Bio 141

Molecule

formed by chemical bonding between two or more atoms of same element

cations

positively charged ion; metal loses one or more electrons

common ions of the body

potassium, sodium, calcium, and chloride.

Define atom

Atom - smallest unit of matter that retains original properties

electrons

(e-) - outside atomic nucleus; negatively charged

Describe Polyatomic ion

(ion that has more than one element) is an ion composed of two or more atoms. Examples: The hydroxide cation (OH-) and the phosphate cation (PO43-) are both polyatomic ions

neutrons

(n0) - in atomic nucleus; slightly larger than protons; no charge

Protons

(p+) - in central core of atom (atomic nucleus); positively charged

solution basic mixture

- two or more components; extremely small, evenly distributed particles; will not settle out: Solute - substance dissolved Solvent - substance that dissolves solute

Indicate the major uses of carbohydrates in the body.

-Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose. -Sparing the use of proteins for energy. -Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis. -Biological recognition processes. -Flavor and Sweeteners. -Dietary fiber.

Define how enzyme and substrate concentration affect reaction rates.

2By increasing the enzyme concentration, the maximum reaction rate greatly increases. Conclusions: The rate of a chemical reaction increases as the substrate concentration increases. Enzymes can greatly speed up the rate of a reaction. However, enzymes become saturated when the substrate concentration is high

polar covalent bond

A bond between 2 nonmetal atoms that have different electronegativities and therefore have unequal sharing of the bonding electron pair

non polar covalent bond

A bond between 2 nonmetal atoms that have the same electronegativity and therefore have equal sharing of the bonding electron pair ex:: In H-H each H atom has an electronegativity value of 2.1, therefore the covalent bond between them is considered nonpolar

Describe the action of a buffer.

A buffer is a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of an acidic or basic components. It is able to neutralize small amounts of added acid or base, thus maintaining the pH of the solution relatively stable.

Define molecular formula

A molecular formula consists of the chemical symbols for the constituent elements followed by numeric subscripts describing the number of atoms of each element present in the molecule. ex:The molecular formula for glucose is C6H12O6. The molecular formula indicates the exact number of atoms in the molecule.

Explain the term neutralization, and describe how the neutralization of both an acid and a base occur.

A neutralization reaction is when an acid and a base react to form water and a salt and involves the combination of H+ ions and OH- ions to generate water. ... When a solution is neutralized, it means that salts are formed from equal weights of acid and base.

Describe a structural formula, and explain its uses in differentiating isomers.

A structural formula is used to indicate not only the number of atoms, but also their arrangement in space. it provides information that the molecular formula does not about the relative positioning of atoms and the bonding between atoms. Compounds that share a chemical formula but have different chemical structures are known as isomers, and they can have quite different physical properties.

Explain the structure of ATP.

ATP is a nucleotide that consists of three main structures: the nitrogenous base, adenine; the sugar, ribose; and a chain of three phosphate groups bound to ribose. The phosphate tail of ATP is the actual power source which the cell taps.

Identify the entrance molecule for Krebs Cycle.

Acetyl CoA is a molecule that is further converted to oxaloacetate, which enters the citric acid cycle (

Explain the role of negative feedback in enzyme regulation.

Also called negative feedback; one of the products downstream in a reaction series comes back and inhibits the enzymatic activity of an earlier reaction. ... Positive and negative feedback work in a complementary fashion to ensure that a reaction series leads to the right amount of product

Explain the difference between an acid and a base.

An acid is a substance that dissociates in water to produce both an H+ and an anion. It is also called a proton donor. A base is substance that accepts H+ when added to a solution. It is called a proton acceptor.

describe an ionic compound of NaCl.

Attraction between opposite charges bonds ions to one another forming salt. When sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) are combined, the sodium atoms each lose an electron, forming cations (Na+), and the chlorine atoms each gain an electron to form anions (Cl−). These ions are then attracted to each other in a 1:1 ratio to form sodium chloride (NaCl)

atomic weight

Average of ratio of atoms, present in an element; including isotopes

Describe the chemical interactions of nonpolar substances and water.

Because nonpolar molecules do not easily dissolve in water and are hydrophobic, they become squeezed together. This is how cell membranes are formed -- the water-fearing parts of the molecules all face the same direction and squeeze together to prevent water from touching them.

Describe chemical energy (one form of potential energy) and the various forms of kinetic energy.

Chemical energy is the energy stored in a molecule of chemical bonds and is the most important form of energy in the human body. It specifically is use for the energy requiring processes of movement, synthesis the molecules and establishment of concentration gradients.

Describe a covalent bond and explain its formation based on the octet rule.

Covalent bonds are characterized by the sharing of electrons between two or more atoms. These bonds mostly occur between nonmetals or between two of the same (or similar) elements.Two atoms with similar electronegativity will not exchange an electron from their outermost shell; the atoms instead share electrons so that their valence electron shell is filled.

Compare DNA and RNA.

DNA: RNA: -Dexyribose - Ribose -A,C,G,T - A,C,G,U -double Stranded - single stranded

Define the three major types of chemical reactions: synthesis, decomposition, and exchange.

Decomposition Reactions: A single reactant is decomposed or broken down into two or more. AB ----> A + B Combination or Synthesis Reactions: Two or more reactants unite to form a single product. A + B ----> AB Substitution or Single Replacement Reactions: A single free element replaces or is substituted for one of the elements in a compound. The free element is more reactive than the one its replaces. A + BC ----> B + AC

Describe the role of water in both dehydration and hydrolysis reactions in altering biomolecules.

Dehydration synthesis Occurs during the synthesis of biomolecules o One subunit looses an -H o Other subunit loses an -OH o New covalent bond formed and water produced • Hydrolysis reaction o Occurs during the breakdown of biomoleculeso An -H added to one subunit o An -OH added to another subunit

Describe the general characteristics of a lipid.

Diverse group of fatty, water-insoluble compounds • Not composed of monomers • Function as stored nutrients, cellular membrane components, and hormones

electron transport chain and chemotosis

During aerobic respiration, coupled oxidation-reduction reactions and electron carriers are often part of what is called an electron transport chain , a series of electron carriers that eventually transfers electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. The diffusible electron carriers NADH and FADH2 carry hydrogen atoms (protons and electrons) from substrates in exergonic catabolic pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to other electron carriers that are embedded in membranes.

Define chemical element and list the four elements that form the bulk of body matter.

Element - a subastance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by any chemical means. Human body is made up of four major elements: Hydrogen ,Oxygen, Carbon, and Nitrogen

Explain the effect of temperature on enzymes.

Enzymes function best at optimal temperature- 37C (98.6F). Temperature increases lead to increased enzymatic activity (fever- enhanced ability to fight infectious agents). Temperatures greater than 40C weaken the bonds in an enzyme altering its shape. The protein denatures and permanently loses function.

Describe how pH changes affect enzymes.

Enzymes function best at their optimal pH- 6-8. Increased or decreased H+ (change in pH) in the environment affect amount that binds to the enzyme. A change in the amount of H+ ions attached to the enzyme disrupts the electrostatic interactions that hold the enzyme protein in its shape. Protein shape determines function.

List the final products of catabolism of Glucose.

Glucose catabolism is a redox reaction. Glucose (carbohydrate) is oxidized to carbon dioxide.

Define glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, lipolysis and lipogenesis.

Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen for storage Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of the molecule glycogen into glucose, a simple sugar that the body uses to produce energy Lipolysis: the breakdown of fats and other lipids by hydrolysis to release fatty acids. Lipogenesis is a term used to describe a process of fatty acid and triglyceride synthesis from glucose or other substrates.

Describe what is formed when water dissociates.

H+ and OH- form, which causes water to have no net charge and is neutral.

Describe the different types of intramolecular attractions that participate in both the folding of a protein and in maintaining its three-dimensional shape.

Hydrogen bonds in a protein molecule. Large numbers of hydrogen bonds form between adjacent regions of the folded polypeptide chain and help stabilize its three-dimensional shape.

Identify the six major classes of enzymes and the general functions of enzymes in each class.

IN PICTURE

Explain what is meant by denaturation and list factors that can cause it.

If a protein loses its shape, it ceases to perform that function. The process that causes a protein to lose its shape is known as denaturation. Denaturation is usually caused by external stress on the protein, such as solvents, inorganic salts, exposure to acids or bases, and by heat

List and define the intermolecular attractions between nonpolar molecules.

If the molecule is nonpolar, then no dipole-dipole interactions or hydrogen bonding can occur and the only possible intermolecular force is the weak van der Waals force. ... Thus this type of force is weak and short-lived and occurs between nonpolar molecules.

Differentiate among ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

In a covalent bond, two atoms share one or more electrons. Water is a polar molecule. A hydrogen bond is a relatively weak bond between two oppositely partially charged sides of two or more molecules. ... In an ionic bond, an atom gives away one or more electrons to another atom

Define pH and explain the relative pH values of both acids and bases.

In chemistry, pH is a scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.The pH scale is often said to range from 0 to 14, and most solutions do fall within this range, although it's possible to get a pH below 0 or above 14. Anything below 7.0 is acidic, and anything above 7.0 is alkaline, or basic.

Describe the difference between a nonpolar molecule and a polar molecule.

In chemistry, polarity refers to the distribution of electric charge around atoms, chemical groups, or molecules. Polar molecules occur when there is an electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms. Nonpolar molecules occur when electrons are shared equal between atoms of a diatomic molecule or when polar bonds in a larger molecule cancel each other out.

Explain the role of electrons in chemical bonding and in relation to the octet rule.

In chemistry, the octet rule says that atoms like to have full outer shells of only eight electrons. Atoms will lose or gain valence electrons to make their outer shells full with eight electrons

List two types of cells can store glycogen.

In humans, glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle.

atomic mass

It is the sum of neutrons and protons present in an atom

Define ketogenesis

Ketogenesis is the biochemical process through which organisms produce ketone bodies through breakdown of fatty acids and ketogenic amino acids

Distinguish between a metabolic pathway and a multienzyme complex.

Metabolic pathway formed by numerous enzymes. Numerous enzymes involved in chemical breakdown of glucose to produce CO2 and water during production of ATP. Multienzyme complex is group of enzymes that are physically attached to each other through noncovalent bonds to form the complex.

Catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.

Anabolism

Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.

Define a monomer and polymer.

Monomer- simple unit that makes up larger molecules Polymer- repeating units of monomers

Describe the general chemical composition of biomolecules.

Most biomolecules are organic compounds, and just four elements—oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen—make up 96% of the human body's mass. But many other elements, such as the various biometals, are present in small amounts.

Identify places in the body where enzymes may be found.

Most of the chemical reactions occur in the stomach and small intestine. In the stomach, pepsin is the main digestive enzyme attacking proteins. Several other pancreatic enzymes go to work when protein molecules reach the small intestine. Lipase is produced in the pancreas and small intestine.

list the elctron carriers in the body

NAD +start superscript, plus, end superscript (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, shown below) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide). Chemical structures of NAD+ and NADH.

Differentiate between an organic molecule and an inorganic molecule.

Organic molecules have carbon-hydrogen bonds. These types of molecules are created by living organisms. ... Because of this, they are made almost entirely of covalent bonds. Inorganic molecules do not contain carbon-hydrogen bonds.

Comment on the nature of oxidation-reduction reactions and their importance

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions are important because they are the principal sources of energy on this planet, both natural or biological and artificial. Oxidation of molecules by removal of hydrogen or combination with oxygen normally liberates large quantities of energy.

Name the final acceptor of H+ and electron acceptor in Electron transport chain.

Oxygen is the final hydrogen ion and electron acceptor. The oxygen combines with the hydrogen ions and electrons to form water.

Describe how elements are organized in the periodic table based on the valence electron number.

Periodic table is organized into columns based on number of electrons in outer shell (valence shell) -Column 1 all have one electron in outer shell Each consecutive column has one additional electron in outer shell -Column 8 have a full valence shell Results in chemical stability (noble gases)

Compare and contrast polar and nonpolar compounds.

Polar compounds have a net dipole as a result of polar bonds that are arranged asymmetrically. This means that they have both a partial positive and partial positive charge that do not cancel out. An example of this is water. Nonpolar compounds can either entirely share their electrons, or they can have symmetrical polar bonds that end up canceling out any sort of net dipole.

Explain the fate of pyruvic acid when the oxygen is available or not available.

Pyruvic acid supplies energy to living cells through the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle) when oxygen is present (aerobic respiration); when oxygen is lacking, it ferments to produce lactic acid

Describe factors that affect chemical reaction rates.

Reactant concentration, the physical state of the reactants, and surface area, temperature, and the presence of a catalyst

Define Exergonic and Endergonic.

Reactions that have a negative ∆G release free energy and are called exergonic reactions. endergonic refers to the relative change in free energy of a system. ... In an endergonic reaction, energy is absorbed from the surroundings.

oxidation-reduction reaction

Redox is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed.

Compare saturated and unsaturated fats

Saturated fats, such as Palmitic acid, have 2 hydrogens for every carbon except the end which has 3 and have single covalent bonds. Saturated fats are animal fats, and are worse for you than unsaturated fats, which are plant oils. Unsaturated fatty acids have some single covalent bonds but have double covalent bonds as well, like Linoleic acid.

Distinguish between single, double, and triple covalent bonds.

Single covalent bond - 2 atoms share exactly one pair of electrons, Double covalent bond- consists of two pairs of shared electrons, Triple covalent bonds- consist of three pairs of shared electrons.

Explain the fate of lactic acid.

The Lactic acid produced from the pyruvate is then free to leave the call and awaits a few possible fates. It can either be. Converted back to pyruvate in a well-oxygenated cell ,which can then enter the mitochondria and undergo oxidative phosphorylation to yield large amounts of energy.

Define reaction rate and activation energy.

The blank of a chemical reaction is closely related to its rate. Specifically, the higher the blank, the slower the chemical reaction will be.

Describe how competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors control enzyme action.

The competitive inhibitor binds to the active site and prevents the substrate from binding there. The noncompetitive inhibitor binds to a different site on the enzyme; it doesn't block substrate binding, but it causes other changes in the enzyme so that it can no longer catalyze the reaction efficientlyV

Explain how radioisotopes differ from other types of isotopes.

The difference is that radioisotopes are very unstable and contain high levels of nuclear energy and emit this energy in the form of nuclear radiation. Main difference: Isotopes can be stable or unstable, but Radioisotopes are always unstable.

State the first law and second law of thermodynamics.

The first law, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any isolated system always increases.

Explain the structure and function and location of ATP syntheses.

The function of ATP synthase is to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) in the F1 sector

Explain why energy conversion is always less than 100%.

The heat is generated from friction or air resistance. This heat is not actually lost, but the energy is converted into heat, which makes the machine, object, or living thing less than 100% efficient with regard to energy conversion.

Describe the hydrogen bonding between polar molecules.

The hydrogen bond in polar molecules occurs only in compounds that have hydrogen bonded to N, O, or F. These very highly electronegative elements create a partial positive charge on the hydrogen. The H atom is attracted to the partial negative charge on an N, O, or F atom in another molecule. The hydrogen bond is an attraction but not a true chemical bond such as ionic or covalent bonds. It is much weaker

List the different properties of water and provide an example of the importance of each property within the body.

The main properties of water are its polarity, cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high specific heat, and evaporative cooling. A water molecule is slightly charged on both ends. This is because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen.

State the octet rule.

The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in the valence shell. When atoms have fewer than eight electrons, they tend to react and form more stable compounds

how to cells trap glucose

The phosphorylation of glucose after its entry into the cytoplasm results in glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P). The phosphate comes from ATP and its incorporation into glucose leaves adenosine diphosphate (ADP) behind. As noted, this traps glucose within the cell.

transition reaction

The transition reaction connects glycolysis to the citric acid (Krebs) cycle. Through a process called oxidative decarboxylation, the transition reaction converts the two molecules of the 3-carbon pyruvate from glycolysis (and other pathways) into two molecules of the 2-carbon molecule acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) and 2 molecules of carbon dioxide.

Describe the two classes of energy.

The two classes of energy are potential and kinetic. Potential energy is stored energy. Kinetic energy is energy of motion

Describe the molecular structure of water and how water molecules form four hydrogen bonds.

Water molecules forming hydrogen bonds with one another. The partial negative charge on the O of one molecule can form a hydrogen bond with the partial positive charge on the hydrogens of other molecules.

Define cellular respiration

a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert chemical energy from oxygen molecules or nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products

Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle

also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, completes the oxidation of glucose by taking the pyruvates from glycolysis, by way of the transition reaction, and completely breaking them down into CO2, H2O, and generating ATP by oxidative phosphorylatio

Ion

an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons.

Explain the steps by which an enzyme catalyzes a reaction.

an enzyme will grab on (bind) to one or more reactant molecules. ... This forms the enzyme-substrate complex. The reaction then occurs, converting the substrate into products and forming an enzyme products complex. The products then leave the active site of the enzyme.

Define the matter and define four states of matter (solid, liquid, gas and plasma).

anything that has mass and occupies spcace- four states solid, liquid, gas and Plasma ; Solid: definite shape and volume Liquid: definite volume; shape of container Gaseous: neither a definite shape nor volume One more states of matter (Plasma)

Describe the general function of enzymes.

are biological molecules (typically proteins) that significantly speed up the rate of virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells.

Describe the key structural components of enzymes.

are made up of amino acids which are linked together via amide (peptide) bonds in a linear chain. This is the primary structure. The resulting amino acid chain is called a polypeptide or protein.

Identify coenzyme and the role of it

are molecules that help an enzyme or protein to function appropriately. are organic molecules and quite often bind loosely to the active site of an enzyme and aid in substrate recruitment, whereas cofactors do not bind the enzyme.

cofactor and the roll of it

are molecules that help an enzyme or protein to function appropriately. these ones dont bind the the enzyme.

Isotope

atoms that share the same number of protons, but different number of neutrons .

how much atp is released from fadh2

between 1 and 2 ATP are generated.

glycogenolysis

breakdown of glycogen to glucose

Classify the reaction based on reversibility and explain why chemical reactions in the body are often irreversible.

can go in both the forward and backward directions. reactants turn into products, but products also turn back into reactant. When products of a reaction are continuously taken away from the sight of the reaction it is unable to present for the reverse reaction. Furthermore, reaction involving energy release will not go backwards unless energy is put into them.

Function of NADH and FADH2

electron carriers

Define an ionic bond

electrons are transferred from metal atom to nonmetal atom; results in formation of ions: cations and anions

List three nutrients that used for providing ATP in human body.

fats, proteins, and carbohydrates

gluconeogenesis.

formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources

Define glycogenesis

formation of glycogen from glucose

Compound

formed when two or more atoms from different elements combine by chemical bonding

List the location of glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis

glycogenesis takes place in the liver, and Gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver and kidneys

List and locate the four stages of aerobic cellular respiration.

glycolysis, a transition reaction that forms acetyl coenzyme A, the citric acid (Krebs) cycle, and an electron transport chain and. chemiosmosis.

List the four most common elements in the human body.

hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen

Describe cofactors and their role in reactions.

is a non-protein chemical compound or metallic ion that is required for an enzyme's activity as a catalyst, a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction.

Phosphorylation

is the chemical addition of a phosphoryl group (PO3-) to an organic molecule.

List two cells can store glucose as a glycogen.

liver and muscles cells

Define calorie

measure of heat; one calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius

suspension -basic mixture

mixture containing two or more components Large, unevenly distributed particles Will settle out when left undisturbed

anions

negatively charged ion; nonmetal gains one or more electrons

Define atomic number

number of protons in atomic nucleus; defines every element

how much atp is released from nadh

produces 3 ATP during the ETC (Electron Transport Chain) with oxidative phosphorylation

glycosis

the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid.

Define the metabolism and summarized the four basic processes.

the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life. (a) Glycolysis (b) Transition Reaction (c) The Krebs cycle (d) Electron Transport Chain.

Colloid basic mixture

two or more components Small, evenly distributed particles Will not settle out

radioisotope

unstable isotopes; high energy or radiation released by radioactive decay; allows isotope to assume more stable form

Describe the distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates.

• An -H and an -OH usually attached to every carbon • Chemical formula is (CH2O)no n the number of carbon atoms • Monosaccharides o simple monomers • Disaccharides o formed from two monosaccharides • Polysaccharides o formed from many monosaccharides

Identify the four types of lipids and their physiologic roles.

• Triglycerides: energy storage • phospholipids: membranes • steroids: ringed structures including some hormones • eicosanoids: locally acting hormones