Bio 223 exam 2

Describe step three of crossbridge cycling in skeletal muscle ( atp bonds to myosin causing the crossbeidge to detach)

Atp bonds to myosin causing the crossbeidge to detach from the actin filament

Rickets ( or osteomalcia in adults)

Bone disease due to improper mineral deposition in body due to dietary ca intake or absorption as bones become soft and easily deformed

Describe step one of cross bridge cycling ( ca concentration increase and bind to actin

Ca concentration is high energized cross bridge can bind to actin

List the different kind sod muscle in vertebrates

Cardiac( in heart) smooth( hollow organs ) and skeletal ( attach to skeleton )

Slow fibers

Contains myosin with low ATPasd activity ( same force as fast)

Glycolytic fibers

Few mitochondria high concent action of proteins for glycolysis and large stores of glycogen low blood vessels and myoglobin

Oxidative fibers ( red muscle fibers )

Fibers that contain numerous mitochondria and high capacity for oxidative phosphorylation ( most atp production depend on blood flow delivering oxygen and nutrients )

Sarcomere

Filaments that are arranged in a repeating pattern running the length of the myrofibril

relate blood pressure, blood flow and resisance in a mathematical way

Flow (F)= delta Pressure (P)/ Resitance (R)

The a band

Formed by thick filament middle of sacromeee produced wide dark band

Joint

Formed where two or more bones connect together

Explain the mechanism of locotion on land

Most energetically costly , must overcome gravity , limit contact with ground increase speed compramise stability

Extensors

Muscle that straighten the limb increasing the angle between to bones

Identify the structural contents of a muscle

Musclefiber Myrofibril I and a band Z line Saceomere

Fast fibers

Myosin and higher ATPase activity ( same force as slow)

heartburn

( aka acid refulx or gastroesophageal refult) painful burning caused by stomach acid and and arise within the esophagus

egestion

( or defication) the process by which anmals pass undigested material and other wastes out of the body

identify the four groups of essential nutrients

- amino acids -fatty acids -minerals -vitamins

provides examples of how changes in temperature affect chemical reactions

- heat accelerates motion of molecules, so temp inrease reaction increase - low temp slowes down chemical reactions, aking it harder for an animaal to remain active and necessary functions to live

provide examples o f hwo changes in termperature affect protein functions

- high temp causes protein to become denatured ( lose the three dimensional strucutre ) bonds are weak and disruped by heat

explain how the nervous system controls different features of the digestive process

- local control by the nerves in the alimentary canal - long ditsance regulation by the grain - stech sensitive nerous in intestinal wall, when activated slow contraction

provide examples of hwo changes in temperature effect membrane structure

- low temp, membrane less fluid and more rigid due to phsopholipids, perform is not as good - hgih membranes can become leaky

describe how horones regulate metabolic rate and appetitie

- satiety signals send to hypothamalus remove sense of hunger when strech hormones activated ( short term) -(long term) leptin, decrease appetite and increase metabolic rate if enough fat, if not released decrease BMR and hunger

predict the efffects of various factors on metabolic rate

-Activity: as activity increase metabolic rate increases, increased when shiver -digestion: eating and digestion increase mebtabolic, -body mass: smaller animals have larger mass speicific BMR

dicuss the two major ways vertebrates can increase their blood glucose concentrations durring the post absoptive state

-glycogenolysis and glyconeogensis - cellular use of ftty acids

describe the mechanisms by which aniamsl can alter the rate of heat gain or loss, of exchanges in skin bloodflow

-on cold days, blood vessels to skin constrict to reduce heat loss - on watrm days, the vessel dilate to release heat

describe the process of blood clotting

-platlets secrete substances that cause them to clump together and bind to collagen fibers in the surrounding connective tissue, then it interacts with plasma andcause the precipitation from solution of fibrin which forms a fiber mesh

describe the two phases of excitation of the vertebrate heart, ventricular

-ventricular: action potential initated in SA node reach AV node, fibers that banch ensure all of the ventricula muscle happens at the same rate

Hinge joint

Allow movement in one place ex elbow

Ball and socket joints

Allow movement in several places ex hip

Fused joints

Allow no movement as between bones of the cranium

Pivot joints

Allow the rotation movement when you shake your head no

thick filaments

Are composed almost entirely of the motor protein myosin

Muscular dystrophy

Associated with the progressive degeneration of skeletal and cardiac muscle fibers wearing the muscle and leading to death

why do some nutrients do not require digestion prior to begin absorbed

absorbed in complete form, absorbed by diffusion or active transport in the small intestine

describe the large intestion

absrobs some water and minerals, prepares wastes for defecation

plaques

accumulation of lipds, fibrous tissue and smooth muscle, inside artieral walls that lead to atherosclerosis

ingestion

act of taking food into the bod via a structure such as a mouth

carnivores

adapted to comesume animal flesh or fluids

shivering thermogensis

all fo the energy liberated by the contracting muscle appears as interal heat

describe the celluar use of fatty acids

all tissue excluding nervous systen use the broken down fatty acids to provide energy source

describe the major nutrient needed for aminals - proteins

amino acids to make new protiens, build muscle, some for energy source

ectotherms

aniamsl that have a body temperature that changes with the enviormental temperature,

herbivoes

animals that eat only vegtabtion, contain microorganism that assit in the digestion of cellulose

endotherms

animals that generate their own internal heat through their metabolism and maintain a relatively narrow range of body temperateures

nutrient

any organic or inorganic substance that is taken by an organism and is erquired for survival growth, development, tissue repair and reporudction

exercise

any phsical activity that increases the animals metabolic rate

essential fatty acid

are certain unsaturated fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by animal cells

minerals

are inorganic ions required by animals for normal functioning of cells, requred for cofactors or constiuents of some enzymes and other proteins

capillaries

are tubes composed of an endothelium resting on a layer of extraceulular matrix called a basal lamina

venules

arre small thin walled extensions of capillaries, emmpty into larger veins that reture to heart

predict how the blood concentration of insulin will change as the blood concentration of glucose changes and vice versa

as [glucose] increases, the pancreas secretes insulin and transport glucose into the cells from the blood, if low it stops secretion. in post absorptive state: [glucose] decrease production of glycose elevating factors increase, signaled by hypothalamus such a glucagon, released from the pancreas

dicuss the effects of change in cardiac output on blood pressure

as cardiac output increases, the blood pressure increase

dicuss the effects of changes in restance on blood pressure

as resistance increase, blood pressure increase

Acetylcholinesterase

Overstimulation of a muscle fiber is prevented by the action of this , the enzyme breaks down excess aCH in the synaptic cleft

Myoglobin

Oxygen binding protein that increases the availability of oxygen in th briber by proving an intercellular reserve of oxygen

Endoskeleton

Provide support and protection is an internal structure

Describe step two of cross bridge cycling ( release of phosphate crossbeidge and thin filaments move)

Release of P causes crossbeidge to move toward the h zone of the sacromere, moves actin towards h zone adp is released

Tropomyosin

Rod shaped molecule composed of two inter winded proteins from

What are the different kinds of muscle fibers

Slow fast and oxidative and glycolytic

What's are the different combinations of muscle fibers

Slow oxidative Fast oxidstic Fast glycolytic

Skeleton

Structure that serves one or more functions related to support protection and locomotion

List the major functions of the vertebrate skeleton

Support protection internal structures and movement is consider is a storage site for ions and necessary minerals

What are the main symptoms and causes of muscluar dystrophy

Symptoms ; degeneration of cardiac and muscle fibers heart failure

describe a cloaca

a common opening for the digestive and urogenital tracts)

blood

a fluid connective tissue containing a mixture of cells and solutes to be transported throughout the body, is pumped under pressure by one or more contactile hearts

epinephrine

a hormone secreated by the adrenal glands eihci are activated by the sympathetic nervous system during exercise, binds to receptors on heart ventricular muscles increases stroke colume

glucagon

a protein hormone, also sercreted by pancreas hat stimulates the process of glycogenolysis, gluconeogensis and ketone synthesis in the liver

body mass index (BMI)

a ratio of weight relative to height

ballon angioplasty

a thin tube with a tiny inflatbale ballon at the tip is threaded through the artery to the diseased area to push the plawue agaisnt the artieral wall

list the current medica treatments for myocardial inarcation (MI) or heart attack

ballon angioplasy or coronary artery bypass

describe the mouth

begins some digestion and breaks up foodd

describe the p wave on an EKG

begins when SA node generaties action potentials and end when the two atria are completely depolarized, follwed bu atrical contractio.

atrioventricular ( AV) valves

between atria and ventricles are one way valvues, control movement of blood

decribe double circulation in vertebrates

blood is pumped under low pressure from heart to lungs, then back to heart and pumped under high pressure to the tissues and returns, has sysremic and pulmonary circulation, has two sets of atria and ventricles

describe a single circulatoins in vertebrates

blood is pumped under low pressure from the heart ot the respitoary surface where it picks up oxygen and drops of co2 and then goes to the rest of the body, heart has a single filing chamber

relate the key structural characteristics of closed circulatory systems to their functions

blood is pumped under pressure, remains in vessels, solutes in blood can be exhcanged with enviorment and body cells, blood have disease fighting cells and molcules, adjust to match metabilic demands, can clot and system grows with animal

describe how the circulatory system adapts to excerise,

blood pressure increase

arteries

blood vessesl taht carry blood awary from the heart to the place for o2

metabolism

bodily activities and chemical reactions in an organism that maintains life

homeotherms

body termpatures that are amintained within a narrow range

osteoporisis

bone disease due to loss of bone mass Can be from disuse or muscle or homrmoal inbalbce

describe the meachnism of digestiona nd absorption of proteins in vertetrates

broken down to polypetide in stomach by pepsin, and small intestine by protease such as trypsin, pancreas secretes enzymes, individual amino acids enter epithelial by secondary active transport

explain Basal metabolic rate (BMR

called metabolic cost of livng, most of it attributed to the routine functions of the heart liver kidneys and brain

list the symptons of myocardial infarction ( MI) or heart attack

can be a silent heart attack with no symptoms

describe the impact of hypertension on human healthd

can be caused by obesity, smoking, aging kidney disease and genetic factors, can damage arteries and lead to athersclerosis

describe how the circulatory system adapts to excerise, cardac output

cardiac out, increases to tissues that require it by stroke volume or heart rate - increase [blood] epinephrine

micelles

consist of bile slats, phospholipids, fatty acids and monoglycerides clustered togetehr

digestive system

consists of alimentary canal ( aka gi tract) plus accessory glands and organs

describe the general structure of vertebrate digestive system

consists of alimentary canal ( gi tract) which constists of three sectionsas well as accessory organs, mouth pharyn esophagous stomach small and alrge intestines and anus, teeth tounge aliver gallbaldder apcreas and salivary glands

bile

contian hco3- cholesterol phospholipids organic waste and ampipatic substances know as bile salts

describe what happens during systole

contraction begins, pressure in ventricles increase,

evaporation

conversion of water from the liquid to gaseous state, lose bodyheat through this from surface or mouth

blood pressure

defined as teh force exerted by blood on the walls of blood vesels, highest in arteries durring systole

systematic circulation

delivers deoxygenated blood from the tissues to the right atrium which sends it to the right ventricle and it goes to the lungs

pulmonary circulation

delivers oxygenate blood from the lungs to the left atrium which passess it on ot the left ventricle to all the bodys tissues

escribe th eimpact of atherosclerosis

depending on how much the plaque obstructs the wall, they may lead to coronary artery disease

metabolic rate

descibe the rate at which an organism uses enrgy to power these reactions

total peripheral resitance ( TPR)

determines by the pressure othe blood exerts in the artiers of a closed circulatory system, refers to CO and resistance refers to sum of resitanes

alimentary canal

digestive cavity where food goes after ingestion

gastrovasular cavity

digestive cavity, one opening, also ciculatory to distriute nuteinets

describe the pancreas secretion

digestive enzyme that neutralized acidic chyme

arterioles

distribute blood to regions of the body in proportion to metabolic demands, done by chaning the diameter

pulmonary trunk

divides into the pulmonary arteries that lead the right and left lungs

omnivores

eat both plant and animal products

radiation

emission of electroagetic waves by the surfaces of objects, rate determined by temp of radiating surfaces, so if body surface warmer than enviorment body loses heat and vice versa

descriibe the mahor nutrient needed for animals - carbohydrate

energy source, source of C, component of some proteins

norepinephrine

enhaces effects of epinephrine, neurotramsitter directly fro symathetic nerve endins onto cardiac myocytes

gluconegensis

enzymes in the liver convert noncarbohydraes into glucose, which is then secreted into the blood

describe the mechanism by which aniamls can alter the rate of heat gain or loss, evaporative heat loss

evaporatino through preseperation, or such as cats through the mouth

escribe the process of absortpion o f amino acids durring the absorptive state

excess amino acids no stored as prtein, but used in syntehsis of fatty acid, incorporated into tricgerides

describe the interaction of the lympathic system with the circulatory system

excess water and soultes enters the system and retuns to the blood

villi

finger like projections extend into lumen of vertebrate small intestine

diastole

first phase of cardiac cycle, centricles relaxed and fill with blood from atria through AV valvues, at the end, atria contact and fill ventricles more

duodenum

first portion of the intestine

heterotherms

have a body temperature that vary widely with the enviorment

relate the key structural characteristics of open circulatory systems to their functions

have multiple hearts because blood is not directed to one specific place, is energy inexpenisve because blood does not need to go to a specific place, can adapt to metabolic demands

list the causes of Myocardial infarction (MI) heart attack

heart deprived of blood, norally caused by bloackage of one of coronary arteries,

describe the mechanisms by whcih animals can alter the rate of heat gian or loss, countercurrent exchange

heat is transferred between fluids flowing in opposite directions, regulates heat loss by reterning it to the core rather than extremities,

list the four terms used to categourize orgnamis based on theri source of ehat and ability to maintain body temperature

homeotherms hectotherms endotherms and ectotherms

leptin

hormone, control appetite and metabolic rate, produced by adipose cells in proportion to fat mass

vitamins

important organic nutrients that serve as coenzymes for manymetabolic and biosyntheitc reactions

outline how microorganisms can help digest cellulose in ruminants and other herbivores

in their gi tract is where the microorganisms live, breaksd down the cellulose into monosaccharides that can be absorbed along with other by products such as fatty acids and vitamins

myogeneic heart

in vertebrates, the signaling mechanism that initates contraction resides within th ecardiac myscle itself

emulsification

increases rate of digestion, disrupts the large lipid droplets into many tiny droplets, increasing total surface area and greater exposure of tipase

what are the four phases of food use in animals

ingestion digestion absorption egestion

thrombocytes

intact cells, important for blood clots

why is extraceulluar digestion more comman than intracellular

intra can not support metablic demands of an active animal for long, because it uses phagocytosed, cannot stroge large amounts of food, does not protect interior of cells

absorption

ions water and small molecules diffuse or are transported from the alimentary canal into an animals circulatory system of body fluids

calorie

is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of whater one degree celsius, equibalent to 4.187 joules

give exeamples of essential nutrients from amino acid

isoleucine -leucine -lysine -methionine -phenylalanine -histidine -threonine -trypotophan -valine

propose a hypthesis explaining wh most human adults are lactose intolerant to some degree

it is because as people grow up they do not drink milk nearly as much as when they were a child so they no longer have many receptors avliable to breakdown the milk

why is glucose sparing improtant

it is important because it allow the body to run for a longer time without food

predict probelms that might arise if saliva or acid could not be secreted into the mouth or stomach repectivly

it would be difficult to ingested food as the mouth and other organs are not lubriacated, food would not be disolved, bacteria would not be killed, inital digestion would not begin

aorta

leads to the systemic circualtion and the pulmonary trick

give exmaples of the essential nutrients from essential fatty acids

linoleic acids - arachidonic acid

describe the first section of the alimentary canal

located at anterior end, fucntions ingestion, mouth silvia, pharyn adn esophgaous, primay job ingestion

atrioventricular (AV) node

located near the junction of atria and centricles and conducts electrical signals from atria to centricles, electrically excitable, but takes longer than atria cells

describe the last section of the alimentary canal

located posterior end, final digestion and absorption and elimination, consists of small intestine, and large, remandered exits through anus

diarrhea

loose, watery stools occuring at least three times per day, every year

describe the mechanism by which animals can alter the rate of heat gain or loss, behavioral adaption

loss by radiation, conduction and evaporation, chaning exposed surface area, or burrow into the ground or water, in cold, huddel in group, curl into ball, hunch shoulders

hemorrhage

loss of blood from a ruptured blood vessel, causes decrease in blood volume

pepsin

made from pesinogen, protease and begins the digestion of protein

identify the primary cause of ulcers

mainly from a bacterial infection

lipase

major digestive enzyme, secreted by cells of the pancreas into the small intestine. splits triglycerides into 2 free fatty acids and a monoglyceride

neurogenic heart

many arthopods and decapod crusteaceans have this, will not beat unless ti recieves regular eledctrical impulses from the nervous system

ECK ( or EKG) electrocardiogram

medical test used to investigate the function of the heart

food induced thermogensis

memmals eat food, increase metabolic rate and heat production, heat is from the process of absorbing nutrients by the liver and alimentary canal

describe the impact of ulcers on public health

most common in stomach and duodemun, can leak contents to surroundings, mainly from bacteria infection

esophagus

moves food to the crop by peristalsis

essential nutrient

must be obtained in the diet in their complete form ( can not be synthesized)

explain how the basal metabolic rate (BMR) is measured

normal uses indirect calorimetry, measured the amount of oxugen consumed durring rest and exercise, estimating BMR

digestion

nutrients if not directly used, broken down into smaller molecules

describe the effect of exercise on energy demands and the mechanisms that are activated to meet those demands

nutrients must be able to provide energy, include golucosoe adn fatty acids, liver supplies glucose by breaking down glycogen and gluconeogenesis, blood [glucose] abover normal

describe active absorption of food

nutrients transported across epithelial cells by atp driven pumps, or secondary active transport

describe the emchanism of digestion and absorption of fats in vertebrates

occurs mostly in small intestin, major enzyme lipase, breaks down tricglyerides

describe intracellular digestion

occurs only in very simple ivnertebrates, used phagocytosis, cannot sypport physcially active animal

defication

occurs when contractions of the rectm and relaxation of associated sphincter muscles expel the feces through the anus

absorptive state

occurs when ingested nutrients enter the blood from the alimentary canal

describe the processes of absorption of glucose durring the absorptive state

one of two major energy sources, absorbed glucose enters cells and is enzymatically broken down, formation of H CO and H2O, released energy required to turn ATP from ADP and Pi, used by skeletal, excesses into glycogen in liver and triglcerides into adipose cells

proventriculus

one part of bird stomach, the glandular poteion that secretes acid and pepsinogen

ventriclea

one way valvue that pumps bloood out of the heart

semilunar valvues

one way valvues, are located bewteen each ventricle and the artery ( aorta or pulmonary trunk) into which the ventricle ejects blood

glucose sparing

organs increase use of fat to keep glucose for CNS, reserves glucose produced by liver for glycogenolysis and glyconeogensis

describe the processes of triglycerdies durring the absorptive stated

packaed into chylomicrons, released fatty acids diffuse into adipose cells nd reform triglycerides

colon

part of large intestin, empties to rectum

chyme

partially digested food

gizzard

partially digestied and acidifed food moves here, a muscular strucutre with a rough inner linning that grinds food into smaller fragments

describe the pharynx

pathway to esohagous

atherosclerosis

plaque causes the arteries to narrow and harder, which can block lumen

microvilli

plasma membrane which from small projections, collective know as bush border

list the four componets of blood

plasma, lekocytes, erythrocyes, and platelets

describe what happens durring diastole

pressure in the ventricles is lower than atria and arteries, AV valves open, semilunar closed,

explain what baroreceptor are importantfeature to respond to a change in blood pressure

pressure sensitive regions, when above normal range, the arteries ( arota and carotid) strech which make the vbarorectors strech when opens ion channels in the plasma membrane, resulting in action potential and decrease norepinephrine

conduction

process by which the body surface loses or gain heat through direct contact with cooler or warmer substances, the greater the differnce thegreater the rate, different materials have different abilities to absorb heat, surfae area of animal play a role

describe the liver

produces bile to assist in fat digestion

brown adipose tissue

produces by nonshivering thermogensis, spealized tissue in small aminals

describe extracellular digestion

protects the interor of the cells fromthe enzymes, allows animals to consume large prey or vegetation, can be stored

describe the major nutrient needed for aminals nucleic acid

provide sugars, bases and phsophates that can be used o make DNA, RNA and ATP

heart

pump the fluid through the vessels

identify the four main mechanims animal use to exhcange heat with the enviorment

radiation, evaporation, convection, conduction

erthrocytes

red blood cells

vasoconstriction

refers to a decrease in blood vessel radious

resistance (R)

refers to the tendency of blood vessels to slow down the flow of blood thorugh their lumens

vasodilation

regers to an increase in blood vessel radius

myocardial inarction ( MI) ( heart attack)

region of the heart is deprived of blood for an etend time can result in this, normally form blockage in coronary artiers

baroreceptors

regions contain the endings of neurons, that are in constant electrical communication with the medulla oblongata, a region of the brain stem

essential amino acids

required in the diet of humans and many but not all other animals ( can not be synetized)

rectum

short segment of the large intestine that ends at the anus

satiety

short term control of feeding involves this, it is a feeling of fullness

lacteal

specifal type of vessel, which is part of the lympatic system

endothelium

specilized epithelial cells, form smooth lining in contact with the blood

decribe the function of CCK, Cholecytokinin

stilmutes contraction of gallbaldder,

describe the middle sections of the alimentary canal

storage and intial digestion, has torage orcan including crop, gizzzard and stomach, upper part of the samll intestion, and acccessroy strucutre

crop

strogage organ, dilation of lower esophagus

double circulation is composed ofr

systematic and pulmonry circulation

stroke volume ( SV)

the amount of blood the heart ejects, roughly propotional to the size of the heart

cardiac output (CO)

the amount of blood the heart pumps per unit of time ( L/min)

mass specific BMR

the amount of energy expended per gram of body mass in the resting condition

systole

the centricles contact and eject the blood though the open semilunar valvues

cardiac cycle

the contraction and relaxation events that produce a single heart beat which has two phases, diastole and systole

cardiac angiography

the coronary arteries can be visulized by injecting a dye into a personas veins and then taking a x ray image of the chest allowing a physican to determine the the vessels are narrowed by diesase

hemolymph

the fluid in the vesse;s and interstitial fluid that surrounds cells mingle in on e large compartment rather than being in seperate compartments, nutrients and waste exchanged through diffusion of this and body cells

hematocrit

the volume of blood that is compsed of erythrocytes, usally between 40-65% in vertebrates, transport oxygen through body

describe how thehuman bod regulates the use and storage of glycose

tight control in the nervous and endocrine system help regualte homeostasis, controled by blood glucose concentration, body reacts when glucose is present to store excess, if glucose is low, it will release glycose increasing enzymes for the CNS and rest of bdoy runs off the fatty acids

amylase

to initiate digestion of carbohydrates through the action of a secreted enyzme

convection

transfer of heat by the movement of air or fluid next to the bdoy, aided by creating currents of air around animals bdoy

circulatory systes

transport necessary materials to all the cels of an animals body and transport waste products away from the cells so they can be released into the enviorment

escirb ethe esophagus

transports food to the stomach

coronary artery bypass

treatment for serious coronary artery diesase, a small piece of healthy blood vessel is removed from one part of the body and surgically grafed onto the coronary ciculation in such a way that blood can pass

angina pextoris

warning sign of coronary artery disease, chest pain during exertion due to the heart being deprived of oxygen

coronary artery disease

when plaques form the coronary vessel can be life threating

postabsorptive state

when the alimentary canal is empty of nutrietns and the bodys own stores must supply energy

describe the QRS complex on an EKG

when the branches from the AV node excite the ventricles and ends when both ventricles depolarize completly

coronary arteries

which carry ocygen and nutrients to the heart muscle

leukocytes

white blood cells, deveped from connective tissue of bones

hemoglobin

within the cytosol of erthrocytes, binds up to four molecules of oxygen

sinoatrial (SA) node or pacemaker

within the right atrium, is a collection of modified myocytes that have an inherently unstable resting membrane potential

plasma

yellowish solution, makes 35-60 percent of total blood boume in vertebrades, contain water and nutrients

describe the two phases of excitation of the vertebre atrial

- atrial: electrical signals are generated at the junction of the veins (fish) and the right atrium, or in other vertebraen SA node

describe how the circulatory system adapts to excerise, blood vessel diameter

- blood vessel diameter, increase in energy imporant area and constrict in less essential

List the four steps of cross bridge cycle

- ca concentration increases triggering the cross bridge to bind to actin - release if phosphate the power stroke the crossbeidge and thin filaments move - atp bonds to myosin causing the cross bridge to detach - atp hydrolysis reengerizes and resets the cross bridge

Atrophy

A decline or cessation in muscular activity condition, reduction in the size of the musclen

give examples of the essential nutrients from vitamins

-biotin -folic acid -niacin -pantothernic acid B1 B2 B6 B12 Vitamin C,a d e k

give exmapoes of the nutrients needed from minerals

-calcium -chlorine -chromium -copper -iodine -oron manesium -mananese phosphorus -potrassium -selenium -sulfur -sodium -zinc

list the mahor categories of nutrients consumed by animals

-carbohydrates -proteins -lipids -nucelic acids

Troponin

A smaller globular shaped Orrin with three subunits that is bound to both tropmyosin and actin, is a molecule is held in this locking position

Flexors

Bend at joint to reduce the angle between two bones

I band

Between the a bands of adjacent sacromeres has portions of thin filaments that do not overlap thick and bisected by a z line

Exoskeleton

External skeleton that surrounds and protect most of the body surface

Describe how antagonist muscles function at a joint

Ex contraction of hamstring flexes the leg at knee joint relaxing the quadriceps whereas contraction of the quadriceps caused the leg to extend the hamstring to relax both exert a pulling force

Distinguished between exoskeleton and endoskeleton

Exo: outside thick protection molting made from chitin Endo: inside can protect organs

Antagonist

Groups of muscle that produce oppositely direct movement at an joint

thin filaments

Half the diameter of thick constrain cytoskeleton protein actin and associated proteins

fast glycolytic fibers

High myosin ATPase activity Low atp Rapid intense actions White meat

Fast oxidative fibers

High myosin ATPase large atp Long term activity's and rapid action

Sliding filament mechanism

His muscle fibers shortens,

Describe step four of cross bridge cycling ( atp hydrolysis reenerhizds and resets the crossbeidge )

Hydrolysis of atp to adp and P provides energ causes the crossbeidge to move away from the h zone and adp and P remain bound

Explain the locotion mechanism in air

Hypothesized evolved from four different lineages , can escape land animals , scan ground , inhabit difficult to reach habitat , medium energy cost , small

M line

In the center of the of the h zone and is composed of proteins that link the central regions of adjacent thick filaments

Transverse or t tubules

Invagination of the plasma membrane that lie close to the sarcoplasmix reticulum

skeletal muscle

Involved in locomotion in vertebrates electrically excitable and can produce action potential ( invertebrate only have graded)

Explain how evolution has shaped the structures used for locomotion

It has allowed them to have bodies to be most efficient

Relate the structure of an exoskeleton to its function and purpose reason why such a skeleton provides advantage to the animal

It is a hard outer shell meant to protect the organism from pretators, or it could be. With light and flexible for organisms such as a butterfly allow them to protect and move with the most safety

Describe the composition of vertebrate bone

It's is axial ( head and torso) and appendicular ( limbs connected to axial)

slow oxidative fibers

Low myosin ATPase activity Large amount atp Prolong regular movement not fatigue easily dark meat

H zone

Narrow region in the center of the a band between two sets of thin filaments

Z line

Network of proteins to which thin filaments are attached two z lines define the boundary

Explain the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction

Sacromere shirted bht neither the thick or thin filaments change length the thick stay in place and thin slide Propelled by musician cross bridge

Cross bridge cycle

Sequence of events that occur between the time when a cross bridge. Bonds tona thin filament when jr is set to repeat th process is known as

Neuromuscular junction

Site where a motor neurons axon synapses with a muscle fiber

Muscle fibers

Skeletal muscle is a group of this, made by bounding to get her fascicles

Cross bridges

Spaces between overlapping thick and thin filaments are bridges by projections which are regions of myosin molecules that extend from the surface of thick and thinnfilaments

Smooth muscle

Spurronds and forms part of the lining of hollow organs and tubes

Locomotion

The movement of an animal from place to place

Motor end plate

The region of the muscle fiber plasma membrane that lies directly under the axon terminal

Excitation contraction coupling

The sequence of events by which an action potential in the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber lead to a cross bridge activity. By the mechanism

sarcoplasmic reticulum

The source of the increased cystolic ca that occurs following an muscke action protential acts as ca reserve

Predict how muscle adapt to exercise

Weight resistance exercise increases the size of the muscle fibers diameters Areobeic increases the amount of mitochondria and number of blood vessels around fibers increase

Explain he mechanism of animal locomotion in water

Water denser than air which provides resistance to movement as speed increases , streamline body is easier, provides buoyancy , half ends allow them to propel "cheapest form on locomotion

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD)

X linked recessive encodes for a protein knownas dystrophin

identify serveral mechanisms bu which animals can alter the rate of heat gain of loss

changes in skin blood flow, countercurrent exchange, evaporative heat loss, hebavoral adaptions

nonshivering thermogensis

chronic cold exposure, increase the metabolic rate and therefore heat production that is not due to increased muscle activity

atrium

collects blood from the tissues, exits through ventricle

describe the small intestine

combination of villi and microbilli increases the surface area and maximizes the effciency of digestion and absorptiond

pancreas

comlex organ located behind and below the stopmach in humans

describe the mahor nutrient needed for animals- lipids

component of cell membrane, energy source, insulator, building blocks of hormones

fibrin

forms a meshwork of threadlike fibers that wrap around and between platelets and erythrocytes enlarging and thicening th eplyg to form a clot

cecum

forms a small punch from which extends the appendix, a finger like proection having no certain essential function by contribute to defense

describe the impact of heartburn on public health

from excesss stomach acid, can damage walls of esophagus, cause chronic cough and pain or perforate espohgas

name three major homes important for the regulationof digestionin vertebrates

gastrin, cholecystokinin ( CCK) and digestive enzumes from pancreas

lipolysis

glycerol released from triglycerides in adipose tissue is broken down by this process, hydrolysies triglycerides from fatty acids and glyceral

glycogenolysis

glycogen that was formed durring the absorptive state can be broken down into molecues of glyoce by hydrolysis in this process

platelets

gragments of membrane encolsed cytosol and lack a nucleous,important for blood cltos

describe the T wave of an EKG

result from repolarizatino of ventricles back to their resting state, and associated with relation, distole begins again

describe the impact of diarrhea on public health

resulted from pathogen, or food sensitives, medication, stress and parasite, results in dehydration, loss of nutrients and ions,

chylomicrons

resynthessized triglycerides form this, large droplets coated with protein that perform an emuslfiying functions similar to that of bile salt

veins

returns partially deoxygenated blood to heart bia these vesesls

peristalsis

rythemic spontaneous waves of smooth muscle contraction that begin near the mouth and end at the stomach

stomach

sac like organ that most likely evolved as a mean of stroing food

describe the mechanism of digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in vertebrates

samm amout of polysacchardie is digesten in mourth by salivary amylase, mostly happens in small intestin by amylase, enzymes located on bush border, monosacharides abosrbed,

describe passive absorption of food

simple or facilitated diffucsion of nutriention across epithelial cell canal

liver

site of bile production

anus

the opening at the posterior end of the alimentary canal

small inestine

the portion of the alimentary canal that leads from the stomach to the large intestine, or the anus or cloaca, where absorption of nutrients and water occur

nutrition

the process of consuming and using food and nutrients

ruminants

type of herbivoes, lack enzyme to digest cellulose, able to digest with the help of miccorganisms living iwithin their digestive tract

gastrin

type of hormone, reachest stomachthrough bloodstream in reponse to food

gallbladder

undermeath liver, secerted bile stored here

countercurrent exchange

used by endotherms and ectotherms regulate heat loss to the enviorment, heat is transferred between fluids flwing in opposite directions

indirect calorimetry

usual method for emasuring metabolic rate, based on the principe that animals require oxygen to meabolize foostuffs