Bio 322 exam 1 (plouviez)

Zoonosis

An infectious disease that is transmissible from animals to humans.

what is the difference between bacterial and archaeal cell membranes?

Bacteria have bilayer cell membranes that contain fatty acids, ester linkage, and is unbranched. Also has a high permeability Archaea has both monolayer and bilayer cell membranes that contain isoprene chains, ether linkage, and is branched. Also has low permeability

3 domains of life

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryota

Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote cells

Eukaryote cells(animal and plant)-Membrane bound organelles, nucleus, animals have no cell wall whereas plants do Prokaryote cells(archaea/bacteria)-Simple cells, cell wall varies, no nucleus

Zoonotic Examples

H1N1, H2N2, H3N2, swine influenza

haplodiplontic life cycle means

Having multicellular diploid and haploid stages or alternation of phases in a single generation (alternation of generations)

Gram negative vs gram positive bacteria

Negative: -PINK -Thin layer of peptidoglycan -doesnt retain the crystal violet when exposed to an alcohol wash. -Outer membrane made of lipopolysaccarides, phospholipids, and proteins (surface layer) Positive: -PURPLE -Thick layer of peptidoglycan in cell wall -surface layer

Peptidoglycan consists of sugars and amino acids. What are the two types of sugars and what is the bond formed between them?

NAG & NAM beta 1-4 glyosidic bond *amino acid side chains come off the sugars * pentaglycine is the connecting bridge via transpeptidase enzyme

relaxosome vs transferosome

Relaxosome recognizes DNA sequence in the F factor known as origin of transfer. Relaxosome makes a cut at the origin of transfer and begins to separate the DNA strands ---------------- The plasmid is recruited to the entry site of the transferosome. *The conjugation process also has consequences for the host cell, as it alters characteristics of the membrane and the cell surface---->recombination to genetic diveristy*

In 1985: _____ stated "biodiversity" as a synonym for "biological diversity"

Rosen

most abundant and diverse virus genome in eukarya is:

SSRNA(+)

when you don't know what level it is: use______

"taxon"

what does heteromorphic mean in the haplodiplontic life cycle?

Species with heteromorphic life cycle have a large multicellular body in one generation but have a microscopic body in the other generation of a year.

What domain does euryarchaeota belong to?

archaea

Eukaryota emerged from within the ___ domain forming the eocyte tree.

archaeal

know haplontic life cycle. what reproduction does it do?

asexual reproduction

How do bacteria reproduce?

asexually through binary fission

Which one of the 4 groups of archaea is most closely related to eukaryota?

asgardarcheota

what are mollicutes

bacteria that lack a cell wall

what is the shape of each domains genetic material and does it contain histones?

bacteria- circular chromosome, no histone archaea-circular chromosome, has histone-like proteins eukaryota-linear chromosomes, has histones

transduction involves genetic infection via a virus ________

bacteriophage

Action of beta-lactam antibiotics (ex: penicillin)

beta-lactams block the action of PBP-->block synthesis of peptidoglycan ex: penicillin (beta-lactam) would travel through the porins in the membrane and bind to penicillin-binding proteins (PBP) in the membrane. This activates penicillin itself, so it detaches and travels to the cell wall to inactivate transpeptidase enzymes. this results in a collapse of amino acid chains and destruction of the overall cell wall-->usually cell lysis

Antibiotic Resistance transmits mutations to descendants during the following _____

binary fission

How do archaea reproduce?

binary fission

variety of life across all of the different levels of biological organization (from the molecules to the ecosystem)

biodiversity

how do capsid-less viruses and viroids infect another host cell?

cell to cell cytoplasmic exchange

3 areas antibiotics target in a cell:

cell wall synthesis(beta lactams, cell membrane, vancomycin and bacitracin) nucleic acid synthesis(dna gyrase, rna polymerase, folate synthesis) protein synthesis(30s subunit and 50s subunit)

eocyte is renamed to be...

crenarchaeota *belongs to the archaea domain*

nonmaterial benefits from ecosystems (spiritual, recreational, aesthetic, educational)

cultural services

technical Mnemonic for 8 major taxonomic levels:

dear king Philip came over for good soup

what is the subgroup of stramenopila?

diatoms

what is the subgroup for alveolata?

dinoflagellates (dinophyta)

Excavata: -eukaryotes but no plastids (no mitochondria, no chloroplasts) -what two subgroups does it form?

diplomonads (causes beaver fever) and parabasalids (causes common STD)

what is the type of life cycle of diatoms?

diplontic

life cycle of oomycetes:

diplontic *mycelium is diploid whereas it is haploid in fungi (haplontic)

life cycle of fucus sp. and how does it dispersal:

diplontic -disperses gametes in water

which ecosystem services are direct/indirect/existence values?

direct=provisioning **security: personal safety, secure resource access, security from disasters** indirect=supporting and regulating **basic material for good life: adequate livelihood, sufficient nutritious food, shelter, access to goods. Health: strength, feeling well, access to clean air and water** existence=cultural **good social relations: social cohesion, mutual respect, ability to help others**

What do antiviral drugs do?

do not destroy viruses. They inhibit the development of a virus (entry into the cell, replication)

8 major taxonomic levels:

domain (domains), kingdom(kingdoms), phylum(phyla), class(classes), order(orders), family(families), genus(genera), species(species)

number of species in a community of organisms

ecological diversity

Ecological (community) diversity changed in 1992 to ______ diversity

ecosystem

number of ecosystems within a geographical location (and its overall impact on human and the environment)

ecosystem diversity

______ are the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human well-being

ecosystem services

stramenopila: water mold (oomycetes) breaks into what?

egg (oogonium) and fungus (mycelium)

brown algae thallus means?

entire body of a multicellular non-moving organism in which there is no organization of the tissues into organs. Not differentiated into leaves, stem, and true root, and lack vascular system

conjugation involves genetic ____

exchange

An increasing proportion of bacteria display resistance to common antibiotics. What antibiotic is most resistant?

fluoroquinolones

how do viruses exit bacterial cells? **type of penetration depends on type of bacteria and cell wall

for gram neg: -viral extrusion -host cell lysis(endolysin/holin/spanin/cell wall biosynthesis inhibition) for gram pos: -host cell lysis(endolysin/holin/spanin/cell wall biosynthesis inhibition) for mollicutes: -viral budding

life cycle generalities

gamete(n)+gamete(n)=fertilization/fecundation/fusion--->zygote(2n)--->meiosis

haplodiplontic life cycle has isomorphic 2 multicellular types of organisms that alternate: what are the two types?

gametophyte(n) and sporophyte(2n) THEY ARE MOREPHOLOGY THE SAME

What does a phylogram show?

genetic change, calibrated

total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species

genetic diversity

Which is most specific: ecosystem diversity, species diversity, or genetic diversity?

genetic diversity **ecosystem diversity is most broad** **order: ecosystem diversity-->species diversity-->genetic diversity**

calico cats are an example of...

genetic diversity **only females have spots, NOT males**

4 steps of how antibiotic resistance arises (scenario): 1) high number of bacteria. a few of them are resistant to antibiotics 2) antibiotics kill bacteria causing the illness, as well as ____ bacteria protecting the body from infection 3)the resistant bacteria now have preferred conditions to grow and take over 4) bacteria can even transfer their drug resistance to other bacteria, causing more problems

good

gram positive cell wall are single layered whereas gram negative are double layered (an outer layer of LPS and a thing peptidoglycan layer) -compare periplasmic space in each -which one has teichoic acid? -which one has more lipid content?

gram negative has larger periplasmic space gram positive ONLY has teichoic acid gram negative has more lipid content

is penicillin more effective on gram neg or gram pos bacteria?

gram pos because peptidoglycan and PBPs are easier to reach **peptidoglycan and PBPs are harder to reach in gram neg

Monophyletic taxon (clade)?

group that includes single ancestor and all descendants

species richness is affected by _____

habitat heterogeneity

stramenopila: key characteristic?

hair-like projections on their flagella

Life cycle of laminaria digitata (a brown alga)

haplodiplontic hetermorphic

what does diplontic mean?

having a life cycle in which the main form, except for the gametes, is diploid.

_______ increases species richness then 1) niche number increases and 2) colonization of new species

heterogeneity

the ancestral prokaryote was aerobic and ________. This came to be known as ____

heterotrophic mitochondrion

cell membrane is less tight at _____ temperatures, making it harder to regulate flux (more permeable)

higher

conjugation, transformation, and transduction are examples of...

horizontal gene transfer b/c its transmission to other individuals that have their own genetic material

whats a virion

the vector stage of a virus that is outside of the host-cell. it comprises genetic materials (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat, called capsid. some have an envelope.

What is unique about mitosis in dinoflagellates?

their intact nuclear envelope and microtubules

euglenoids are autotrophic or heterotrophic?

they are both

How can transformation aid resistance to antibiotics?

they can acquire new genes/function from the DNA in the environment

Bacterial cloning ecosystem services: -acquiring new genes/function (_____________ or _______)-->propriety used in molecular biology is to then isolate DNA fragment (cloning), express a gene (get a protein)

transformation or transduction

binary fission is an example of...

vertical gene transfer b/c it involves transmission to descendants

What is missing from the tree of life that does not fit in the 3 domains?

virus

an organism that grows best in moderate temperature, neither too hot nor too cold, with an optimum growth range from 20 to 45 °C

mesophile

Exception of archaea cell wall?

methanogenic archaea: pseudopeptidoglycan **stains as if it was peptidoglycan**

euryarchaeota are dominated by ______ to produce _______

methanogens, methane CH4

auxospore does not do ______, it just grows in size to be a diatom again

mitosis

How do eukaryotes reproduce?

mitosis and meiosis

what kingdoms can do haplontic life cycle?

most fungi, some protists

____ were historically thought to be a fungus

oomycetes

Limiting the ______ helps to resist to higher temperature, pH range (H+ flux), salinity, pressure

permeability

injections by insects can occur through epidermal cell and ____

phloem

Diatoms are mostly ________, some are heterotrophic "glass-like" silica shell, diverse shapes

photoautotrophic

The mitochondrion remained in the heterotrophic cell while another ancestral, _____ prokaryote entered a cell and remained--->plant cell

photosynthetic

motion guided by perception of light

phototaxis

science of reconstructing the evolutionary relationships between living things (phylogeny) -evidence comes from paleontology, comparative anatomy, and molecular data

phylogenetics

what structure is used in conjugation?

pilus (sex pilus or F pilus) *NOT TYPE 4 PILUS*

what are the photosynthetic pigments of plants and brown algae?

plants: chlorophyll a and b brown algae: chlorophyll c and fucoxanthin

cell walls of plants, fungi, and oomycetes are composed of:

plants=cellulose fungi=chitin oomycetes=cellulose

Bacteria can sometimes have....

plasmid, flagella, capsule

in plants, viruses cross _________ from cell-to-cell

plasmodesmata

fusion of cytoplasms

plasmogamy

smallest sized virus

polio

goods produced or provided by ecosystems (food, fuel wood, fiber, timber)

provisioning services

what are the four ecosystem services?

provisioning, regulating, cultural, supporting

extremophilic organisms that are capable of growth and reproduction in low temperatures

psychrophiles

benefits from regulation of ecosystem processes (water partitioning, pest regulation, climate regulation, pollination)

regulating services

Hypothesis: The dog and cat (land animals) are more closely related to each other. The seal and dolphin are more closely related to each other (sea animals). Accepted or rejected?

rejected living in terrestrial/aquatic habitats does not explain the evolutionary relationship among dog, cat, seal, and dolphin

Archaea use a unique structure for swimming motility which is not hoomologous to bacterial flagella, but instead resembles type IV pili. But in contrast to type IV pili, motion is not achieved by elongation and disassembly of the filament, but by ______

rotation

dino means

rotation

species richness is affected by _____

sampling size (positive relationship)

structure of a (algae)seaweed vs land plant

seaweed: -blade -air bladder(helps it stand up straight to get access to more nutrients and light) -stipe -holdfast land plant: -leaf -stem -root

secondary endosymbiosis

when a living cell engulfs another eukaryote cell that has already undergone primary endosymbiosis

sporulation cycle has 7 stages. stage 1: DNA replicates and extends into an axial filament stage 2: ____forms near one pole, separating forespore from mother cell. each gets a chromosome. stage 3: mother cell ______ the forespore, surrounding it with a second membrane stage 4: chromosomes of ______ disintegrate stage 5: forespore develops a cortex layer of peptidoglycan between original forespore membrane and the membrane from the mother cell stage 6: _____ acid is synthesized, and calcium is incorporated into the spore coat stage 7: mother cell releases spore

septum engulfs mother cell dipicolinic

Examples of ecosystem services from euryarchaeota methanogens: -treatment of _____: trap bacteria into residual sludge (fertilizer) -important in __________ soil and ______. Rice paddies (carbon and nitrogen cycles). Marine benthic sediments. -digestive tracts: _______, cattle, humans

sewage anaerobic soil and landfills termites

factors necessary for producing ecosystem services (hydrological cycle, soil formation, nutrient cycling, primary production)

support services

what is type IV pilus?

surface-exposed fibers that mediate many functions in bacteria, including locomotion, adherence to host cells, DNA uptake (competence), and protein secretion and that can act as nanowires carrying electric current

primary endosymbiosis

symbiosis in which one of the symbiotic organisms lives inside the other

classification and naming of taxa according to their evolutionary relationships

systematics

process of endocytosis

taking in of matter by a living cell by invagination of its membrane

flagellum means

whip

The taxonomic relatedness between different organisms in a community is...

taxonomic distinctness

classification and naming of living things (into taxa) (1 taxon->many taxa)

taxonomy

hypothesis 2: inside-out

that eukaryotes evolved gradually as cell protrusions, called blebs, reached out to trap free-living mitochondria-like bacteria. *weakened s-layer

can transduction aid in resistant to antibiotics?

yes they can acquire new genes/function

polyphyletic clade

a taxonomic group that does not contain the most recent common ancestor of its members (lack characteristics)

paraphyletic clade?

a taxonomic group that excludes some of the descendants from a specific common ancestor

what are the 2 major groups of eukaryotes?

amorphea and diphoda

define a virus

an infective agent that reproduces inside the cells of living hosts

define community:

an interacting group of various species in a common location

euryarchaeota does complete _____ and has a rigid cell wall called ______

anaerobiosis (poisoned by molecular oxygen) pseudopeptidoglycan

are fungi most closely related to plants or animals?

animals

what kingdoms have a diplontic life cycle?

animals and some protists

During conjugation, one bacterium serves as the donor of the genetic material, and the other serves as the recipient. The donor bacterium carries a DNA sequence called the fertility factor, or F-factor. The F-factor allows the donor to produce a thin, tubelike structure called a pilus, which the donor uses to contact the recipient. The pilus then draws the two bacteria together, at which time the donor bacterium transfers genetic material to the recipient bacterium. Typically, the genetic material is in the form of a plasmid, or a small, circular piece of DNA. The genetic material transferred during conjugation often provides the recipient bacterium with some sort of genetic advantage. For instance, in many cases, conjugation serves to transfer plasmids that carry ______ genes.

antibiotic resistance

Explain mitosis

*diploid* Interphase:-Chromosomes are relaxed; chromatin​ -Nuclear membrane is intact​ -During S-Phase, chromosomes are duplicated​ Prophase: -Chromosomes condense.​ -Chromatid​ -Centromere​ -Kinetichore​ -Nucleoli disappear​ -Nucleus disintegrates​ -Centrosomes form at the poles​ -Complex series of ​ microtubules -Nuclear membrane is gone.​ -Microtubules extend from centrosome Metaphase:-Chromosomes line up on the central axis​ -Microtubules attach to kinetichores Anaphase:-Microtubules pull identical chromatids apart toward opposite poles of the cell. Telophase:-Chromosomes relax​ -Centrosomes disappear​ -Nuclear membrane reforms -cytokinesis

what are 3 ways virus entry into plants and why are these the only mechanisms?

-cell-to-cell -injection by insect -through epidermal injury BECAUSE PLANTS HAVE A CELL WALL AND ITS HARD TO GO THROUGH

how do viruses exit animal cells?

-cell-to-cell transport -budding (by cellular exocytosis((can form non-enveloped and enveloped virion)) or at plasma membrane) -lysis (can form non-enveloped and enveloped virion)

general structure of bacteria includes:

-chromosome (nucleoid region) -pili -ribosomes -food granule -prokaryotic flagellum -plasmid (DNA) -cytoplasm -plasma membrane -cell wall (always) -s-layer and glycocalyx

Vaccines are made of:

-destroyed/weak viruses (conventional vaccines) or instructions to build antigens (DNA or mRNA vaccines) -this builds our immune system (antibodies) against these antigens prior to a real viral infection

3 ways of sampling distribution of quadrats:

-even spaced -random (chance) -zoned (clustered)

what is the role of peptidoglycan in the cell wall?

-facing osmotic challenge -counteract the effects of intracellular pressure as well as external pressures **found in bacteria

bacteria/eukaryota cell membrane composition

-fatty acids -unbranched -ester linkage -D-glycerol

what are the four ways virus entry into animal cells:

-fusion at plasma membrane from enveloped virion -endocystosis from enveloped virion/non-enveloped virion---->fusion at endosomal membrane/lysis/permeabilization -pore from non-enveloped virion -cell-to-cell transport from non-encapsidated genome -apoptotic mimicry ALL LEAD TO CYTOPLASMIC VIRAL GENOME then can do transcription and replication in the cytoplasm, and/or transport and transcription/replication in the nucleus

Virus ecosystem services

-gene therapy -oncolytic virotherapy -control of harmful/damaging organisms (agriculture/environment)

Crenarchaeota are also found in non-extreme environments(mesophile, psychrophiles). Where?

-grow through the ocean -seafloor sediment -abundance varies with season and increase with depth -found in marine benthos (cenarchaeum symbiosum inhabits the sponge axinella mexicana-->unclear relationship)

Elaborate on the protection function.

-host defenses (ex: phagocytosis) -harsh environmental conditions (ex: desiccation) -viral infection or predation by bacteria -chemicals in environment (ex: detergents) -osmotic stress

how do you fight a virus?

-immune system to fight against microbes (and viruses) to recognize foreign antigens (on the outside of viruses)

General latitudinal pattern:

-increasing species richness from the pole to the equator -changes are not constant over latitude -exception to the general pattern: conifers *ancient pattern strengthened signal*

Archaea cell membrane composition

-isoprene chain -branched -ether linkage -L-glycerol

invasive species: undaria pinnatifida

-native of japan -invasive on the US west coast, argentina, europe, australia, new zealand -alter habitat and ecosystems, space competition with shellfish -colonize docks, boats

What supergroups do the following kingdoms belong to: -plantae -animalia -fungi -protista

-plantae is in diphoda -animalia is in amorphea -fungi is in amorphea -protista is in diphoda

Monophyletic? Paraphyletic? Polyphyletic? -plants -animals -fungi -protists

-plants, fungi, archaeplastida(plants) are monophyletic -protists are paraphyletic

Crenarchaeota has diverse metabolisms. What does it reduce sulfure to? Oxidize?

-reduce sulfur to H2S -oxidize H2S to sulfuric acid

2 ways to quantify species richness:

-sampling distribution of quadrats -transect *The quadrat position are chosen randomly or they are placed along a transect. A transect is a line placed across a community of organisms. The population of each quadrat must be known exactly. Species must be distinguishable from each other, even if they have to be identified at a later date*

Are viruses alive?

-still a debate among scientists

why do we care about brown algae?

-supplements -anti-aging cream -soap -food -harvested brown algae

Process and explanation of the latitudinal gradient:

-tropic environmental conditions are more stable (b/c warmer in the tropics and climate conditions are more extreme towards the poles) -tropic biomes are older -tropic area is larger -tropics have higher primary productivity (carbon) can ALL lead to higher speciation (more specialized)? Less extinction? Limited dispersal?

Evolutionary relationship between viruses and cells?

-usually scientists use DNA/RNA to reconstruct the evolutionary relationships among species -viruses mutate so fast they needed something more conserved: shape of proteins (depends on RNA but more conserved)

how do virus exit plant cells?

-virion budding -plasmodesmata crossing in phloem to be uptake by insect -uptake by insect from epidermal cell -plasmodesmata crossing to another infected plant cell

In 1986: Norse et al.: 3 levels of biological diversity: 1) ?? 2)?? 3)??

1) genetic diversity (within species) 2) species diversity 3) ecological (community) diversity

haplontic life cycle: dikaryotic fungi Begin during haploid stage.

1)mitosis to multicellular organism 2)asexual reproduction 3) plasmogamy 4) karyogamy 5) zygote (2n) 6) meiosis 7)gamete(n) redoes life cycle

binary fission steps

1. Cell elongates and DNA is replicated 2. Cell wall and plasma membrane begin to divide 3. Cross-wall forms, completely separating the two DNA copies 4. Cells separate

When was the three domain system made?

1990 by Woes et al.

___ million species have been formally described

2

Estimates: ______ millions of eukaryote species

5-30 *difference? unknown or unnamed species*

number of kingdoms have changed. As of 2015, How many kingdoms are there?

5->protozoa, chromista, plantae, fungi, Animalia

ribosomal subunits of prokaryotes:

50S and 30S-->together form 70s

ribosomal subunits of eukaryotes:

60S and 40S--> together form 80s

some archaea can strive in extreme conditions of temp. and acidity--> how?

A unique and distinct S-layer (made of proteins) that provides chemical and physical protection, A completely different lipid profile of membrane, glycerol-ether lipids (not ester liker others), Unique enantiomers of glycerol, a differential tail structure of its lipids and occasional presence of a fused , more strong monolayer instead of bilayer are some of the features that make them so resilient.

Human Taxonomy

DOMAIN - Eukaryota KINGDOM - Animalia PHYLUM - Chordata CLASS - Mammalia ORDER - Primates FAMILY - Hominidae GENUS - Homo SPECIES - sapiens

most abundant and diverse virus genome in bacteria is:

DSDNA

what is the purpose of dipicolinic acid and calcium in the spore coat?

Dipicolinic acid forms a complex with calcium ions within the endospore core. This complex binds free water molecules, causing dehydration of the spore. As a result, the heat resistance of macromolecules within the core increases.

what happens after mother cell releases spore??

Endospores enable bacteria to lie dormant for extended periods, even centuries. When the environment becomes more favorable, the endospore can reactivate itself to the vegetative state. NOTE: Most types of bacteria cannot change to the endospore form.

what is the difference between run and tumble?

In a run, three flagella spontaneously form a bundle and the cell swims straight, whereas, in a tumble, a reversal of a motor and the transformations of the associated flagellum trigger unbundling of the flagellum and reorientation of the cell.

Does the amount of flagella on prokaryotes vary? How does it work to be able to maneuver the damm thing?

It varies; one prokaryote could have one flagella, none, many, and can be in different positions The flagella of domains bacteria and archaea are different. They still move the cell, but they do so by rotating, rather than by bending from the inside like eukaryotic flagella. The flagella of archaeans are superficially similar to those of bacteria. However, there are key differences. To begin with, the two types of flagella move differently. Bacterial flagella are powered by the flow of ions, usually hydrogen, but sometimes sodium. They are composed of individual fibers that rotate individually. By contrast, achaeal flagella appear to be powered by ATP, the same chemical that powers eukaryotic flagella. Archaeal fibers are also bundled and rotate as one.

Quantifying species richness can be problematic when in...

LARGE AREAS. *solution=take a sub-sample-->extrapolate*

In 1980: ______ introduces the concept of "biological diversity"

Lovejoy

is a virus a cell?

No, its a obligate pathogen for reproduction *missing key characteristic of "life"*

Does archaea have a cell wall?

No, just cytoplasmic membrane and surface layer

Can endospores reproduce?

No, only germinate if viable

Does eukaryota contain peptidoglycan?

No, plants have cell walls composed of cellulose

Do antibiotics work on viruses?

No. Viruses are not cells (no cell wall, no ribosomes)

In 1980: ______ & ______ presented a combination of two related concepts called both ecological and genetic diversity.

Norse & McManus

Woes (1977): the "archeal" tree hypothesis: archaeas and eukaryotes are sister groups that evolved separately (so all 3 would be monophyletic) accepted or rejected?

REJECTED. -comparison of the ribosomal structures -In this tree eocytes are closely related to eukaryotes, while archaebacteria and eubacteria are closest neighbors.

second fastest mutating genome

RNA virus

what is baltimore classification?

System is a scheme for classifying viruses based on the type of genome and its replication strategy. 7 groups total 3 STEPS: GENETIC MATERIAL->MRNA->PROTEINS

Explain meiosis

The process by which germ cells divide and decrease their chromosome number by half, produces gametes Each meiotic cell division consists two phases. In the first phase, the diploid cell divides into two haploid daughter cells. And in the second phase these two daughter cells divide into four haploid daughter cells, later turns into sex gametes, spermatids in male and egg in female.

replication defective virus vector DNA vs mRNA vaccines

Viral vectors that are genetically modified to make replication-defective are called non-replicating vectors. Eventually, the virus gains an attenuated state wherein it can still be able to trigger the desired human immune responses, but cannot replicate in human cells. mRNA vaccines work by introducing a piece of mRNA that corresponds to a viral protein, usually a small piece of a protein found on the virus's outer membrane.

can type IV pilus be used to infect some cells (plants)?

Yup

Evolution of Eukaryotes -_____ of endomembrane system and organelles -cell division -life cycle generalities

acquisition

chemotaxis and phototaxis are ____ to different environments

adaptation

common ancestor of viruses and cells (prokaryotes/eukaryotes) was alive or dead?

alive

4 parts of a phylogenetic tree:

branches root: not all trees are rooted nodes: represent hypothetical ancestors of the taxa leaves/terminal nodes/tips

another subgroup of stramenopila:

brown algae (phaeophyceae)

What is kelp?

brown algae from the laminariales order -kelp forest helps protect/nurse for many species

bacteria with _____ are MORE virulent and resistant than bacteria without capsule or with slime layer

capsule

which type of glycocalyx is well defined and resistant to washing off?

capsule

virus entry into bacterial cells 2) going through the capsule/slime layer, and cell wall

capsule degradation, LPS degradation, peptidoglycan degradation

who invented taxonomy in 1735?

carl Linnaeus *plants, animals, minerals were thought to be the original groups*

motion guided by perception of chemicals (move towards food or move away from toxins)

chemotaxis

hypothesis 1: infolding and endosymbiosis steps: 1. ancestor of the eukaryotes 2. inward folding of the cell membrane surrounds the ______ 3. cell with a nucleus and internal membrane 4. endosymbiosis of bacteria via ______ 5. evolution of undigested bacteria into organelles

chromosomes endocytosis

Three types of trees: *all show the same evolutionary relationships, or branching orders, between the taxa*

cladogram, phylogram, chronogram

sorting into classes

classification

What substrates are needed to produce methane?

co2, acetic acid, methanol, methylamine

virus entry into bacterial cells 3) type of penetration depends on the type of bacteria (and cell wall) enveloped virion vs non-enveloped virion?

enveloped virion: -fusion w/ cell membrane -fusion w/ host outer membrane and permeabilization of host membrane non-enveloped virion: -fusion w/host cell membrane then membrane tube -pilus retraction -flagellum mediated-> viral ejection through host envelope (-via contractile tail, -via long flexible tail, -via short tail)-> pore-mediated ALL GO TO CYTOPLASMIC VIRAL GENOME THEN CYTOPLASMIC REPLICATION AND TRANSCRIPTION

Excavata has another subgroup that has plastids (motochondria and chloroplast) called...

euglenoids

mnemonic to remember eukaryota: what does it stand for? Every Asian Opp Must F**k -------- Dont Eat Booty After Sex Always Sleep

eukaryota amorphea opisthokonta metazoa(animalia) fungi diphoda excavata bikonta archaeplastida SAR alveolata stramenopila

mitosis occurs in most ________

eukaryotes

Where are crenarchaeota found?

extreme environments ranging from psychrophiles to hyperthermophiles ex: sea-ice in antartica, deep-sea hydrothermal vents. hot springs, sulfur-containing hot springs

The smaller the genome, the faster it mutates, and vice versa. What genomes mutates the fastest(smallest size) and slowest(largest size)

fastest- viroid slowest-complex eukaryotes

Motility of prokaryotes uses..

flagella, taxis, extension/retraction of type 4 pilus

"stramen"= "pilos"=

flagellum hair

where do virus envelopes come from?

host cell membrane or organelles

Virus entry into bacterial cells 1) attachment of the virus. What can it attach to?

host cell, pili, flagellum, **different viruses attach in different ways based off its shape and structure**

what shapes can a capsid have?

icosahedral, helical, head-tailed

_________ is what is destroying the virus

immune system

what is the effect of heat on cell membrane?

increasing temperature-->less tightly packed, hydrocarbon tails disordered decreasing temperature-->very regular, ordered structure

which species is most diverse?

insects (approx. 950,000) *prokaryotes are LEAST diverse*

what is significant about mitosis in diatoms: *particular life cycle

intact kinetochore microtubule and intact nuclear envelope

fusion of nuclei

karyogamy

fungus are multicellular, no organization of the tissues into organs. thallus of a fungus is called_____ (aggregation of hyphae)

mycelium

does prokaryotes have cholesterol?

no

do viroids encode proteins?

no *Viroids consist of small, naked ssRNAs that cause diseases in plants.

What does a cladogram show?

no calibration (just topology)

are capsid-less viruses a virion? what is not know about them?

no true virion no stage (known) outside of the host cell

What is bacterial cell walls composed of?

peptidoglycan

We know bacteria is monophyletic, Archaea is paraphyletic, and eukarya is monophyletic. Hyp: Eukaryota emerged from within the archaeal domain results?

progress in molecular methods led to: discover new groups of archaea and strengthen the eocyte tree hypothesis Eukaryota emerged from within the archaeal domain--> ancestor of the first eukaryote cell was likely an archaea

3 major functions of capsule/slime layer/s-layer

protection, attachment to surfaces, facilitate motility of gliding bacteria

which type of glycocalyx is less defined and less resistant to washing off?

slime layer

PROTECTION & ADHESION: the 2 types of glycocalyx in bacteria are... (composed of polysaccharides and some proteins)

slime layer and capsules

antigenic drift

small changes in the genes of viruses that happen gradually over time as the virus replicates

number of species and abundance of species in a given community is....

species diversity

relative abundance of the different species in an area

species evenness

number of different species present in an area

species richness

what does isomorphic mean?

species that have both diploid and haploid life forms with very similar morphology, having more than two generations in a year.

know haplodiplontic life cycle: heteromorphic

sporophyte (2n) is morphology different to gametophyte (n)

know haplodiplontic life cycle: isomorphic

sporophyte (2n) is same size as gametophyte (n)

A process where bacteria can undergo ____ to genetically preserve itself and cease binary fission

sporulation *extra info: The timing must be perfect. If a microbe commits to become a spore too soon it may die from competition with healthy neighbors that continue multiplying. Delaying the decision too long could cause death by starvation before the spore formation is complete.*

antigenic shift

the process by which two or more different strains of a virus, or strains of two or more different viruses, combine to form a new subtype having a mixture of the surface antigens of the two or more original strains. *likely not recognized by immune system

What does a chronogram show?

time (assumes molecular clock), calibrated

______heterogeneity (richness decreases) then 1) niches are too small and 2) population size decrease and 3) ______ of species in the area

too much extinction

What is the red tide in dinoflagellates?

toxin killing fish. ingestion of contaminated shellfishes by humans (15% deadly)

true or false: dinoflagellate rotate as they move forward

true

transformation is the genetic _____ from the environment.

uptake