Bio 223 exam 2
Describe step three of crossbridge cycling in skeletal muscle ( atp bonds to myosin causing the crossbeidge to detach)
Atp bonds to myosin causing the crossbeidge to detach from the actin filament
Rickets ( or osteomalcia in adults)
Bone disease due to improper mineral deposition in body due to dietary ca intake or absorption as bones become soft and easily deformed
Describe step one of cross bridge cycling ( ca concentration increase and bind to actin
Ca concentration is high energized cross bridge can bind to actin
List the different kind sod muscle in vertebrates
Cardiac( in heart) smooth( hollow organs ) and skeletal ( attach to skeleton )
Slow fibers
Contains myosin with low ATPasd activity ( same force as fast)
Glycolytic fibers
Few mitochondria high concent action of proteins for glycolysis and large stores of glycogen low blood vessels and myoglobin
Oxidative fibers ( red muscle fibers )
Fibers that contain numerous mitochondria and high capacity for oxidative phosphorylation ( most atp production depend on blood flow delivering oxygen and nutrients )
Sarcomere
Filaments that are arranged in a repeating pattern running the length of the myrofibril
relate blood pressure, blood flow and resisance in a mathematical way
Flow (F)= delta Pressure (P)/ Resitance (R)
The a band
Formed by thick filament middle of sacromeee produced wide dark band
Joint
Formed where two or more bones connect together
Explain the mechanism of locotion on land
Most energetically costly , must overcome gravity , limit contact with ground increase speed compramise stability
Extensors
Muscle that straighten the limb increasing the angle between to bones
Identify the structural contents of a muscle
Musclefiber Myrofibril I and a band Z line Saceomere
Fast fibers
Myosin and higher ATPase activity ( same force as slow)
heartburn
( aka acid refulx or gastroesophageal refult) painful burning caused by stomach acid and and arise within the esophagus
egestion
( or defication) the process by which anmals pass undigested material and other wastes out of the body
identify the four groups of essential nutrients
- amino acids -fatty acids -minerals -vitamins
provides examples of how changes in temperature affect chemical reactions
- heat accelerates motion of molecules, so temp inrease reaction increase - low temp slowes down chemical reactions, aking it harder for an animaal to remain active and necessary functions to live
provide examples o f hwo changes in termperature affect protein functions
- high temp causes protein to become denatured ( lose the three dimensional strucutre ) bonds are weak and disruped by heat
explain how the nervous system controls different features of the digestive process
- local control by the nerves in the alimentary canal - long ditsance regulation by the grain - stech sensitive nerous in intestinal wall, when activated slow contraction
provide examples of hwo changes in temperature effect membrane structure
- low temp, membrane less fluid and more rigid due to phsopholipids, perform is not as good - hgih membranes can become leaky
describe how horones regulate metabolic rate and appetitie
- satiety signals send to hypothamalus remove sense of hunger when strech hormones activated ( short term) -(long term) leptin, decrease appetite and increase metabolic rate if enough fat, if not released decrease BMR and hunger
predict the efffects of various factors on metabolic rate
-Activity: as activity increase metabolic rate increases, increased when shiver -digestion: eating and digestion increase mebtabolic, -body mass: smaller animals have larger mass speicific BMR
dicuss the two major ways vertebrates can increase their blood glucose concentrations durring the post absoptive state
-glycogenolysis and glyconeogensis - cellular use of ftty acids
describe the mechanisms by which aniamsl can alter the rate of heat gain or loss, of exchanges in skin bloodflow
-on cold days, blood vessels to skin constrict to reduce heat loss - on watrm days, the vessel dilate to release heat
describe the process of blood clotting
-platlets secrete substances that cause them to clump together and bind to collagen fibers in the surrounding connective tissue, then it interacts with plasma andcause the precipitation from solution of fibrin which forms a fiber mesh
describe the two phases of excitation of the vertebrate heart, ventricular
-ventricular: action potential initated in SA node reach AV node, fibers that banch ensure all of the ventricula muscle happens at the same rate
Hinge joint
Allow movement in one place ex elbow
Ball and socket joints
Allow movement in several places ex hip
Fused joints
Allow no movement as between bones of the cranium
Pivot joints
Allow the rotation movement when you shake your head no
thick filaments
Are composed almost entirely of the motor protein myosin
Muscular dystrophy
Associated with the progressive degeneration of skeletal and cardiac muscle fibers wearing the muscle and leading to death
why do some nutrients do not require digestion prior to begin absorbed
absorbed in complete form, absorbed by diffusion or active transport in the small intestine
describe the large intestion
absrobs some water and minerals, prepares wastes for defecation
plaques
accumulation of lipds, fibrous tissue and smooth muscle, inside artieral walls that lead to atherosclerosis
ingestion
act of taking food into the bod via a structure such as a mouth
carnivores
adapted to comesume animal flesh or fluids
shivering thermogensis
all fo the energy liberated by the contracting muscle appears as interal heat
describe the celluar use of fatty acids
all tissue excluding nervous systen use the broken down fatty acids to provide energy source
describe the major nutrient needed for aminals - proteins
amino acids to make new protiens, build muscle, some for energy source
ectotherms
aniamsl that have a body temperature that changes with the enviormental temperature,
herbivoes
animals that eat only vegtabtion, contain microorganism that assit in the digestion of cellulose
endotherms
animals that generate their own internal heat through their metabolism and maintain a relatively narrow range of body temperateures
nutrient
any organic or inorganic substance that is taken by an organism and is erquired for survival growth, development, tissue repair and reporudction
exercise
any phsical activity that increases the animals metabolic rate
essential fatty acid
are certain unsaturated fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by animal cells
minerals
are inorganic ions required by animals for normal functioning of cells, requred for cofactors or constiuents of some enzymes and other proteins
capillaries
are tubes composed of an endothelium resting on a layer of extraceulular matrix called a basal lamina
venules
arre small thin walled extensions of capillaries, emmpty into larger veins that reture to heart
predict how the blood concentration of insulin will change as the blood concentration of glucose changes and vice versa
as [glucose] increases, the pancreas secretes insulin and transport glucose into the cells from the blood, if low it stops secretion. in post absorptive state: [glucose] decrease production of glycose elevating factors increase, signaled by hypothalamus such a glucagon, released from the pancreas
dicuss the effects of change in cardiac output on blood pressure
as cardiac output increases, the blood pressure increase
dicuss the effects of changes in restance on blood pressure
as resistance increase, blood pressure increase
Acetylcholinesterase
Overstimulation of a muscle fiber is prevented by the action of this , the enzyme breaks down excess aCH in the synaptic cleft
Myoglobin
Oxygen binding protein that increases the availability of oxygen in th briber by proving an intercellular reserve of oxygen
Endoskeleton
Provide support and protection is an internal structure
Describe step two of cross bridge cycling ( release of phosphate crossbeidge and thin filaments move)
Release of P causes crossbeidge to move toward the h zone of the sacromere, moves actin towards h zone adp is released
Tropomyosin
Rod shaped molecule composed of two inter winded proteins from
What are the different kinds of muscle fibers
Slow fast and oxidative and glycolytic
What's are the different combinations of muscle fibers
Slow oxidative Fast oxidstic Fast glycolytic
Skeleton
Structure that serves one or more functions related to support protection and locomotion
List the major functions of the vertebrate skeleton
Support protection internal structures and movement is consider is a storage site for ions and necessary minerals
What are the main symptoms and causes of muscluar dystrophy
Symptoms ; degeneration of cardiac and muscle fibers heart failure
describe a cloaca
a common opening for the digestive and urogenital tracts)
blood
a fluid connective tissue containing a mixture of cells and solutes to be transported throughout the body, is pumped under pressure by one or more contactile hearts
epinephrine
a hormone secreated by the adrenal glands eihci are activated by the sympathetic nervous system during exercise, binds to receptors on heart ventricular muscles increases stroke colume
glucagon
a protein hormone, also sercreted by pancreas hat stimulates the process of glycogenolysis, gluconeogensis and ketone synthesis in the liver
body mass index (BMI)
a ratio of weight relative to height
ballon angioplasty
a thin tube with a tiny inflatbale ballon at the tip is threaded through the artery to the diseased area to push the plawue agaisnt the artieral wall
list the current medica treatments for myocardial inarcation (MI) or heart attack
ballon angioplasy or coronary artery bypass
describe the mouth
begins some digestion and breaks up foodd
describe the p wave on an EKG
begins when SA node generaties action potentials and end when the two atria are completely depolarized, follwed bu atrical contractio.
atrioventricular ( AV) valves
between atria and ventricles are one way valvues, control movement of blood
decribe double circulation in vertebrates
blood is pumped under low pressure from heart to lungs, then back to heart and pumped under high pressure to the tissues and returns, has sysremic and pulmonary circulation, has two sets of atria and ventricles
describe a single circulatoins in vertebrates
blood is pumped under low pressure from the heart ot the respitoary surface where it picks up oxygen and drops of co2 and then goes to the rest of the body, heart has a single filing chamber
relate the key structural characteristics of closed circulatory systems to their functions
blood is pumped under pressure, remains in vessels, solutes in blood can be exhcanged with enviorment and body cells, blood have disease fighting cells and molcules, adjust to match metabilic demands, can clot and system grows with animal
describe how the circulatory system adapts to excerise,
blood pressure increase
arteries
blood vessesl taht carry blood awary from the heart to the place for o2
metabolism
bodily activities and chemical reactions in an organism that maintains life
homeotherms
body termpatures that are amintained within a narrow range
osteoporisis
bone disease due to loss of bone mass Can be from disuse or muscle or homrmoal inbalbce
describe the meachnism of digestiona nd absorption of proteins in vertetrates
broken down to polypetide in stomach by pepsin, and small intestine by protease such as trypsin, pancreas secretes enzymes, individual amino acids enter epithelial by secondary active transport
explain Basal metabolic rate (BMR
called metabolic cost of livng, most of it attributed to the routine functions of the heart liver kidneys and brain
list the symptons of myocardial infarction ( MI) or heart attack
can be a silent heart attack with no symptoms
describe the impact of hypertension on human healthd
can be caused by obesity, smoking, aging kidney disease and genetic factors, can damage arteries and lead to athersclerosis
describe how the circulatory system adapts to excerise, cardac output
cardiac out, increases to tissues that require it by stroke volume or heart rate - increase [blood] epinephrine
micelles
consist of bile slats, phospholipids, fatty acids and monoglycerides clustered togetehr
digestive system
consists of alimentary canal ( aka gi tract) plus accessory glands and organs
describe the general structure of vertebrate digestive system
consists of alimentary canal ( gi tract) which constists of three sectionsas well as accessory organs, mouth pharyn esophagous stomach small and alrge intestines and anus, teeth tounge aliver gallbaldder apcreas and salivary glands
bile
contian hco3- cholesterol phospholipids organic waste and ampipatic substances know as bile salts
describe what happens during systole
contraction begins, pressure in ventricles increase,
evaporation
conversion of water from the liquid to gaseous state, lose bodyheat through this from surface or mouth
blood pressure
defined as teh force exerted by blood on the walls of blood vesels, highest in arteries durring systole
systematic circulation
delivers deoxygenated blood from the tissues to the right atrium which sends it to the right ventricle and it goes to the lungs
pulmonary circulation
delivers oxygenate blood from the lungs to the left atrium which passess it on ot the left ventricle to all the bodys tissues
escribe th eimpact of atherosclerosis
depending on how much the plaque obstructs the wall, they may lead to coronary artery disease
metabolic rate
descibe the rate at which an organism uses enrgy to power these reactions
total peripheral resitance ( TPR)
determines by the pressure othe blood exerts in the artiers of a closed circulatory system, refers to CO and resistance refers to sum of resitanes
alimentary canal
digestive cavity where food goes after ingestion
gastrovasular cavity
digestive cavity, one opening, also ciculatory to distriute nuteinets
describe the pancreas secretion
digestive enzyme that neutralized acidic chyme
arterioles
distribute blood to regions of the body in proportion to metabolic demands, done by chaning the diameter
pulmonary trunk
divides into the pulmonary arteries that lead the right and left lungs
omnivores
eat both plant and animal products
radiation
emission of electroagetic waves by the surfaces of objects, rate determined by temp of radiating surfaces, so if body surface warmer than enviorment body loses heat and vice versa
descriibe the mahor nutrient needed for animals - carbohydrate
energy source, source of C, component of some proteins
norepinephrine
enhaces effects of epinephrine, neurotramsitter directly fro symathetic nerve endins onto cardiac myocytes
gluconegensis
enzymes in the liver convert noncarbohydraes into glucose, which is then secreted into the blood
describe the mechanism by which aniamls can alter the rate of heat gain or loss, evaporative heat loss
evaporatino through preseperation, or such as cats through the mouth
escribe the process of absortpion o f amino acids durring the absorptive state
excess amino acids no stored as prtein, but used in syntehsis of fatty acid, incorporated into tricgerides
describe the interaction of the lympathic system with the circulatory system
excess water and soultes enters the system and retuns to the blood
villi
finger like projections extend into lumen of vertebrate small intestine
diastole
first phase of cardiac cycle, centricles relaxed and fill with blood from atria through AV valvues, at the end, atria contact and fill ventricles more
duodenum
first portion of the intestine
heterotherms
have a body temperature that vary widely with the enviorment
relate the key structural characteristics of open circulatory systems to their functions
have multiple hearts because blood is not directed to one specific place, is energy inexpenisve because blood does not need to go to a specific place, can adapt to metabolic demands
list the causes of Myocardial infarction (MI) heart attack
heart deprived of blood, norally caused by bloackage of one of coronary arteries,
describe the mechanisms by whcih animals can alter the rate of heat gian or loss, countercurrent exchange
heat is transferred between fluids flowing in opposite directions, regulates heat loss by reterning it to the core rather than extremities,
list the four terms used to categourize orgnamis based on theri source of ehat and ability to maintain body temperature
homeotherms hectotherms endotherms and ectotherms
leptin
hormone, control appetite and metabolic rate, produced by adipose cells in proportion to fat mass
vitamins
important organic nutrients that serve as coenzymes for manymetabolic and biosyntheitc reactions
outline how microorganisms can help digest cellulose in ruminants and other herbivores
in their gi tract is where the microorganisms live, breaksd down the cellulose into monosaccharides that can be absorbed along with other by products such as fatty acids and vitamins
myogeneic heart
in vertebrates, the signaling mechanism that initates contraction resides within th ecardiac myscle itself
emulsification
increases rate of digestion, disrupts the large lipid droplets into many tiny droplets, increasing total surface area and greater exposure of tipase
what are the four phases of food use in animals
ingestion digestion absorption egestion
thrombocytes
intact cells, important for blood clots
why is extraceulluar digestion more comman than intracellular
intra can not support metablic demands of an active animal for long, because it uses phagocytosed, cannot stroge large amounts of food, does not protect interior of cells
absorption
ions water and small molecules diffuse or are transported from the alimentary canal into an animals circulatory system of body fluids
calorie
is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of whater one degree celsius, equibalent to 4.187 joules
give exeamples of essential nutrients from amino acid
isoleucine -leucine -lysine -methionine -phenylalanine -histidine -threonine -trypotophan -valine
propose a hypthesis explaining wh most human adults are lactose intolerant to some degree
it is because as people grow up they do not drink milk nearly as much as when they were a child so they no longer have many receptors avliable to breakdown the milk
why is glucose sparing improtant
it is important because it allow the body to run for a longer time without food
predict probelms that might arise if saliva or acid could not be secreted into the mouth or stomach repectivly
it would be difficult to ingested food as the mouth and other organs are not lubriacated, food would not be disolved, bacteria would not be killed, inital digestion would not begin
aorta
leads to the systemic circualtion and the pulmonary trick
give exmaples of the essential nutrients from essential fatty acids
linoleic acids - arachidonic acid
describe the first section of the alimentary canal
located at anterior end, fucntions ingestion, mouth silvia, pharyn adn esophgaous, primay job ingestion
atrioventricular (AV) node
located near the junction of atria and centricles and conducts electrical signals from atria to centricles, electrically excitable, but takes longer than atria cells
describe the last section of the alimentary canal
located posterior end, final digestion and absorption and elimination, consists of small intestine, and large, remandered exits through anus
diarrhea
loose, watery stools occuring at least three times per day, every year
describe the mechanism by which animals can alter the rate of heat gain or loss, behavioral adaption
loss by radiation, conduction and evaporation, chaning exposed surface area, or burrow into the ground or water, in cold, huddel in group, curl into ball, hunch shoulders
hemorrhage
loss of blood from a ruptured blood vessel, causes decrease in blood volume
pepsin
made from pesinogen, protease and begins the digestion of protein
identify the primary cause of ulcers
mainly from a bacterial infection
lipase
major digestive enzyme, secreted by cells of the pancreas into the small intestine. splits triglycerides into 2 free fatty acids and a monoglyceride
neurogenic heart
many arthopods and decapod crusteaceans have this, will not beat unless ti recieves regular eledctrical impulses from the nervous system
ECK ( or EKG) electrocardiogram
medical test used to investigate the function of the heart
food induced thermogensis
memmals eat food, increase metabolic rate and heat production, heat is from the process of absorbing nutrients by the liver and alimentary canal
describe the impact of ulcers on public health
most common in stomach and duodemun, can leak contents to surroundings, mainly from bacteria infection
esophagus
moves food to the crop by peristalsis
essential nutrient
must be obtained in the diet in their complete form ( can not be synthesized)
explain how the basal metabolic rate (BMR) is measured
normal uses indirect calorimetry, measured the amount of oxugen consumed durring rest and exercise, estimating BMR
digestion
nutrients if not directly used, broken down into smaller molecules
describe the effect of exercise on energy demands and the mechanisms that are activated to meet those demands
nutrients must be able to provide energy, include golucosoe adn fatty acids, liver supplies glucose by breaking down glycogen and gluconeogenesis, blood [glucose] abover normal
describe active absorption of food
nutrients transported across epithelial cells by atp driven pumps, or secondary active transport
describe the emchanism of digestion and absorption of fats in vertebrates
occurs mostly in small intestin, major enzyme lipase, breaks down tricglyerides
describe intracellular digestion
occurs only in very simple ivnertebrates, used phagocytosis, cannot sypport physcially active animal
defication
occurs when contractions of the rectm and relaxation of associated sphincter muscles expel the feces through the anus
absorptive state
occurs when ingested nutrients enter the blood from the alimentary canal
describe the processes of absorption of glucose durring the absorptive state
one of two major energy sources, absorbed glucose enters cells and is enzymatically broken down, formation of H CO and H2O, released energy required to turn ATP from ADP and Pi, used by skeletal, excesses into glycogen in liver and triglcerides into adipose cells
proventriculus
one part of bird stomach, the glandular poteion that secretes acid and pepsinogen
ventriclea
one way valvue that pumps bloood out of the heart
semilunar valvues
one way valvues, are located bewteen each ventricle and the artery ( aorta or pulmonary trunk) into which the ventricle ejects blood
glucose sparing
organs increase use of fat to keep glucose for CNS, reserves glucose produced by liver for glycogenolysis and glyconeogensis
describe the processes of triglycerdies durring the absorptive stated
packaed into chylomicrons, released fatty acids diffuse into adipose cells nd reform triglycerides
colon
part of large intestin, empties to rectum
chyme
partially digested food
gizzard
partially digestied and acidifed food moves here, a muscular strucutre with a rough inner linning that grinds food into smaller fragments
describe the pharynx
pathway to esohagous
atherosclerosis
plaque causes the arteries to narrow and harder, which can block lumen
microvilli
plasma membrane which from small projections, collective know as bush border
list the four componets of blood
plasma, lekocytes, erythrocyes, and platelets
describe what happens durring diastole
pressure in the ventricles is lower than atria and arteries, AV valves open, semilunar closed,
explain what baroreceptor are importantfeature to respond to a change in blood pressure
pressure sensitive regions, when above normal range, the arteries ( arota and carotid) strech which make the vbarorectors strech when opens ion channels in the plasma membrane, resulting in action potential and decrease norepinephrine
conduction
process by which the body surface loses or gain heat through direct contact with cooler or warmer substances, the greater the differnce thegreater the rate, different materials have different abilities to absorb heat, surfae area of animal play a role
describe the liver
produces bile to assist in fat digestion
brown adipose tissue
produces by nonshivering thermogensis, spealized tissue in small aminals
describe extracellular digestion
protects the interor of the cells fromthe enzymes, allows animals to consume large prey or vegetation, can be stored
describe the major nutrient needed for aminals nucleic acid
provide sugars, bases and phsophates that can be used o make DNA, RNA and ATP
heart
pump the fluid through the vessels
identify the four main mechanims animal use to exhcange heat with the enviorment
radiation, evaporation, convection, conduction
erthrocytes
red blood cells
vasoconstriction
refers to a decrease in blood vessel radious
resistance (R)
refers to the tendency of blood vessels to slow down the flow of blood thorugh their lumens
vasodilation
regers to an increase in blood vessel radius
myocardial inarction ( MI) ( heart attack)
region of the heart is deprived of blood for an etend time can result in this, normally form blockage in coronary artiers
baroreceptors
regions contain the endings of neurons, that are in constant electrical communication with the medulla oblongata, a region of the brain stem
essential amino acids
required in the diet of humans and many but not all other animals ( can not be synetized)
rectum
short segment of the large intestine that ends at the anus
satiety
short term control of feeding involves this, it is a feeling of fullness
lacteal
specifal type of vessel, which is part of the lympatic system
endothelium
specilized epithelial cells, form smooth lining in contact with the blood
decribe the function of CCK, Cholecytokinin
stilmutes contraction of gallbaldder,
describe the middle sections of the alimentary canal
storage and intial digestion, has torage orcan including crop, gizzzard and stomach, upper part of the samll intestion, and acccessroy strucutre
crop
strogage organ, dilation of lower esophagus
double circulation is composed ofr
systematic and pulmonry circulation
stroke volume ( SV)
the amount of blood the heart ejects, roughly propotional to the size of the heart
cardiac output (CO)
the amount of blood the heart pumps per unit of time ( L/min)
mass specific BMR
the amount of energy expended per gram of body mass in the resting condition
systole
the centricles contact and eject the blood though the open semilunar valvues
cardiac cycle
the contraction and relaxation events that produce a single heart beat which has two phases, diastole and systole
cardiac angiography
the coronary arteries can be visulized by injecting a dye into a personas veins and then taking a x ray image of the chest allowing a physican to determine the the vessels are narrowed by diesase
hemolymph
the fluid in the vesse;s and interstitial fluid that surrounds cells mingle in on e large compartment rather than being in seperate compartments, nutrients and waste exchanged through diffusion of this and body cells
hematocrit
the volume of blood that is compsed of erythrocytes, usally between 40-65% in vertebrates, transport oxygen through body
describe how thehuman bod regulates the use and storage of glycose
tight control in the nervous and endocrine system help regualte homeostasis, controled by blood glucose concentration, body reacts when glucose is present to store excess, if glucose is low, it will release glycose increasing enzymes for the CNS and rest of bdoy runs off the fatty acids
amylase
to initiate digestion of carbohydrates through the action of a secreted enyzme
convection
transfer of heat by the movement of air or fluid next to the bdoy, aided by creating currents of air around animals bdoy
circulatory systes
transport necessary materials to all the cels of an animals body and transport waste products away from the cells so they can be released into the enviorment
escirb ethe esophagus
transports food to the stomach
coronary artery bypass
treatment for serious coronary artery diesase, a small piece of healthy blood vessel is removed from one part of the body and surgically grafed onto the coronary ciculation in such a way that blood can pass
angina pextoris
warning sign of coronary artery disease, chest pain during exertion due to the heart being deprived of oxygen
coronary artery disease
when plaques form the coronary vessel can be life threating
postabsorptive state
when the alimentary canal is empty of nutrietns and the bodys own stores must supply energy
describe the QRS complex on an EKG
when the branches from the AV node excite the ventricles and ends when both ventricles depolarize completly
coronary arteries
which carry ocygen and nutrients to the heart muscle
leukocytes
white blood cells, deveped from connective tissue of bones
hemoglobin
within the cytosol of erthrocytes, binds up to four molecules of oxygen
sinoatrial (SA) node or pacemaker
within the right atrium, is a collection of modified myocytes that have an inherently unstable resting membrane potential
plasma
yellowish solution, makes 35-60 percent of total blood boume in vertebrades, contain water and nutrients
describe the two phases of excitation of the vertebre atrial
- atrial: electrical signals are generated at the junction of the veins (fish) and the right atrium, or in other vertebraen SA node
describe how the circulatory system adapts to excerise, blood vessel diameter
- blood vessel diameter, increase in energy imporant area and constrict in less essential
List the four steps of cross bridge cycle
- ca concentration increases triggering the cross bridge to bind to actin - release if phosphate the power stroke the crossbeidge and thin filaments move - atp bonds to myosin causing the cross bridge to detach - atp hydrolysis reengerizes and resets the cross bridge
Atrophy
A decline or cessation in muscular activity condition, reduction in the size of the musclen
give examples of the essential nutrients from vitamins
-biotin -folic acid -niacin -pantothernic acid B1 B2 B6 B12 Vitamin C,a d e k
give exmapoes of the nutrients needed from minerals
-calcium -chlorine -chromium -copper -iodine -oron manesium -mananese phosphorus -potrassium -selenium -sulfur -sodium -zinc
list the mahor categories of nutrients consumed by animals
-carbohydrates -proteins -lipids -nucelic acids
Troponin
A smaller globular shaped Orrin with three subunits that is bound to both tropmyosin and actin, is a molecule is held in this locking position
Flexors
Bend at joint to reduce the angle between two bones
I band
Between the a bands of adjacent sacromeres has portions of thin filaments that do not overlap thick and bisected by a z line
Exoskeleton
External skeleton that surrounds and protect most of the body surface
Describe how antagonist muscles function at a joint
Ex contraction of hamstring flexes the leg at knee joint relaxing the quadriceps whereas contraction of the quadriceps caused the leg to extend the hamstring to relax both exert a pulling force
Distinguished between exoskeleton and endoskeleton
Exo: outside thick protection molting made from chitin Endo: inside can protect organs
Antagonist
Groups of muscle that produce oppositely direct movement at an joint
thin filaments
Half the diameter of thick constrain cytoskeleton protein actin and associated proteins
fast glycolytic fibers
High myosin ATPase activity Low atp Rapid intense actions White meat
Fast oxidative fibers
High myosin ATPase large atp Long term activity's and rapid action
Sliding filament mechanism
His muscle fibers shortens,
Describe step four of cross bridge cycling ( atp hydrolysis reenerhizds and resets the crossbeidge )
Hydrolysis of atp to adp and P provides energ causes the crossbeidge to move away from the h zone and adp and P remain bound
Explain the locotion mechanism in air
Hypothesized evolved from four different lineages , can escape land animals , scan ground , inhabit difficult to reach habitat , medium energy cost , small
M line
In the center of the of the h zone and is composed of proteins that link the central regions of adjacent thick filaments
Transverse or t tubules
Invagination of the plasma membrane that lie close to the sarcoplasmix reticulum
skeletal muscle
Involved in locomotion in vertebrates electrically excitable and can produce action potential ( invertebrate only have graded)
Explain how evolution has shaped the structures used for locomotion
It has allowed them to have bodies to be most efficient
Relate the structure of an exoskeleton to its function and purpose reason why such a skeleton provides advantage to the animal
It is a hard outer shell meant to protect the organism from pretators, or it could be. With light and flexible for organisms such as a butterfly allow them to protect and move with the most safety
Describe the composition of vertebrate bone
It's is axial ( head and torso) and appendicular ( limbs connected to axial)
slow oxidative fibers
Low myosin ATPase activity Large amount atp Prolong regular movement not fatigue easily dark meat
H zone
Narrow region in the center of the a band between two sets of thin filaments
Z line
Network of proteins to which thin filaments are attached two z lines define the boundary
Explain the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction
Sacromere shirted bht neither the thick or thin filaments change length the thick stay in place and thin slide Propelled by musician cross bridge
Cross bridge cycle
Sequence of events that occur between the time when a cross bridge. Bonds tona thin filament when jr is set to repeat th process is known as
Neuromuscular junction
Site where a motor neurons axon synapses with a muscle fiber
Muscle fibers
Skeletal muscle is a group of this, made by bounding to get her fascicles
Cross bridges
Spaces between overlapping thick and thin filaments are bridges by projections which are regions of myosin molecules that extend from the surface of thick and thinnfilaments
Smooth muscle
Spurronds and forms part of the lining of hollow organs and tubes
Locomotion
The movement of an animal from place to place
Motor end plate
The region of the muscle fiber plasma membrane that lies directly under the axon terminal
Excitation contraction coupling
The sequence of events by which an action potential in the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber lead to a cross bridge activity. By the mechanism
sarcoplasmic reticulum
The source of the increased cystolic ca that occurs following an muscke action protential acts as ca reserve
Predict how muscle adapt to exercise
Weight resistance exercise increases the size of the muscle fibers diameters Areobeic increases the amount of mitochondria and number of blood vessels around fibers increase
Explain he mechanism of animal locomotion in water
Water denser than air which provides resistance to movement as speed increases , streamline body is easier, provides buoyancy , half ends allow them to propel "cheapest form on locomotion
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD)
X linked recessive encodes for a protein knownas dystrophin
identify serveral mechanisms bu which animals can alter the rate of heat gain of loss
changes in skin blood flow, countercurrent exchange, evaporative heat loss, hebavoral adaptions
nonshivering thermogensis
chronic cold exposure, increase the metabolic rate and therefore heat production that is not due to increased muscle activity
atrium
collects blood from the tissues, exits through ventricle
describe the small intestine
combination of villi and microbilli increases the surface area and maximizes the effciency of digestion and absorptiond
pancreas
comlex organ located behind and below the stopmach in humans
describe the mahor nutrient needed for animals- lipids
component of cell membrane, energy source, insulator, building blocks of hormones
fibrin
forms a meshwork of threadlike fibers that wrap around and between platelets and erythrocytes enlarging and thicening th eplyg to form a clot
cecum
forms a small punch from which extends the appendix, a finger like proection having no certain essential function by contribute to defense
describe the impact of heartburn on public health
from excesss stomach acid, can damage walls of esophagus, cause chronic cough and pain or perforate espohgas
name three major homes important for the regulationof digestionin vertebrates
gastrin, cholecystokinin ( CCK) and digestive enzumes from pancreas
lipolysis
glycerol released from triglycerides in adipose tissue is broken down by this process, hydrolysies triglycerides from fatty acids and glyceral
glycogenolysis
glycogen that was formed durring the absorptive state can be broken down into molecues of glyoce by hydrolysis in this process
platelets
gragments of membrane encolsed cytosol and lack a nucleous,important for blood cltos
describe the T wave of an EKG
result from repolarizatino of ventricles back to their resting state, and associated with relation, distole begins again
describe the impact of diarrhea on public health
resulted from pathogen, or food sensitives, medication, stress and parasite, results in dehydration, loss of nutrients and ions,
chylomicrons
resynthessized triglycerides form this, large droplets coated with protein that perform an emuslfiying functions similar to that of bile salt
veins
returns partially deoxygenated blood to heart bia these vesesls
peristalsis
rythemic spontaneous waves of smooth muscle contraction that begin near the mouth and end at the stomach
stomach
sac like organ that most likely evolved as a mean of stroing food
describe the mechanism of digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in vertebrates
samm amout of polysacchardie is digesten in mourth by salivary amylase, mostly happens in small intestin by amylase, enzymes located on bush border, monosacharides abosrbed,
describe passive absorption of food
simple or facilitated diffucsion of nutriention across epithelial cell canal
liver
site of bile production
anus
the opening at the posterior end of the alimentary canal
small inestine
the portion of the alimentary canal that leads from the stomach to the large intestine, or the anus or cloaca, where absorption of nutrients and water occur
nutrition
the process of consuming and using food and nutrients
ruminants
type of herbivoes, lack enzyme to digest cellulose, able to digest with the help of miccorganisms living iwithin their digestive tract
gastrin
type of hormone, reachest stomachthrough bloodstream in reponse to food
gallbladder
undermeath liver, secerted bile stored here
countercurrent exchange
used by endotherms and ectotherms regulate heat loss to the enviorment, heat is transferred between fluids flwing in opposite directions
indirect calorimetry
usual method for emasuring metabolic rate, based on the principe that animals require oxygen to meabolize foostuffs