nailing nadkarni
hot air baloon
temperate grassland / cold desert
hot dry summers and cold winters dominated by grasses and non-woody flowering plants and drought-adapted shrubs.. prairies, pampas, steppes. tall grass prairies occur in areas with high rainfall.. soils are low in acidity and high in nutrients...unproductive cold desserts when precipitation is really low (COLORADO AND WASHINGTON)
woodlands/ scrublands
hot dry summers and mild wet winters a combination that factors the growth of drought-tolerant grasses and shrubs. mediterranean climate. chaparral. 12 month growing seasons, but dry summers and cold winters limit plant growth. dominated by sclerophyllous vegetation which has small and durable leaves that resist desiccation (CALIFORNIA AND CAPE REGION SOUTH AFRICA)
subtropical deserts
hot temps, scarce rainfall, short growing season, sparse vegetation, associated with dry descending air of hadley cells.. soils are shallow and devoid of organic matter and neutral in pH. moister sites allow cacti, shrubs and small trees (MEXICO AND ARIZONA)
overharvesting
human technology has allowed us to harvest species at more rapid rates and drive some species to extinction
A1
humus rich
desert kangeroo
hunts during the night and stays grounded during the day.. also has larger kidneys that permit increased water retention
hypotheses
ideas that potentially explain a repeated
example of storage plant
in habitats that frequently burn, perennial plants store food in fire-resistant root crowns that send up new shoots after fires
example
in mammals the hypothalamus triggers increased metabolic when body temperature is below 37*C and sweating when body temp is above
adaptations to water availability
in response to scarce water, plants will close their stomata or adjust their relative allocations of energy and material to grow longer roots
example
in the southwestern U.s. 26 species of mammals prefer to live in mountaintop habitats.. researchers questioned how mountaintop size and isolation from source habitat affect species richness...more species on larger and less isolated mountaintops
example:
income from tourists can exceed what would be received from clearing a forest or using land for housing or industry
corridors
increase gene flow and genetic diversity
Percent contribution -
increase in likelihood associated with constraints based on the environmental variable in question
sixth mass extinction
increases in human population during the past 10,000 years has initiated a sixth mass extinction event
separation of continents allowed species to
independently evolve in different regions of the earth; joining of continents allowed groups of organisms unique to one land mass move into new ares
population
individuals of the same species living in a particular area
hibernation
individuals reduce the energetic costs of being active by lowering heart rate and decreasing the body temperatures; common in mammals
species
individuals that are capable of interbreeding or share genetic similarities
hermaphrodites
individuals that produce both male and female gametes, individuals are able to fertilize their own eggs with their own sperm (self compatible)
three requirements of natural selection
individuals vary in their traits, traits are hereditable, variation in traits causes some individuals to experience higher finess (survival and reproduction)
climate indirectly affects the distribution of plants and animals through its
influence on the development of soil
what kind of technology does jersey use
infrared cameras
what kind of technology is decries using for the moth?
infrared light
example of diapause
insects facing draught conditions by dehydrating themselves. some form an impermeable outer layer to prevent further dessication
human activity has influenced the
intensity, frequency, and ecological influence of natural forces.
diapause
involves a partial or complete physiological shutdown in response to unfavorable conditions; common in insects
photosynthesis occurs in two steps
known as the light reactions and the calvin cycle
solar energy is absorbed differently in
land, water and latitude, and is redistributed by winds and ocean currents
gyres
large scale water circulation pattern between continents
fires create habitat heterogeneity at
large spatial scales.. and small spatial scales
when temperature varies it is easier for a ___ animal to maintain a constant internal temp
larger
since heat transfer occurs across an organisms surface area
larger individuals lose and gain heat less rapidly then smaller individuals
later mesozoic
laurasia and gondwana (144 mya)
soil processes
leaching, weathering, podsolization, lateralization
example of mutualism?
legumes and rhizobia or mycorrizhal fungi or honey bees that pollinate flowers in return for nectar
among habitats with similar levels of productivity...
less heterogeneous habitats will support fewer species
terrestrial animals with internalized gas exchange surfaces are
less vulnerable to respiratory water loss than plants
terrestrial animals, with internalized gas exchange surfaces are
less vulnerable to respiratory water loss than plants
young soils have
less weather, fewer cations and are less fertile
what is the primary source of energy for the biosphere?
light
equatorial and tropical climate zones
located within 20* of the equator..daily temp variation exceeds monthly variation through the year.. environments are largely distinguished by differences in the seasonal pattern of rainfall. frost is not a factor. plants and animals cannot tolerate freezing
microhabitats
locations within a habitat that differ in environmental conditions from the rest of the habitats
what is another way to solve it
log S = log c + z log A (an equation for a line with a y intercept of log c and a slope of z)
shallow roots are able to take up water after brief rainfall events
long roots can access deeper waters
processes that affect large areas also tend to last
longer
B
low organic matter, decomposition of clays
water does not evaporate at blank temperatures
low temps
cold atmosphere has
low water vapor
oceans have increased species richness at
lower latitudes (highest at the tropics and lowest near the poles)
example of matrix habitat
many butterflies feed in meadows and disperse between meadows through matrix habitats. researchers in colorado questioned whether butterflies preferred to disperse through matrix habitats containing willow thickets or through coniferous forests... four of the six groups were 3 to 12 times more likely to disperse through willow thicket habitats than through coniferous forests
example
many reptiles, bask, which is the behavior of lying flat against the ground to gain heat by conduction and solar radiation.
what kind of data is he gathering and what does he use it for
map of the jungle to make a physical make up of the jungle using laser beams
North American Coastal Plain Hotspot
massachusetts to Florida keys and west to Mexico
first law of thermodynamics
matter and energy cannot be created or destroyed but can change form
competition for resources
may spend more time looking for food or alter their digestive morphology
osmoregulation
mechanisms organisms use to maintain a proper solute balance
woodland/shrubland
mediterranean: winter rainy season and summer drought, shrubs and woodlands
semipermeable membranes
membranes that allow only particular molecules to pass through; reduces free movement of solutes
temperate rainforests
mild temps, abundant precipitation, evergreen forests...warmer conditions are due to nearby ocean currents.. in N.A. these forests are dominated by coast redwood and douglas fir 60-70m tall low species diversity (CALIFORNIA)
soils are comprised of
minerals from the parent material, organic material from plants, water, air, living plant roots, microorganisms, and decomposing organisms
temperate seasonal rainforests
moderate temp and precipitation conditions dominated by deciduous trees. conditions fluctuate because forests are not near warm ocean currents, precipitation exceeds transpiration.. soils are podsolized, slightly acidic and support a layer of small plants beneath the dominant trees, warmer drier parts of the biome are dominated by pines (NEW YORK AND MASS)
grassland and shrub biomes where
moisture is intermediate (sufficient productivity for fuels to accumulate) and seasonal droughts occur (fuels dry out sufficiently enough to burn)
Growing season:
months that are warm enough to allow plant growth (i.e. temp >0*C)
shorter wavelengths contain
more energy
how does the SE asian forest differ from neotropical forests
more open space between trees
larger islands contain
more species
as more species colonize the island,
more species are subject to possible extinction due to chance and negative interactions (e.g. competition, predation, parasitism).
at sites further away, birds should spend
more time searching for food and bring back more food to offset the extra travel time
phil devries is searching for an insect in madagascar
moth
continental drift:
movement of landmasses across Earth's surface
osmosis
movement of water across a semi permeable membrane...to equalize solute concentrations in different locations
boundaries can be
natural (e.g. forest edges) or political (e.g. state lines)
experimental units may be
natural (e.g. lakes) or artificial (e.g. microcosm) and may vary in size by several orders of magnitude
habitat heterogeneity
natural forces (e.g. tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, mudslides and fires) continue to cause habitat heterogeneity
can two species have the same niche?
no because each has unique phenotypes that determine the conditions it can tolerate
why wasn't NACP recognized sooner
no lists of endemic taxa, seems flat, coastal and low in elevation,
during past 2 my
no more gradual cooling instead violent oscillations (ice age)
since resources vary in space and time
no single foraging strategy can maximize an animals fitness
in the northern hemisphere species richness of most animal and plant groups increase from
north to south
winter
northern hemisphere tilts away from the sun
temperate seasonal forest
numeral: moderate climate with winter freezing, frost resistant, deciduous temperate forest
the scientific method
observations, hypothesis, test the hypothesis
50- 20 mya
oceans extended from polar to tropical regions: warmer polar climates
ecosystem
one or more communities of living organisms interacting with their non-living physical and chemical environments
other examples?
organisms that do not have access to freshwater (e.g. marine iguana) eliminate the salt in their drinking water through specialized salt-secreting organs
poikilotherms
organisms that do not have constant body temperatures
endotherms
organisms that generate metabolic heat to raise body temp higher than the external environment
homeotherms
organisms that maintain constant temperature, this allows biochemical reactions to work most efficiently
phenotypic plasticity allows
organisms to achieve homeostasis if environmental conditions vary
ectotherms
organisms with body temps determined by their external environment (not necessarily poikilotherms)
eukaryotes
organisms with distinct organelles
how to solve problem of road construction through forest?
overhead corridors (like a bridge) with surfaces of soil and vegetation
bacteria increased the abundance of
oxygen in the atmosphere, allowing other plants and animals to survive
early mesozoic era
pangea (200mya))
cyanobacteria can
photosynthesize
nutrients are important for
phytoplankton which are the primary producers that provide food for animals (e.g. birds, fish, and mammals)
corridors can be
pieces of persevered habitat or they can be constructed for the specific purpose of allowing species dispersal
chlorophylls and carotenoids are
pigments inside the thylakoids that absorb light
podsolization often occurs when
plant material is broken down slowly which produces acidic soils
and many fungi are
plant mutualists
small scale variation
plant structure and animal behavior
example of commensalism
plants (burdock) that containing fruits that have tiny barbs that stick to animals receives the benefit of the seeds being dispersed while the animal is unharmed
matrix potential decreases as
plants extract more water from the soil-- past 1.5 map, known as the wilting point, most plants cannot extract more water.
adaptations to enemies
plants have the ability to respond to the presence of herbivores
for every 10*C in temperature
plants require an additional 20mm of monthly precipitation
tundra
polar: very short cool summers and very long very cold winters. low evergreen vegetation, without trees and growing over permanently frozen soils.
warm tropical waters carry heat
poleward
community
populations of species living together in a particular are
countercurrent circulation also helps to conserve heat by
positioning arteries that carry warm blood away from the heart alongside veins that carry chilled blood from the extremities back to the heart
consequences for ecological processes
positions influence climate and barriers to dispersal are dynamic
mycorrizhal fungi and rhizobia have a blank effect on plant size
positive effect
the number of species found in a given location is
positively correlated to the amount of solar energy and precipitation
PET often
positively correlates with species richness but eventually plateaus as increasing temp becomes a stressor
communities include many types of interactions such as
predation and competition
combining the effects of island area and isolation revelas
predictions regarding S
photosynthesis
process of combining CO2, H2O and solar energy to produce glucose (C6H12O6) -- 6CO2 + 6H20 + photons --> C6H12O6 + 6O2
nitrogen balance
produce metabolic by-products that can accumulate in higher concentrations than NH3 because that is mildly toxic. -- producing these compounds conserves the water that is needed to remove excess nitrogen, but they are energetically costly to make.
what were the first organisms?
prokaryotes or single-celled bacteria and archaea without distinct organelles
a predator should always eat the prey species that
provides the highest amount of energy gained per unit time
during el nino, the trade winds
relax in the central and eastern pacific and upwelling of colder water from below is inhibited
animals
rely on the consumption of other organisms for resources
mathematical models
representations of a system with a set of equations that correspond to hypothesized relationships among the system's components
patterns of diversity exist at the global scales
richness is highest near the tropics and declines toward the poles
example of human fragmentation of habitats
road construction through forests
example of an adaptation to salinity
rocky tidal pools receive seawater from the splash of high waves. as water dries, salinity increases. in response, the copepod tigriopus synthesizes amino acids...this is costly; during synthesis respiration rate declines to conserve energy, and then increases as salinity decreases to break down amino acids
while desert vegetation is less productive than marsh vegetation, the greater heterogeneity of the desert landscapes provides
room for more species of plants
plants may store nutrients and energy in their
roots
the benefits and disadvantages of edge habitat must be considered;
round areas have less edge-to-area ratios than rectangular areas
equation for sample variance
s^2 = n/ n-1 x (E[X^2] - E[X]^2)
jeremy is the
scientist and gavin is the camera man
ice melting leads to
sea level rise and loss of low-lying land areas
the time spent obtaining food at a site
searching time
drives
secondary temperate cells (30-60* N and S of equator)
example of introduced species
sewer vine introduced in south florida ornaments often escape cultivation, invade forests form dense blankets over the forest canopy...native plants cannot grow in the unnaturally dense shade
structural adaptations (plants)
shallow roots, to take up water long roots to access deep water rains and waxy cuticles to protect plants from direct sunlight and slow water loss spines and hairs provide protection and produce a boundary layer of still air that traps moisture and reduces evaporation. small leaves with high density of veins prevent loss of leaf tissue via embolisms, or air bubbles in views, which are common in water stressed environments.
what is the equation?
sigma ^2 = sum of (X^2) - E(X)^2
the effects of patch size and isolation are
similar across multiple types of habitats
the biome concept
similar dominant plant forms occur under similar conditions
energy-diversity hypothesis
sites with higher amounts of energy are able to support more species and higher abundances of individual species. higher energy inputs may accelerate evolution and speciation rates
thus formation
slow in arid zone
stepping stones
small intervening habitat patches that dispersing organisms can use to move between large favorable habitats; useful for flying organisms that do not need continuous corridors to disperse
stepping stones
small intervening habitat patches that disposing organisms can use to move between large favorable habitats; useful for flying organisms that do not need continuous corridors to disperse
small habitats have
small populations which are more likely to go extinct
higher angle =
smaller area
greenhouse effect
solar radiation striking earth, concerted to infrared radiation and being absorbed and re-emitted by atmospheric gases
example
some archaebacteria can live in hot springs at temperatures up to 110*C
increase in the average temp on earth
some may become colder some regions may become up to 4*C warmer
because of this cost,
some species wait until self-fertilization becomes the last chance for reproduction
chloroplasts
specialized cell organelles found in eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms
hypothesis 1
species are continually created over time and without limit; because tropical regions have not experienced glaciation... these areas have had more time to accumulate species
threatened
species at high risk of extinction
near-threatened
species likely to become threatened in the future
theory of island biogeography
species richness increases with island area, and islands closer to the mainland appeared to receive more colonizing species
least-concern
species with abundant populations
chloroplasts contain
stacks of membranes (thylakoids) surrounded by fluid filled space (stroma)
topography affects small scale climate
steep slopes typically drain well, leading to dry conditions. bottomlands moist supporting riparian forests, even in arid lands. in N hemisphere, south-facing slopes are warmer and drier than north-facing slopes
cromwell currents
stirs ocean on west side of galapagos and brings cool nutrient-rich water up
late tertiary
stratification of temperate and tropical biotas
Example of beta diversity
stream A contains five species not found in stream B and stream B contains three species not found in stream A, the beta diversity is 8
Florida
sub-tropical hammocks in keys, pine rocklands (N.A. most threatened habitats),. florida scrub
subtropical desert
subtropical (hot deserts) highly seasonal, arid climate..desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface
jeremy holden and gavin thurston
sumatran tiger
why would it be such a big deal to get a picture of this animal in the wild?
sumatran tiger is endangered
spring and fall
sun aims directly at equator
root pressure
when osmotic potential in the roots of a plant draws in water from the soiled forces it into the xylem; can raise water to ~20m
temperate zone is characterized by
temps between 5-20*C at low elevations with frost throughout the zone: found between 30*N and 45*N in N.A. and between 40* N and 60*N in Europe. biomes are differentiated by: total amounts and seasonality of precipitation and length of frost-free season or growing season
ectotherms
tend to be organisms with low metabolic rates or small body sizes (reptiles, amphibians, insects) -- they can adjust their temp behaviorally by changing their orientation with the sun, adjusting their contact with warm substrates, or moving in and out of shade
many fungi have hyphae
that extract nutrients from dead or living tissues
thermoregulation
the ability of an organism to control the temperature of its body
an increase in edge habitat changes
the abiotic conditions (e.g. ground temperatures in a forest) and the species composition of a habitat.
negative feedbacks
the action of internal response mechanisms that restores a system to a desired state, or set point, when the system deviates from that state
handling time
the amount of time that a predator takes to consume a captured prey
if the highest energy prey is rare,
the animal should include less profitable items in its diet
extinct
the animal was known to exist in the year 1500 but no individuals remain alive today
walters climate classification scheme
the annual course of temperature and precipitation
intertropical convergence zone
the area where two hadley cells converge and cause large amounts of precipitation
laterization
the breakdown of clay particles, which results in the leaching of silicon from the soil, leaving oxides of iron and aluminum to predominate throughout the soil profile.
example of species that prefer edge habitat
the bronzed cowbird is a nest parasite that reproduces by placing its eggs into the nests of other birds, allowing it to reproduce without the cost of parental care.. cowbirds spend most of their time in fields but enter the forest to find nests to parasitize. in the southern united states, an increase in edge habitat has led to an increase in cowbird abundance. increased cowbird parasitism has decreased abundance of species whose nests are parasitized
tundras
the coldest biome, characterized by a treeless expanse above permanently frozen soil (permafrost)-- upper soils thaw during brief summer growing season.. precipitation is very low, soils are acidic and nutrient poor, plants grow low to the ground to gain protection under snow and ice.. alpine tundras occur at high elevations in temperate and tropical latitudes, they have a longer growing season (CANADA)
Regional species pool
the collection of species that occurs within a region; serves a source of species of all local sites within a region
adiabatic cooling
the cooling effect of reduced pressure on air as it rises higher in the atmosphere and expands
inbreeding depression
the decrease in fitness caused by matings between close relatives due to offspring inheriting deleterious alleles from both the eggs and the sperm.
coriolis effect
the deflection of an objects path due to the rotation of the earth
example of a microhabitat
the desert iguana regulates its body temperature by basking on rocks, seeking shade, or burrowing in the ground.
declining populations in habitat patches can be sustained by
the dispersal of organisms between patches via habitat corridors
darwin termed ecology as
the economy of nature
the speed of rotation is faster at
the equator
the circumference of the planet is larger at
the equator than at the poles
geographic range
the extent of land or water in which a population lives
treatment
the factor that we want to manipulate in a study
landscape ecology
the field of study that considers the spatial arrangement of habitats at different scales and examines how they influence individuals, populations, communities and ecosystems.
osmotic potential
the force with which a solution attracts water by osmosis
adiabatic heating
the heating effect of increased pressure on air as it sinks toward the surface of Earth and decreases in volume
parent material
the layer of bedrock that underlies soil
saturation
the limit of the amount of water vapor that air can contain
composition
the makeup in terms of age, gender or genetics
individuals
the most fundamental unit of ecology-- acquire nutrients and energy and produce waste -- have a membrane boundary that separates internal processes from the external environment
ecosystem research is focused on
the movement of energy and matter b/w physical and biological components
cohesion
the mutual attraction of water molecules; allows water to move up through empty remains of xylem cells
laurasia
the northern landmass that separated from pangea ~~150 mya and split into north america, europe and asia
density
the number of individuals per unit area
this model only predicts
the number of species at equilibrium not the species composition at equilibrium.
local diversity (alpha)
the number of species in a relatively small area of homogeneous habitat such as a stream
regional (gamma)
the number of species in all of the habitats that comprise a large geographic area.
hypothesis 2
the number of species in an area reflects an equilibrium between the processes of speciation and extinction... higher number of species in the tropics results of higher speciation rates and lower extinction rates.
beta diversity
the number of species that differ in occurrence between two habitats
experimental unit:
the object to which we apply a manipulation
extinct in the wild
the only individuals remaining are in captivity
el niño souther oscillation
the periodic changes in winds and ocean currents in the south pacific, causing weather changes throughout much of the world
example of biomagnification
the pesticide DDT was used to control crops pests and mosquitos, when DDT entered water, it bound to algae and became 10x more concentrated on the algae than it was in water...through predation DDT became 276,000x more concentrated in fish-eating birds than it was in the water--lead to the decline in many predatory birds -- US banned DDT in 1972
weathering
the physical and chemical alteration of rock material near Earth's surface occurs when water penetrates to parent material and reacts with minerals
habitat
the place or physical setting where an organism lives, distinguished by physical features such as dominant plant type
matrix or matrix potential
the potential energy generated by the attractive forces between water molecules and soil particles; occurs because water molecules and soil particles have electric charges
transpiration
the process by which leaves generate water potential as water evaporates from the surfaces of leaf cells
biotic homogenization
the process by which unique species compositions originally found in different regions slowly become more similar due to the movement of people, cargo and species
species sorting
the process of sorting species in the regional pool among localities according to their adaptations and interactions
habitat between fragments
the quality of habitat between fragments (i.e. matrix habitat) helps to determine whether organisms can move between fragments
niche
the range of abiotic and biotic conditions an organism can tolerate
thermal inertia
the resistance to change in temp due to a large body volume
ecology
the scientific study of the abundance and distribution of organisms in relation to other organisms and environmental conditions
genotype
the set of genes an organism carries-- determines an organisms phenotype
pangaea
the single landmass that existed on earth ~~250 mya and subsequently split into Laurasia and Gondwana
minimum viable population
the smallest population size of a species that can persist in the face of environmental variation
gondwana
the southern landmass that separated from pangaea and split into south america, africa, antartica, and india
the surface area of an organism increases as
the square of its length (L)
low albedo of forests causes
the tropics at the equator with high temps
hadley cells
the two circulation cells of air between the equator and 30*N and 30*S latitudes
assuming that the species pool of potential colonizers is a fixed size,
then the rate of new species colonizing the island declines as a function of how many species have already colonized the island
at any given latitude
there are more species where there is greater ecological heterogeneity
some bacteria are
thermophilic (heat-loving) and can live at temperatures up to 110*C
given that the island continues to experience colonization and extinction of species
these opposing forces should result in an equilibrium point of species richness on the island S.
isozymes suited for different temperature ranges
useful for organisms that must cope with variable temperatures
smaller molecules (e.g. clay) have a larger surface area relative to their volume so that
they can hold more water but that water is held very tightly.
example of human influence
throughout the 20th century, natural fires were suppressed in yellowstone national park. in 1988 hundreds of fires were ignited by human activity and natural forces-- patterns of burning depended on landscape characteristics (e.g. amount of plant litter, wind patterns).
why do we need carotenoids
to absorb the other wavelengths (Colors)
abundance
total number of individuals
foraging decisions depend on the time needed to travel round trip to the site with resources
traveling time and
laterization occurs in
tropical and subtropical regions where soils weather to great depths.
tropical seasonal forest/ savanna
tropical: summer rainy season and winter dry season..seasonal forest, scrub or savana
warm moist air rises in the
tropics and spreads north and south
R
unaltered parent material (bedrock)
individual approach
understands how adaptations or characteristics of an individuals morphology, physiology, and behavior enable it to survive in an environment
community approach
understands the diversity and interactions of organisms living together in the same place
ocean currents distribute
unequal heating of the Earth's water and influence the location of different climates
As water moves away, cold water from ocean depths is drawn
upward
rainfall slows
upward movement of new clay particles
some plants have evolved alternative ways of obtaining nutrients..
venus fly trap and the parasitic dodder
examples of human activity
villages and farms built by the romans were abandoned by the fourth century CE. ancient building materials broke down and contributed to minerals to the soil; introduced crop species remained in the landscape.. recently researchers found that sites closer to settlements had high soil pH, more phosphorous and greater species richness
example of adaptation to enemies
virginia peperweed is eaten by herbivores, the plant develops leaf hairs (trichomes) and gluocosinolate compounds that make the leaves difficult to consume
tropical rainforests
warm and rainy with multiple layers of lush vegetation (30-40m trees) with an understory containing smaller trees, shrubs, epiphytes and vines. highest species diversity, organic matter decomposes quickly, and vegetation rapidly takes up nutrients, soils are devoid of humus and clay and retain nutrients very poorly (emergent layer, canopy, understory, shrub layer, ground layer)
temperate rain forest
warm temp, occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum. temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost sensitive
tropical seasonal forests/ savannas
warm temps and pronounced wet and dry seasons, dominated by deciduous trees that she leaves during the dry season, savannas have long dry periods and contain grasses and occasional trees. fires and grazing maintain savannas...soils do not hold nutrients but the warm climate favors rapid decomposition and fast growth (AFRICA AND COLOMBIA)
photosynthetically active region
wavelengths of light that are suitable for photosynthesis; includes wavelengths from 400nm (violet) to 700 nm (red) i.e. visible light
humans consume massive amounts of energy and resources and produce large amounts of
waste
animals acquire mineral ions in the
water and food they consume
cold regions with high rainfall is rare because
water does not evaporate at low temps
mammal species richness also increases to the
west--due to the heterogeneity of the mountains probably
this allows warm water to pile up in the
western pacific while upwelling of colder water occurs in the eastern pacific
example of a regulating service
wetlands absorb water and prevent flooding during rainy periods; wetland plants remove contaminants from water, which makes it more suitable for drinking
predation
when an organism kills and consumes an individual
dynamic steady state
when gains and losses are in balance
historic climate change
when oceans extended from the tropics to polar areas, currents distributed heat more eveny and temperate climates could be found closer to the poles. based on fossil evidence, large portions of north america and europe once had tropical climates that reached into russia and canada. the antarctic land connection between south america and australia supported temperate vegetation and abundant animal life. as antartica drifted over the south pole and as north america and eurasia encircle the northern polar ocean, the subsequent creation of a circumpolar ocean current around antarctica caused cooler temps at higher latitudes
herbivory
when one organism consumes producers
parasitism
when one organism lives in or on another organism
ocean surface currents propelled by
winds
do continents float?
yes
A2
zone of leaching