Bio 116 Exam 2 - Learning Outcomes
identify the three chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)
1. asthma 2. chronic bronchitis 3. emphysema
identify the three ways that carbon dioxide is transported in the bloodstream
1. dissolved in plasma 2. bound to hemoglobin in RBCs 3. converted into bicarbonate (most common)
Besides containing valves, cite another major difference between the arterial and venous systems
A major anatomical difference between the arterial and venous systems is the existence of dual (superficial and deep) venous drainage in the neck and limbs.
What effect does an increase in the respiratory rate have on CO2 levels?
An increase in the respiratory rate reduces CO2 levels.
Which would reduce the peripheral resistance: an increase in vessel length or an increase in vessel diameter?
An increase in vessel diameter
Identify the conditions that would shift the balance between hydrostatic and osmotic forces
Any condition that affects either blood pressure or osmotic pressures in the blood or tissues will shift the balance between hydrostatic and osmotic forces.
Which is greater: arterial pressure or venous pressure?
Arterial is higher than venous. It must push blood a greater distance and through progressively smaller and thinner vessels.
Describe the function of the hepatic portal system, and name its primary vessel
The function of the hepatic portal system is to carry blood with absorbed nutrients from the digestive organs to the liver for processing. The primary vessel of the hepatic portal system is the hepatic portal vein
Are chemoreceptors more sensitive to blood CO2 levels or blood O2 levels?
CO2
Johnny is angry, so he tells his mom that he will hold his breath until he turns blue and dies. Explain whether this will likely happen.
CO2 in blood will increase, stimulating inspiratory centers, forcing him to breath
Describe autoregulation as it relates to cardiovascular function
Cardiovascular autoregulation involves local factors changing the pattern of blood flow within capillary beds in response to chemical changes in interstitial fluids.
Trace the path of a drop of blood from the left ventricle to the right hip joint
Left ventricle > ascending aorta > aortic arch > thoracic aorta > abdominal aorta > right common iliac > right external iliac > right femoral > right deep femoral > right hip joint
Describe lung cancer
Lung cancer is an aggressive class of malignancies that affect the epithelial cells lining the conducting passageways, mucous glands, and alveoli. More people die from lung cancer than from any other type of cancer.
Identify the branches of the external carotid artery
The branches of the external carotid artery are the superficial temporal, maxillary, occipital, facial, lingual, and external carotid arteries.
Describe the structure and function of the cerebral arterial circle
The cerebral arterial circle (also known as the circle of Willis) is a ring-shaped anastomosis that encircles the infundibulum of the pituitary gland. Its anatomical arrangement creates alternate pathways in the cerebral circulation, so that if blood flow is interrupted in one area, other blood vessels can continue to perfuse the entire brain with blood.
Describe the lung borders and landmarks.
The curving anterior and inferior borders of each lung follow the coutours of the rib cage. The apex of each lung extends superiorly to the first rib, and the base of each lung rests on the superior surface of the diaphragm.
Explain the 1/r4 equation
The equation R 1/r4 states that resistance (R) is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the vessel radius (r). This means that a small change in vessel diameter results in a large change in resistance.
Name the first two branches of the common iliac artery
The first two branches of the common iliac artery are the internal iliac artery and the external iliac artery.
describe the structures of the glottis
The glottis is the "voicebox" of the larynx. It is made up of the vocal folds (structures that contain the vocal ligaments and are involved with sound production) and the rima glottidis ( the opening between the vocal folds and the arytenoid cartilages).
Name the immediate and long-term problems related to hemorrhage
The immediate, short-term problem during hemorrhage is to maintain adequate blood pressure and peripheral blood flow; the long-term problem is to restore normal blood volume.
Which vessel collects most of the venous blood inferior to the diaphragm?
The inferior vena cava collects most of the venous blood inferior to the diaphragm.
Name the veins that drain the dural sinuses of the brain
The internal jugular veins drain the dural sinuses of the brain.
Identify the largest artery of the body
The largest artery in the body is the aorta.
Identify two veins that carry blood away from the stomach
The left and right gastroepiploic veins carry blood away from the stomach.
Identify the major branches of the inferior vena cava
The major branches of the inferior vena cava are the lumbar, gonadal, hepatic, renal, adrenal, and phrenic veins.
The plantar venous arch carries blood to which three veins?
The plantar venous arch delivers blood to the anterior tibial, posterior tibial, and fibular (peroneal) veins.
Name the various measurable pulmonary volumes.
The pulmonary volumes are resting tidal volume (Vt), expiratory reserve volume (ERV), residual volume, and inspiratory reserve volume (IRV).
Describe the respiratory pump
The respiratory pump is a mechanism by which a reduction of pressure in the thoracic cavity during inhalation assists venous return to the heart.
Which chamber of the heart receives blood from the systemic circuit?
The right atrium
Compare the two main bronchi
The right main bronchus is larger in diameter than the left main bronchus and it descends toward the lung at a steeper angle than the left main bronchus.
Identify the 6 structures that are vital to fetal circulation but cease to function at birth, and describe what becomes of these structures
The six structures vital to fetal circulation are two umbilical arteries, one umbilical vein, the ductus venosus, the foramen ovale, and the ductus arteriosus. After birth, the foramen ovale closes and persists as the fossa ovalis, a shallow depression; the ductus arteriosus persists as the ligamentum arteriosum, a fibrous cord; and the umbilical vessels and ductus venosus persist throughout life as fibrous cords.
Whenever Thor gets angry, a large vein bulges in the lateral region of his neck. Which vein is this?
Thor's bulging vein is his external jugular vein.
Name the two arteries formed by the division of the brachiocephalic trunk
The two arteries formed by the division of the brachiocephalic trunk are the right common carotid artery and the right subclavian artery
define respiratory defense system
a series of filtration mechanisms that prevent airway contamination by debris and pathogens
Describe a capillary
a small blood vessel, between an arteriole and a venule, thin walls permit exchange between blood and interstitial fluid by diffusion.
Define edema
abnormal accumulation of interstitial fluid in peripheral tissues.
Define tissue perfusion
blood flow to tissues that is sufficient to deliver adequate oxygen and nutrients.
Which brainstem centers generate the respiratory pace?
centers in the medulla oblongata
during exercise, hemoglobin releases more oxygen to active skeletal muscles than it does when those muscles are at rest. Why?
combination of increases temp., lower pH and increased CO2
distinguish between the conducting portion and respiratory portion of the respiratory tract.
conducting portion is from nasal cavity to larger bronchioles and the respiratory portion is from respiratory (smaller) bronchioles to alveoli
Identify the two types of capillaries with a complete endothelium
continuous capillaries and fenestrated capillaries.
identify the primary inspiratory muscles
diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
Describe the forces that drive oxygen and carbon dioxide transport between the blood and peripheral tissues.
driven by differences in partial pressure, O2 enters blood at lungs and leaves at peripheral tissues, while CO2 goes into blood at peripheral tissues and leaves blood at the alveoli
Compare dysplasia, metaplasia, neoplasia, and anaplasia.
dysplasia-- development of abnormal cells; metaplasia-- tissue changes in structure; neoplasia-- normal cells to tumor cells; anaplasia-- growth of abnormal cells that form tumors that metastasis and spread to other parts of the body
Name several age-related factors that affect the respiratory system.
elastic tissue deterioration, arthritic changes, decrease flexibility of coast cartilages, decrease in vital capacity, some degree of emphysema
Why is it beneficial for capillary pressure to be very low?
it allows time for diffusion between the blood and the surrounding interstitial fluid.
describe the structure and the function of the blood air barrier
made up of fused basement membranes of alveolar epithelium and capillary epithelium; diffusion occurs quickly bc membrane is so thin
Name the lobes and fissures of each lung.
the left lung is divided into a superior lobe and an inferior lobe by the oblique fissure; the right lung, the horizontal fissure separates the superior lobe from the middle lobe, while the oblique fissure separates the superior and middle lobes from the inferior lobe
define pulmonary lobule
pulmonary lobules are the smallest subdivisions of the lungs; each is supplied by branches of the pulmonary arteries, pulmonary veins, and tertiary bronchi
how does the respiratory minute volume differ from the alveolar ventilation?
respiratory minute volume is the volume of air moved in and out of respiratory tract per minute; the alveolar ventilation is the amount of air reaching alveoli per minute; the alveolar ventilation will always be lower than respiratory minute volume because some air will stay in the anatomic dead space of the lungs
What membrane lines the conducting portion of the respiratory tract?
respiratory mucosa
Which ventilates alveoli more effectively: slow, deep breaths or rapid, shallow breaths? Explain why.
slow deep breaths bc smaller amt of tidal volume of each breath is spent moving air in and out anatomic dead space of lungs
Trace the pathway of airflow along the passages of the lower respiratory tract.
trachea --> main (primary) bronchi --> lobular (secondary) bronchi --> segmental (tertiary) bronchi --> terminal bronchi --> pulmonary lobules
Describe the pulmonary circuit
transports blood from the right ventricle through the pulmonary arteries, capillaries in the lungs, and pulmonary veins and returns it to the left atrium.
Describe the systemic circuit
transports blood through the arteries, capillaries, and veins of the body from the left ventricle to the right atrium. Blood returning to the heart from the systemic circuit must complete the pulmonary circuit before it re-enters the systemic circuit.
Identify the paired and unpaired cartilages that compose the larynx.
unpaired: thyroid, cricoid, epiglottis ; paired: cuneiform, corniculate, arytenoid
List the factors that contribute to total peripheral resistance
vascular resistance, vessel length, vessel luminal diameter, blood viscosity, and turbulence.
At what sites of the body are fenestrated capillaries located?
where solutes as large as small peptides move freely into an out of the blood. These sites include endocrine glands, the choroid plexus of the brain, absorptive areas of the intestine, and filtration areas of the kidneys.
Why is the vascularization of the nasal cavity important?
so that the lamina propria can radiate body heat to heat the air that is inhaled; heat can also evaporate moisture from epithelium to humidify air
Define bronchopulmonary segment
specific region of a lung supplied by a segmental bronchus
what would happen if the alveoli surfactant were not produced?
the alveoli would collapse bc of the normally high surface tension in the thin layer of water coating alveolar surfaces
describe the location of the lungs within the thoracic cavity
the left and right lungs are surrounded by left and right pleura cavities, respectively
A blockage of which branch of the aortic arch would interfere with the blood flow to the left arm?
A blockage of the left subclavian artery would interfere with blood flow to the left arm
A blood clot that blocks the popliteal vein would interfere with blood flow in which other veins?
A blockage of the popliteal vein would interfere with blood flow in the tibial and fibular (peroneal) veins (which form the popliteal vein) and the small saphenous vein (which joins the popliteal vein)
How is blood pressure mainlined in the veins against the force of gravity?
Assisted by the presence of valves in the veins, which prevent backflow of the blood, the contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscles squeezes venous blood toward the heart.
explain the relationship among BPG oxygen and hemoglobin
BPG is a compound generated during glycolysis that decreases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen; if BPG increases more oxygen will be released by Hb molecules, but if BPG gets too low, Hb will not release O2
Explain the function of baroreceptor reflexes
Baroreceptor reflexes respond to changes in blood pressure. The baroreceptors - located in the walls of the carotid sinuses and aortic arch - monitor the degree of stretch at those sites. When blood pressure increases, the cardiac centers decrease cardiac output and the vasomotor center if inhibited, resulting in vasodilation; when blood pressure decreases, the cardiac centers increase cardiac output and the vasomotor center is stimulated, resulting in vasoconstriction.
How would blockage of the trachea affect blood pH?
Blockage of the trachea would interfere with the body's ability to gain oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide. Because most carbon dioxide is transported in blood as bicarbonate ion formed from the dissociation of carbonic acid, an inability to eliminate carbon dioxide would result in an excess of hydrogen ions, which lowers blood pH.
Define blood flow and describe its relationship to blood pressure and peripheral resistance.
Blood flow is the volume of blood flowing per unit of time through a vessel of group of vessels; it is directly proportional to arterial pressure (increased pressure results in increased blood flow) and inversely proportional to peripheral resistance (increased resistance results in decreased blood flow.)
What are blood islands and from which cells do they form?
Blood islands are aggregations of embryonic cells scattered within the yolk sac that form blood vessels and blood cells. During embryonic development, these islands give rise to hematopoietic stem cells and hemangioblasts.
Define Boyle's Law
Boyle's law states that at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume.
What is the function of chemoreceptor reflexes?
Chemoreceptor reflexes respond to decreasing pH and oxygen levels and to increasing CO2 levels in the blood and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) by adjusting cardiovascular and respiratory activity. These reflexes stimulate responses by the cardiovascular centers to increase blood pressure through vasoconstriction and increase cardiac output, and stimulate responses by the respiratory centers to increase the respiratory rate, which increases pH and oxygen levels and decreases CO2 levels.
Where are chemoreceptors located?
Chemoreceptors are located in the carotid bodies, in the aortic bodies, and on the ventrolateral surfaces of the medulla oblongata
Compare chronic bronchitis with emphysema
Chronic bronchitis is long-term inflammation of the mucous membranes in the bronchial tubes; emphysema is a condition in which the alveolar surfaces of the lungs are destroyed and alveoli merge, which reduces respiratory surface area and oxygen absorption, causing breathlessness. People who have chronic bronchitis are sometimes called "blue bloaters"; those with emphysema are called "pink puffers"
Describe circulatory shock, progressive shock, and irreversible shock
Circulatory shock occurs when blood loss exceeds about 35 percent of the total blood volume. Circulatory shock involves a series of positive feedback loops that are initiated after homeostasis has been disrupted. Progressive shock is the next stage after circulatory shock. It, too, is a series of positive feedback loops that accelerate tissue damage. Irreversible shock is the fatal stage that occurs if the positive feedback loops initiated during progressive shock are not broken.
Identify the compensatory mechanisms that respond to blood loss
Compensatory mechanisms that respond to blood loss include an increase in cardiac output, a mobilization of venous blood reservoir, peripheral vasoconstriction, and the release of hormones that promote the retention of fluids and the maturation of erythrocytes.
Define compliance and resistance.
Compliance is the ease with which the lungs expand and recoil. Resistance is an indication of how much force is required to inflate or deflate the lungs.
Why can cystic fibrosis become lethal?
Cystic fibrosis causes production of dense mucus that restricts respiratory passages and accumulates in the lungs. Harmful bacterial infection of the lungs may also develop, leading to death.
Define Dalton's Law
Dalton's law states that in a mixture of gases, the individual gases exert a pressure proportional to their abundance in the mixture.
Describe the pattern of fetal blood flow to and from the placenta
Deoxygenated blood flows from the fetus to the placenta through a pair of umbilical arteries, and oxygenated blood returns from the placenta in a single umbilical vein.
Describe the changes in cardiac output and blood flow during exercise
During exercise, cardiac output increases, and blood flow to skeletal muscles increases at the expense of blood flow to less essential organs. Unless compensatory vasoconstriction occurs in "less essential" organs, such as those of the digestive system, vasodilation in skeletal muscles would cause a potentially dangerous decrease in blood pressure and blood flow throughout the body during exercise.
Distinguish among efferent and afferent vessels
Efferent vessels (arteries) carry blood away from the heart, afferent vessels (veins) carry blood to the heart
Identify the hormones responsible for short term regulation of decreasing blood pressure and volume
Epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medullae provide short-term regulation of decreasing blood pressure and blood volume
Describe the role of natriuretic peptides
Excessive stretching of the right atrium during diastole causes the release of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). Excessive stretching of the ventricles during diastole causes the release of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP). The roles of these peptides are to trigger responses whose combined effects act to decrease blood volume and blood pressure. As blood volume and blood pressure decrease, natriuretic peptide production ceases
Under what general conditions would fluid move into a capillary?
Fluid moves into a capillary (reabsorption) whenever blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP) is greater than capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP).
Briefly describe the general patterns of blood vessel organization
General patterns of blood vessel organization include the following: 1. the peripheral distribution of arteries and veins on the body's left and right sides are generally identical, except near the heart, where the largest vessels connect to the atria or ventricles; 2. a single vessel may have several names as it crosses specific anatomical boundaries, making accurate anatomical descriptions possible; 3. tissues and organs are usually serviced by several arteries and veins.
What is the function of hemangioblasts?
Hemangioblasts remodel blood islands first into capillary networks and then into larger arterial and venous networks.
How are hypoxia and anoxia different?
Hypoxia is low tissue oxygen levels; anoxia is the complete cutoff of oxygen supply.
Why are valves located in the veins but not arteries?
In the arterial system, pressures are high enough to keep the blood moving away from the heart and through arteries and capillaries. In the venous system, blood pressure is too low to keep the blood moving back toward the heart. Valves in veins prevent blood from flowing backward whenever the venous pressure drops.
explain the decrease in PO2 form the pulmonary venules to the blood arriving in the peripheral capillaries of the systemic circuit
PO2 decreases from PO2 of 100 to a PO2 of 95; this decrease happens bc the O2 diffuses into the capillaries surrounding the conducting passageways that bring oxygenated blood surrounding the conducting passageways that bring oxygenated blood back to the heart
distinguish between phonation and articulation
Phonation is the production of sound, and one component of speech. Articulation is the modification of sound by the tongue, teeth, and lips for clear speech.
Trace the path of a drop of blood from the right forearm to the right atrium
Right forearm > right brachial > right axillary > right subclavian > right brachiocephalic > superior vena cava > right atrium
Trace a drop of blood to the lungs, beginning at the right ventricle and ending at the left atrium
Right ventricle > pulmonary trunk > right and left pulmonary arteries > pulmonary arterioles > alveoli > pulmonary venules > pulmonary veins > left atrium
Grace is in an automobile accident and her celiac trunk is ruptured. Which organs will be affected most directly by this injury?
Rupturing the celiac trunk would most directly affect the stomach, inferior portion of the esophagus, spleen, liver, gallbladder, and proximal portion of the small intestine.
Name the arterial structure in the neck region that contains baroreceptors
The arterial structure in the neck region that contains baroreceptors is the carotid sinus.
Describe the distribution of total blood volume in the body
The systemic venous system and systemic arterial system contain 64 and 13 percent of the total blood volume, respectively. The remaining volume is contained in the heart (7%), pulmonary circulation (9%) and systemic capillaries (7%).
Name the three branches of the internal carotid artery
The three branches of the internal carotid artery are the ophthalmic, anterior cerebral, and middle cerebral arteries.
Identify the three veins that merge to form the hepatic portal vein
The three veins that merge to form the hepatic portal vein are the superior mesenteric, inferior mesenteric, and splenic veins
Compare the oxygen content in the two circulatory outlets
The two circulatory circuits of the cardiovascular system are the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit. The pulmonary circuit carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium. The systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood to the organs and tissues of the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.
Name the two large veins that collect blood from the systemic circuit
The two large veins that collect blood from the systemic circuit are the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava.
List the unpaired branches of the abdominal aorta that supply blood to the visceral organs
The unpaired branches of the abdominal aorta that supply blood to the visceral organs are the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery
Identify the veins that combine to form the brachiocephalic vein
The veins that combine to form the brachiocephalic vein are the external jugular, internal jugular, vertebral, and subclavian veins.
Calculate the mean arterial pressure for a person whose blood pressure is 125/70
Using the formula MAP = diastolic pressure + (pulse pressure)/3, MAP equals 70 + (125-70)/3, which equals 70 + 18.3, or 88.3 mm Hg.
What factors are involved in the formation of varicose veins?
Varicose veins are sagging, swollen superficial veins in the thighs and legs. They result from the pooling of blood due to gravity and the failure of venous valves.
How does the kidney respond to vasoconstriction of the renal artery?
Vasoconstriction of the renal artery would decrease both blood flow and blood pressure at the kidney. In response, the kidney would release EPO and renin. EPO increases the rate of red blood cell formation, which leads to an increase in blood volume. The release of renin would lead to an increase in the level of angiotensin II. The angiotensin II would bring about increased blood pressure and increased blood volume.
Compare a ventricular septal defect with tetralogy of Fallot
Ventricular septal defects are abnormal openings between the left and right ventricles. Tetralogy of Fallot includes a ventricular septal defect plus three other heart defects: a narrowing of the pulmonary trunk, a displaced aorta, and an enlarged right ventricle with corresponding thickened right and left ventricles
what pressures determine the direction fo airflow within the respiratory tract?
airflows form an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure; the changes in atmospheric pressure (pressure outside respiratory tract) and intrapulmonary pressure (pressure inside respiratory tract) determine the direction of air flow
what function do the C-shaped tracheal cartilages allow?
allow room for esophagus to expand when food and liquids are swallowed
Where does gas exchange between the lungs occur?
alveoli
In a healthy person, where is blood pressure greater: in the aorta or inferior vena cava? Explain your answer
aorta. If the pressure were higher in the inferior of vena cava than in the aorta, blood would flow in the reverse direction.
Name the paired central nervous system nuclei that adjust the pace of respiration.
apneustic center and pneumotaxic centers in pons
List the five classes of blood vessels
arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.
When do the accessory respiratory muscles become active?
assist in primary inhalation when primary muscles can't meet oxygen demand by themselves
define external respiration, gas diffusion, and internal respiration
external respiration-- exchange of gases between blood, lungs, and external environment; gas diffusion--movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood air barrier, alveolar spaces, alveolar capillaries, across capillary walls between blood and other tissues; internal respiration-- gas exchange between blood and tissues
Neural and endocrine regulatory mechanisms influence which factors?
heart rate, stroke volume, peripheral resistance, and venous pressure.
what is the significance of henry's law to the process of respiration?
henry's law is at a given temperature, the amount of gas that dissolves in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure; this is important bc the diffusion of air btwn alveoli and capillaries is based on pressure gradients
define hypercapnia and hypocapnia
hypercapnia is an increase in the Pco2 of arterial blood above the normal range; hypocapnia is an abnormally low arterial Pco2
what physical changes affect the volume of the lungs?
movement of the diaphragm and rib cage expand or compress lungs
list the structures of the upper respiratory stystem.
nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx
trace the pathway of air through the upper respiratory system
nostrils --> nasal cavity --> nasal vestibule (guarded by hairs that screen out large particles) --> nasal meatuses (air bounces off conchal surfaces) --> choanae (openings between the nasal cavity and nasopharynx) --> nasopharynx --> oropharynx --> laryngopharynx --> larynx
define respiratory rate
number of breaths per minute
Define oxyhemoglobin
oxygen bound to hemoglobin
which chemical factors in blood or cerebrospinal fluid stimulate the respiratory centers?
pH, CO2, O2
