Bio Psych Ch 6&7

difference between the historical approaches and those we use today:

can manipulate and measure the brain with a larger array of tools, many of which are noninvasive and go right down to the molecular level. -1950

simplest technique used for brain manipulation is. . .

ablate (remove or destroy) tissue. -Karl Lashley; neuroscience research, used ablation; he tried to find the site of memory in the brain. He trained monkeys and rats on various mazes and motor tasks and then removed bits of cerebral cortex, with the goal of producing amnesia for specific memories. -memory is distributed throughout the brain and not located in any single place. Subsequent research strongly indicates that specific brain functions and associated memories are indeed localized to specific brain regions.

If an area of Mandeep's brain is MORE active, the hemoglobin in that area will:

be less magnetic.

Rats have very large __________, meaning that they display a long list of capabilities, that can be independently examined to understand the functional underpinnings of those behaviors.

behavioral repertoires

Michael can't sleep because he is plagued by memories of a recent car accident he experienced. Michael will MOST likely be prescribed a(n) _____ to help him sleep.

benzodiazepine

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors block reuptake by:

blocking proteins that take serotonin back into neurons.

Maria is taking a medication that is a serotonin agonist. She is MOST likely taking an:

antidepressant agent.

compensation

the neuroplastic ability to modify behavior from that used prior to the damage.

approximately _____%of North Americans who smoke.

25

oxygen; falls

be less magnetic.

Electrical and magnetic stimulation

-Excite tissue activity -DBS, TMS

Tissue analysis

-Identify cell types and connections; identify disease states -Stains

The two disadvantages of inserting an electrode into a cell are that:

(1) it can kill the cell, and (2) it cannot be done in awake, freely moving animals. Single-cell recording is therefore confined to neurons grown in a dish or, for short periods (hours), to neurons in living brain slices.

Genetic stimulation

-Add genetic material -Knock-in technology

visualizing neurons

- the connections between anatomy and behavior, as can be seen in studies of animals trained on various types of learning tasks, such as spatial mazes. -correlated with a variety of neuroanatomical changes, such as modifications in the synaptic organization of cells in specific cortical regions—the visual cortex in animals trained in visually guided mazes

animals is because complex

-"ratese;"monkeyese -researchers must develop ways to enable the animals to reveal their symptoms. The development of the fields of animal learning and ethology, the objective study of animal behavior

Treating drug abuse

-. Moderate use of alcohol is likely benign. Moderate use of opioids is likely impossible. Social coercion is useful in reducing tobacco use: witness the marked decline in smoking as a result of prohibitions against smoking in public places. Medical intervention is necessary for the treatment of opioid abusers. -Online and in-person communities associated with self-help and professional groups address the treatment of specific drug addictions. -approach to any drug treatment involves recognizing that addiction is a lifelong problem for most people

Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids

-A class of synthetic hormones related to testosterone, the sex hormone secreted by the testes and responsible for the distinguishing characteristics of the male, has both muscle-building (anabolic) and masculinizing (androgenic) effects. -synthesized originally to build body mass and enhance endurance. -new anabolic steroids and new ways of taking them and masking them are devised;more than 1 million people in the United States have used anabolic steroids not only to enhance athletic performance but also to enhance physique and appearance; -increase in agression,educes male fertility and spermatogenesis;risk of heart attack and stroke. Liver and kidney function may be compromised, and the risk of tumors may increase -Females may have an enlarged clitoris, acne, increased body hair, and a deepened voice. -It is also useful for treating muscle loss subsequent to trauma and for the recovery of muscle mass in malnourished people. In females, anabolic steroids are used to treat endometriosis and fibrocystic disease of the breast.

computed tomography (CT): the CT scan

-Allan Cormack and Godfrey Hounsfield -a narrow X-ray beam could be passed through the same object at many angles, creating many images; the images could then be combined with the use of computing and mathematical techniques to produce a three-dimensional image of the brain. Tomo- comes from the Greek word for "section," indicating that tomography yields a picture through a single brain slice. -perceive depth and distance to locate an object in space, like eyes -X-ray absorption varies with tissue density. High-density tissue, such as bone, absorbs a lot of radiation. Low-density material, such as ventricular fluid or blood, absorbs little.;dark colors indicate low-density regions and light colors indicate high-density regions. -represents about a 1-millimeter-diameter circle of tissue, a resolution sufficient to distinguish two objects about 5 millimeters apart and appropriate for localizing brain tumors and lesions. -Ventricles=rendered darker -white matter=more or less homogeneous gray

Homeostatic Hormones

-An appropriate balance of sugars, proteins, carbohydrates, salts, and water is necessary in the blood, in the extracellular compartments of muscles, in the brain and other body structures, and in all cells. -controlling blood sugar level;pancreas releases insulin, a homeostatic hormone that instructs the enzyme glycogen synthase in liver and muscle cells to start storing glucose in the form of glycogen. The resulting decrease in glucose decreases the stimulation of pancreatic cells so that they stop producing insulin, and glycogen storage stops. When the body needs glucose for energy, another hormone in the liver, glucagon, acts as a countersignal to insulin. Glucagon stimulates another enzyme, glycogen phosphorylase, to initiate glucose release from its glycogen storage site.

three components of addiction

-escalation, compulsive drug taking, and relapse—

dissociative anesthetics

PCP and ketamine -compounds that produce feelings of detachment—dissociation—from the environment and self because they distort perceptions of sight and sound.

Parkinsonian tremor

Rest tremor that usually has a very regular "pill-rolling" quality and is frequently, but not always, associated with other symptoms of Parkinson's disease (stiffness, slowness, gait changes). -most widely used surgical treatment today is to drill a hole in the skull and, using stereotaxic coordinates obtained for that patient with an MRI -target the globus pallidus. An electrode is then lowered into the globus pallidus, and current is passed through it to destroy the structure and relieve the patient of the tremor. -New Technique:igh-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) can now achieve the same result without the invasive surgery;Focused ultrasound uses individual ultrasonic beams all pointed at the same spot in the brain. Each beam passes through tissue with little effect; at the convergent point where all the beams intersect, the energy heats the tissue. Lightly heating the tissue temporarily prevents that part of the brain from working properly, thereby informing the surgeons that their targeting is correct. The tissue heating can then continue until the target is permanently destroyed and the tremor is noninvasively eliminated

The 2008 Nobel Prize in chemistry was awarded to

Roger Tsien, Osamu Shimomura, and Martin Chalfie -discovery and development of fluorescent proteins in coral and jellies

In order for _____ to be performed, an electrode must first be inserted into the animal's brain.

cerebral voltammetry

Dr. Reimpel inserts electrodes into rat brains so that he can study their brain chemistry through:

cerebral voltammetry.

Stephen Faraone and coworkers

challenged the view of ADHD is a cultural phenomenon reflecting parents' and teachers' tolerance of children's behavior. conclude that ADHD worldwide is remarkably similar when the same rating criteria are used. Little is known about incidence in developing countries, however. may actually be higher in developing countries = learning environment for children is likely to be less structured than it is in developed nations. -cause of ADHD is unknown but probably involves dopamine receptors in the forebrain. The most likely areas are the frontal lobe and subcortical basal ganglia. Evidence of reduced brain volumes in these regions in ADHD patients is growing, as is evidence of an increase in the dopamine transporter protein. The dopamine transporter increase would mean that dopamine reuptake into the presynaptic neuron occurs faster than it does in the brains of people without ADHD. The result is a relative decrease in dopamine. Ritalin works by blocking dopamine reuptake. -highly heritable,=75% -Molecular genetic studies have identified at least seven candidate genes, and several of them are related to the dopamine synapse, in particular to the D4 receptor gene.

Most psychoactive drugs have three names:

chemical, generic, and branded.

hybrid scanners

combinations, such as PET with CT, PET with MRI, and PET with MRI and EEG. The advantage of these hybrid scanners is that they can acquire high-quality anatomical images and then overlay the functional/metabolic image information, allowing for precise localization that was not available before—all within a single examination.

major problem facing people with stroke is a deficit in. . .

controlling hand and limb movements. -Rats reaching for sweets; The movements, which are remarkably similar to the movements people make in a similar task, can be broken down into segments. Investigators can score the segments separately, as they are differentially affected by different types of neurological perturbation.

Dr. Freid is studying the effects of _____ on rats and notes that while it impacts ACh if it enters the bloodstream, it has no effect if it is ingested by mouth. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. curare

curare

Dr. Ravi is monitoring brain chemistry in humans in a clinical setting. She is MOST likely using _____ to achieve this task.

cerebral microdialysis

Hierarchical Control of Hormones

*Hypothalamus - Produces neurohormones to stimulate the Pituitary Gland to secrete releasing hormones into the circulatory system.The pituitary hormones in turn influence the remaining endocrine glands to release appropriate hormones into the bloodstream to act on various targets in the body and send feedback to the brain about the need for more or less hormone release. -target virtually all aspects of brain function. -influencing sex organs and physical appearance, hormones affect neurotransmitter function, especially in neurons that influence sexual development and behavior;gene expression by binding to special receptors on or in the cell and then being transported to the nucleus to influence gene transcription. Transcription, in turn, influences the synthesis of proteins needed for a variety of cellular processes. -travel in the bloodstream, which goes everywhere in the body.

When a drug leaves the bloodstream, it is diluted by approximately _____ liters of extracellular fluid in an adult body.

35

Stress

-Applied to humans and other animals, a stressor is a stimulus that challenges the body's homeostasis and triggers arousal. Stress responses, behavioral as well as physiological, include both arousal and attempts to reduce stress.

ewest obstacles are encountered if a psychoactive drug is. . .

injected directly into the brain

Caffeine in plants

-Caffeine acts as a natural pesticide, discouraging or killing herbivorous insects and inhibiting the invasion and colonization of pathogenic fungi -Plants face several challenges, such as herbivores, pathogens (like fungi), and attracting pollinators. All of these selective forces, and many others, have shaped plant adaptations;

Adenosinergic

-Caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, soft drinks, and "energy drinks," are consumed daily by about 85 percent of adults in the United States -cup of coffee contains about 100 mg of caffeine;energy drinks pack as much as 500 mg -Caffeine has a very similar structure to adenosine and binds to adenosine receptors without activating them, thereby blocking the effect of adenosine and thus acting as an adenosine antagonist. -Endogenous adenosine: drowsiness - Caffeine inhibits an enzyme that ordinarily breaks down the second messenger, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The resulting increase in cAMP leads to increased glucose production, making more energy available and allowing higher rates of cellular activity. -Caffeine also promotes the release of dopamine and acetylcholine -well-known source of caffeine is the coffee seed (not a bean) of Coffea plants.

Drugs and brain damage:

-Certain drugs of abuse can cause brain damage in humans, but definitive proof is very difficult to obtain -large doses of MSG on cultured neurons, which died. Subsequently, they injected MSG into the brains of experimental animals, where it also killed neurons.=many glutamatelike substances, including domoic acid and kainic acid (both toxins in seaweed) and ibotenic acid (found in some poisonous mushrooms), similarly kill neurons;PCP and ketamine are glutamate agonists, leaving open the possibility that at high doses they, too, can cause neuronal death. -Glutamatelike drugs are toxic because they act on glutamate receptors. Glutamate receptor activation results in an influx of Ca2+ into the cell, which through second messengers activates a suicide gene leading to apoptosis (cell death). -. Chronic alcohol use, for instance, can be associated with damage to the thalamus and cortical areas, producing severe memory disorders -Alcoholics typically obtain low amounts of thiamine (vitamin B1) in their diet, and alcohol interferes with the ability of the intestines to absorption of thiamine. Thiamine plays a vital role in maintaining cell memebrane strcture severe psychiatric disorder subsequent to abusing certain recreational drugs, in most cases determining whether the drug initiated the condition or aggravated an existing problem is difficult.

Learning alcohol:

-Craig MacAndrew and Robert Edgerton (1969);ehavior under the influence of alcohol changes from one context to another. -MacAndrew and Edgerton suggest that behavior under the effects of alcohol is learned. Learned behavior is specific to culture, group -alcohol is used to facilitate social interactions, behavior while intoxicated is a time-out from more conservative rules regarding dating.

Whole-animal manipulations

-Determine how an environmental condition affects brain and behavior -Diet, exercise, social interactions, sensory stimulation, drug usage

Genetics

-Determine presence of a gene and its products -DNA, RNA, protein analysis

Drug manipulations

-Determine receptor system's role in the CNS -Use drugs to activate (agonists) or inactivate (antagonists) a receptor system

Epigenetics

-Discover effect of experience on gene expression, brain, and behavior -Gene expression analysis

synthetic amphetaminelike drug MDMA

-Ecstasy and, in pure powdered form, Molly -structurally related to amphetamine, it produces hallucinogenic effects and is called a hallucinogenic amphetamine. -degeneration of very fine serotonergic nerve terminals. -contain a contaminant called paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA). This notoriously toxic amphetamine is often called Dr. Death because the difference between a dose that causes behavioral effects and a dose that causes death is minuscule

Anthropological Society of Paris in 1861

-Ernest Auburtin argued that language functions are located in the brain's frontal lobes; -Paul Broca, observed a brain-injured patient who had lost his speech and was able to say only "tan" and utter a swear word. speech production is located in the third frontal convolution of the left frontal lobe—the Broca's area; findings created neuropsychology

Brainbow

-Jean Livet -transgenic technique that involves labeling different neurons by highlighting them with distinct colors—a technique called Brainbow, a play on the word rainbow. -introduced genes that produce cyan (blue)-jellies.-, green-jellies.-, and red-coral- fluorescent proteins into mice cells. -mice also received a bacterial gene called Cre, which activates the color genes inside each cell;activation varies;variable expression of the color-coding genes results in cells that fluoresce in at least 100 hues; viewed through fluorescent microscope sensitive to these wavelengths, brain cells and connections can be seen because they have slightly different hues -describe where each neuron sends its processes and how it interconnects with other neurons;examining changes in neural circuits with the passage of time. -simplest brain contains extraordinary numbers of neurons and fibers. Modifications in Brainbow that restrict visualization to only a few cells and fibers at a time are necessary for their connections to be understood. -Brainbow will prove useful for examining populations of cells and their connections—such as which cells are implicated in specific brain diseases

Record electrical and magnetic activity

-Measure action potentials from individual neurons; measure graded potentials to assess coordinated activity of thousands of neurons; measure magnetic fields -Single-cell recording; EEG, ERP; MEG

Functional brain imaging

-Measure brain activity as specific behaviors are performed -fMRI; fNIRS; MRS; PET

Joshua Bueller and his colleagues (2006)

-Met allele is associated with an 11 percent reduction in hippocampal volume in healthy participants;Met allele with poor memory for specific events (episodic memory) and a high incidence of dementia later in life. -Val allele is by no means the better variant: although Val carriers have better episodic memory, they also have a higher incidence of neuroticism and anxiety disorders. -Both:produce different phenotypes because they influence brain structure and functions differently.

Cholinergic

-Nicotine is found in the leaves of the tobacco plant, Nicotiana tabacum -antiherbivore chemical;Nicotine is also found in small amounts in potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplant. -At low doses, nicotine is a stimulant, but at very high doses, it dampens neuronal activity -Tobacco smokers report feelings of relaxation, sharpness, calmness, and alertness. -nicotine stimulates acetylcholine nicotinic receptors, which then indirectly causes the release of acetylcholine and several other neurotransmitters, including norepinephrine, epinephrine, arginine vasopressin, serotonin, endorphins, and dopamine. -Smoking cessation leads to heightened anxiety, irritability, craving, inability to feel pleasure, and tremors. -nicotine in one cigarette, if injected, can be lethal to an inexperienced person -Respiratory diseases, lung cancer, -more harmful chemicals found in tobacco smoke rather than in nicotine itself

Anatomical brain imaging

-Noninvasive examination of brain structures -Miniature microscopes; X-ray; CT; MRI; DTI

Behavioral analysis

-Observe behavior; generate tests to allow people and lab animals to demonstrate behavioral capacities -Naturalistic observation; tests, mazes; automated touchscreen platform

In vivo chemistry

-Relate fluctuations in transmitter release to behavior -HPLC; microdialysis, voltammetry

Genetic lesions

-Remove genetic material -Knockout technology, CRISPR

Brain lesions, permanent

-Remove or destroy neural tissue to observe behavioral changes -Knife cuts or aspirations, electrolytic lesions, neurotoxic lesions, high-intensity focused ultrasound

Brain lesions, temporary and reversible

-Short-term silencing of neural tissue to observe behavioral changes -Regional cooling to arrest synaptic transmission, delivery of an agonist for GABA through a cannula to increase local inhibition

Cannabinergic

-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is one of 84 cannabinoids and the main psychoactive constituent in cannabis (inappropriately referred to as marijuana), obtained from a couple of species of Cannabis plants -interacting with the cannabidiol 1 (CB1) receptor found on neurons, and it also binds with the CB2 receptors found on glial cells and in other body tissues. Cannabis has extremely low toxicity -two endogenous molecules that bind to CB1 and CB2 receptors: anandamide and 2-AG. Results from numerous lines of research suggest that anandamide reduces anxiety and enhances forgetting. -benefits:nausea and emesis (vomiting) in patients undergoing cancer chemotherapy who are not helped by other treatments and stimulates the appetite in patients with anorexia-cachexia (wasting) syndrome.;treating chronic pain;treating glaucoma;spastic disorders such as multiple sclerosis, disorders associated with spinal cord injury, and some epilepsy syndromes

Alcohol

-The fermentation of sugar into alcohol is one of humanity's earliest biotechnologies, dating back at least 9000 years. -short-term psychological and physiological effects that depend on several factors, including the amount and concentration of alcohol, the duration over which it is consumed, the amount of food eaten, and the consumer's weight and experience with alcohol. -Small amounts of alcohol typically cause an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria, increased self-confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination, and a flushing of the face. Medium doses result in lethargy, sedation, balance problems, and blurred vision. High doses lead to profound confusion, slurred speech, staggering, dizziness, and vomiting—an adaptive response to poisoning. Very high doses cause stupor, memory loss, unconsciousness, life-threatening respiratory depression, and inhalation of vomit. -Alcoholics often are malnourished and typically have elevated levels of chronic pancreatitis, liver disease, and cancer. Alcoholism results in damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as nearly every other system and organ in the body.

Two important issues surface in use of animal models to develop treatments for brain and behavioral disorders:

-The first is whether animals actually display neurological diseases in ways similar to humans. -The second involves the ethics of using animals in research. We consider each separately.

The four major techniques for tracking the brain's electrical activity are single-cell recording:

-The four major techniques for tracking the brain's electrical activity are single-cell recording -electroencephalography (EEG), event-related potentials (ERPs), and magnetoencephalography (MEG). -used to record electrical activity from different parts of neurons. The electrical behavior of cell bodies and dendrites, which give rise to graded potentials, tends to be much more varied and slower than the behavior of axons, which conduct action potentials. *individual cells by measuring a single neuron's action potentials with fine electrodes inserted into the brain

cytochrome P450 enzyme family

-The liver is especially active in catabolizing drugs. This organ houses a family of enzymes involved in drug catabolism -liver is capable of breaking down many different drugs into forms more easily excreted from the body.

Optogenetics

-Use light to activate specific ion channels and relate to behavior -Insertion of specific light-sensitive proteins

Chemogenetics

-Use specific synthetic drugs to activate designer receptors -Insertion of specific G protein-coupled receptors

Benzedrine

-a form of amphetamine, was originally used to treat asthma and sold in inhalers as a nonprescription drug through the 1940s -World War II to help troops and pilots stay alert, increase confidence and aggression, and boost morale;weight-loss aid

Major depression

-a mood disorder characterized by prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt, disruption of normal eating habits, sleep disturbances such as insomnia, a general slowing of behavior, and frequent thoughts of suicide -6 percent of the adult U.S. population; 30% have one episode -nutritional deficiencies may increase vulnerability to stress; stress may change neuronal function; and if unrelieved, altered neuronal function may lead to neuron damage -treatment:normalizing stress hormones, modifying neuronal responses, and stimulating neuronal repair.

Ian Whishaw and his colleagues (1989)

-administered flupentixol, a drug that blocks dopamine receptors, to rats that had been well trained in a swimming task -rats' swimming speeds slowed significantly with each successive trial, and eventually the rats stopped swimming altogether.

Serotonergic

-adrenergic activity;agonists, -altering perceptions of one's surroundings, feelings, sensations, and images (visual hallucinations), producing what are known as "trips." -mescaline (peyote; 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine), DMT (N, N-Dimethyltryptamine), and psilocybin, are found in plants and mushrooms, while others, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and MDMA (Ecstasy, XTC; 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine), are produced synthetically. -Good trips on serotonergic agonists can be pleasurable and are associated with feelings of joy or euphoria (referred to as a "rush"), disconnection from reality, decreased inhibitions, and the belief that one has extreme mental clarity or superpowers -Bad trips can be associated with irrational fears, panic attacks, paranoia, rapid mood swings, intrusive thoughts of hopelessness, wanting to harm others, and suicidal ideation. -Repeated use can lead to problems with sleep, mood, memory, and attention.

GABAergic

-agonists reduce anxiety; at medium doses, they sedate; at high doses, they anesthetize or induce coma; high dosage=medically induced coma. -Excitation of the GABAA receptor produces an influx of Cl− through its pore. -An influx of Cl− increases the concentration of negative charges inside the cell membrane, hyper-polarizing it and making it less likely to propagate an action potential. GABA therefore produces its inhibitory effect by decreasing a neuron's firing rate. Widespread reduction of neuronal firing underlies the behavioral effects of drugs that affect the GABAA synapse.

disinhibition theory

-alcohol has a selective depressant effect on the cortical brain region that controls judgment while sparing subcortical structures that are responsible for more instinctual behaviors, such as desire. Stated differently, alcohol depresses learned inhibitions based on reasoning and judgment while releasing the "beast" within. -argument: that the frontal lobes check impulsive behavior. According to this idea, impulse control is impaired after drinking alcohol because of a higher relative sensitivity of the frontal lobes to alcohol.

behavioral myopia

-alcohol-related lapses in judgment -(nearsightedness), is the tendency for people under the influence of alcohol to respond to a restricted set of immediate and prominent cues while ignoring more remote cues and possible consequences -more immediate than concerns about long-term safety -People might believe they are less impaired than they actually are (Sevincer & Oettingen, 2014).

Hippocampus

-amount of damage to the hippocampus that must occur to produce a stress syndrome is not certain -brain-imaging techniques may not be sensitive to subtle changes in hippocampal cell function or to moderate cell loss. -wide individual and environmental differences influence how people respond to stress. -neonatal stress can influence hippocampal neurogenesis (Lajud & Torner, 2015). The long-term consequence is a smaller hippocampus and increased susceptibility to stress. -Patrick McGowan and his colleagues (2009) report that the density of glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus of people who committed suicide and had been sexually abused as children was lower than that of both controls and suicide victims who had not been abused. -. The decrease in glucocorticoid receptors presumably renders the hippocampus less able to depress stress responses. The importance of the McGowan study is its suggestion of a mechanism through which stress can influence hippocampal function without necessarily being associated with a decrease in hippocampal volume

methamphetamine

-amphetamine derivative is methamphetamine -inexpensive yet potentially devastating drug; made in lab -Amphetamine (Adderall) and methylphenidate (Ritalin) are medically prescribed to treat ADHD

Organophosphates

-bind irreversibly to AChE and consequently allow a toxic buildup of ACh in the synaptic cleft. -insecticides and chemical weapons

extracellular recordings

-brain's various sensory regions are highly sensitive to specific stimuli -visual system fire vigorously to specific wavelengths of light (a color) or to specific orientations of bars of light -Other cells in this region respond to more complex patterns, such as faces or hands. Similarly, cells in the auditory system respond to specific sound frequencies (a low or high pitch) or to more complex sound combinations, such as speech (the syllable ba, for example).

Epigenetic in addiction:

-changes in an individual's gene expression may be relatively permanent and can be passed along, perhaps through the next few generations. For these reasons, epigenetics can account both for the enduring behaviors that support addiction and for the tendency of drug addiction to be inherited.

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

-coined in 1973 to describe a pattern of physical malformation and intellectual disability observed in some children born to alcoholic mothers; -abnormal facial features, such as unusually wide spacing between the eyes. Their brains display a range of abnormalities, from small size with abnormal gyri to abnormal clusters of cells and misaligned cells in the cortex. -They display varying degrees of learning disabilities and low intelligence test scores, as well as hyperactivity and other social problems. -effects are worse if alcohol is consumed in the first trimester, a time of organogenesis and the highest levels of DNA synthesis. The risks are exacerbated because many women may not yet realize that they are pregnant at this stage. -little as a single drink of alcohol per day during pregnancy can lead to a decrease in children's intelligence test scores.

modern approaches share several commonalities with those historically used:

1)observe and quantify behavior and aspects of brain function in people with neurological conditions and in a wide variety of animal models 2)manipulate brain function by either increasing or decreasing activity in a highly specific and controlled fashion and then examining the effect of those changes in activity on behavior

THE SLOW RESPONSE

-controlled by the steroid cortisol, a glucocorticoid released from the outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland. -Activating the cortisol pathway takes anywhere from minutes to hours. Cortisol has wide-ranging functions, including turning off all bodily systems not immediately required to deal with a stressor. For example, cortisol turns off insulin so that the liver starts releasing glucose, thus temporarily increasing the body's energy supply. It also shuts down reproductive functions and inhibits the production of growth hormone. In this way, it concentrates the body's energy on dealing with the stress.

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

-detects the directional movements of water molecules to image nerve fiber pathways in the brain. -move relatively freely along the axon but less freely across cell membranes. -The direction of this water movement is detected by a coil and interpreted by a computer. DTIs can delineate abnormalities in neural pathways. They are also used to identify changes in fiber myelination, such as the damage that leads to myelin loss in multiple sclerosis. -virtual and based on computer reconstructions of water movement along axons, which should correspond to actual fibers. -detects abnormalities such as those that occur in multiple sclerosis, stroke, or concussion, in the imaged fiber pathways and in their myelin sheaths.

Benzodiazepines

-diazepam (Valium), alprozolam (Xanax), and clonazepam (Klonopin);reduce anxiety -presurgical relaxation agents and can terminate seizures. -Cross-tolerance results when the tolerance for one drug, like benzodiazepines, is carried over to a different member of the drug group. Cross-tolerance also suggests that benzodiazepines and alcohol act on the nervous system in similar ways.

Mild Head Injury and Depression

-display significant attentional and short-term memory deficits -display significant attentional and short-term memory deficits -One tool for investigating brain functioning in such cases is ERP -Reza and colleagues (2007) compared healthy controls to groups of subjects with mild head injuries, with and without depression. found that all subjects with head injury displayed a delayed P3 wave, but only those who were depressed as well also had a delayed N2 wave. These findings demonstrate that ERP can identify cerebral processing abnormalities in people with depression after mild head injury, even when MRI scans are negative. evidence criticalfor people who are seeking long-term disability support following what appears to be a mild head injury.

psychomotor activation

-dopaminergics, GABAergics, and opioidergics -user feel energetic and in control. -Drugs of abuse increase dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens, either directly or indirectly, and drugs that blunt abuse and addiction decrease dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens.

five classes of opioid peptides:

-dynorphins, enkephalins, endorphins, endomorphins, and nociceptin.=The four receptors on which each opioid peptide binds are the delta, kappa, mu, and nociceptin receptors. -CNS regions, as well as in other areas of the body, including the enteric nervous system (ENS)

adverse childhood experiences

-environmental perspective -increased risk of drug initiation and drug addiction. ACEs include emotional, physical, and sexual abuse; emotional and physical neglect; mental illness of a household member; witnessing violence against one's mother; substance abuse by a household member; parental separation or divorce; and incarceration of a household member. -increase likelihood for early drug initiation by a factor of two to four -with 5 or more ACEs have been found to be 7 to 10 times more likely to report drug use problems and addiction -majority (90 percent) of individuals who have experienced five or more ACEs have not become addicted to drugs. -women are about twice as sensitive to drugs as are men=smaller size but also to hormonal differences.;women surpass males in the incidence of addiction to many drugs.

functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

-form of optical tomography, a functional imaging technique that operates on the principle that an object can be reconstructed by gathering light transmitted through it. One requirement is that the object at least partially transmit light. Thus, optical tomography can image soft body tissue, such as that in the breast or the brain. -reflected infrared light is used to determine blood flow because oxygen-rich hemoglobin and oxygen-poor hemoglobin differ in their absorption spectra. -fNIRS and fMRI measure essentially the same thing but with different tools. -ptical transmitter and receiver pairs are fitted across the scalp -relatively easy to hook up subjects repeatedly and record from them for short periods, from infancy to senescence. -differentiate cancerous from noncancerous brain tissue

functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

-gathers light transmitted through cortical tissue to image oxygen consumption in the brain. NIRS, a form of optical tomography -measure oxygen consumption as a surrogate marker of neuronal activity in relatively select cortical regions, even in newborn infants -When newborns listened to a familiar language, their brain showed a general increase in oxygenated hemoglobin; when they heard an unfamiliar language, -When newborns listened to a familiar language, their brain showed a general increase in oxygenated hemoglobin; when they heard an unfamiliar language, oxygenated hemoglobin decreased overall;same sentences played backward, there was no difference in brain response to either language. -prenatal experience shapes the newborn brain's response

brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is representative.

-gene related to the production of a compound -stimulating neural plasticity, and low levels of BDNF have been found with mood disorders such as depression. The two alleles of this gene are BDNF Val 66Met and BDNF Val 66Val.

positron emission tomography (PET)

-imaging detects changes in the brain's blood flow by measuring changes in the uptake of compounds such as oxygen and glucose -metabolic activity of brain cells engaged in processing brain functions such as language -is a doughnut-shaped array of radiation detectors that encircles a person's head. A small amount of water labeled with radioactive molecules is injected into the bloodstream. The person injected with these molecules is in no danger because the molecules used, including the radioactive isotope oxygen-15 (15O), are very unstable. They break down in just a few minutes and are quickly eliminated from the body -subtracting blood-flow levels from a control period from blood-flow levels during the task..

Different absorption of drugs:

1)solid form are not absorbed unless the stomach's gastric juices can dissolve them. 2)easily absorbed in liquid form 3)drugs may be destroyed or altered by enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract's microbiome 4)whether drug is acidic or basic determines absorption.

Sabina Fraioli and her coworkers (1999)

-injected amphetamine into two rat groups -One group of rats lived in the test apparatus, so for that group, home was the test box. The other group was taken out of their home cage and placed in the test box for each day's experimentation. The home group showed no sensitization to amphetamine, whereas the out group displayed robust sensitization. -accustomed to engaging in a certain behavioral repertoire in their home environment/ take the out of environment, might receive a different repose

Diabetes mellitus

-is caused by a failure of the pancreatic cells to secrete any or enough insulin. As a result, blood sugar levels can fall (hypoglycemia) or rise (hyperglycemia). -hyperglycemia, blood glucose levels rise because insulin does not instruct body cells to take up glucose. Consequently, cell function, including neuronal function, can fail through glucose starvation, even in the presence of high glucose levels in the blood. Chronic high blood glucose levels cause damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart, and blood vessels.

Animal Welfare Act,

-laws passed by Congress in 1966, 1970, 1976, and 1985. -European countries, it is much stricter. The U.S. act covers mammals, including rats, mice, cats, dogs, and primates, and birds, but it excludes farm animals that are not used in research. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) administers the act through inspectors in the Animal Care section of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service..

John Wenger and his colleagues (1981).

-learned tolerance -One group of rats received alcohol after training in walking the belt; another group received alcohol before training. A third group received training only, and a fourth group received alcohol only. -The rats that had received alcohol before training performed well, whereas those that had received training and alcohol separately performed just as poorly as those that had never had alcohol or those that had not been trained. -Results:animals can acquire the motor skills needed to balance on a narrow belt. With motor experience, they can learn to compensate for being intoxicated.

The disadvantage of fNIRS

-light does not penetrate far into the brain, so researchers are restricted to measuring cortical activity -The spatial resolution is also not as good as with other noninvasive methods, although NIRS equipment can now use more than 100 light detectors on the scalp, which allows acceptable spatial resolution in the image

methamphetamine

-low doses=the active ingredient in crystal meth, elevates mood; increases alertness, concentration, and energy; reduces appetite; and promotes weight loss. -higher doses=induces psychosis in vulnerable individuals and can cause seizures and brain hemorrhage. -compulsive usage:unpredictable and rapid mood swings, paranoia, hallucinations, delirium, and delusions, often with accompanying violent behavior. -is a dopaminergic agonist, it interacts directly with the nucleus accumbens, which can lead to compulsive drug use. -Chronic methamphetamine use has a toxic effect on human midbrain dopaminergic neurons and serotonin neurons, leading to reductions in gray-matter volume in several brain regions and adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity -Dopaminergic antagonists are used to treat psychosis, but they are not a cure

THC and Brain Damage:

-may trigger psychosis in vulnerable individuals, but there is no evidence that the psychosis is a result of brain damage -can aid brain healing after traumatic brain injury and slow the progression of diseases associated with brain degeneration, including Alzheimer disease and Huntington disease

Medical Treatment of Major Depression:

-monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors; the tricyclics, and the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors 1)MAO inhibitors:more serotonin release with each action potential by inhibiting monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down serotonin in the axon terminal. In contrast, the tricyclics and SSRIs block the reuptake transporter that takes serotonin back into the axon terminal. Because the transporter is blocked, serotonin remains in the synaptic cleft, prolonging its action on postsynaptic receptors. -SSRIs, stimulate second messengers in neurons to activate the repair of neurons damaged by stress -SSRI, fluoxetine (Prozac), increases the production of new neurons in the hippocampus, a limbic structure in the temporal lobes. -electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), in which electrical current is briefly passed through one hemisphere of the brain. -Ketamine is thus proposed to be useful as an acute treatment for patients with major depression who are at risk for suicide as well as for patients with bipolar depression who are at risk for suicide -rate between children and adolescents who receive SSRIs and a placebo; in addition, the incidence of suicide after prescriptions were curtailed subsequent to the FDA warning actually increased -20 percent of patients with depression fail to respond to antidepressant drugs.

As neurons become active

-more oxygen, resulting in a temporary dip in the blood oxygen level. -increase blood carbon dioxide levels, which signal blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood flow and bringing more oxygen to the area

Opioidergic

-opioid is any endogenous or exogenous compound that binds to opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects. -sleep-inducing (narcotic) and pain-relieving (analgesic) properties. There are three sources of opioids: isolated (morphine, codeine), altered (heroin, oxycodone), and synthetic (fentanyl, methadone).

prior to the twentieth century and were interested in studying how the brain works:

1)study the behaviors of people who had sustained brain injury or had neurological impairment and then examine their brains after their deaths to determine which parts were responsible for the deficits 2)purposely create lesions in animals and examine how their behaviors changed.

morphology (structure)

-postmortem tissue -allows detailed analysis of both macro and micro structure, depending on the method chosen. Identifying brain pathology, as in Parkinson disease, can lead to insights about the causes and nature of a disorder. -Other investigators focus more on the ways neurons generate electrical activity in relationship to behavior or on functional changes in brain activity during specific types of cognitive processing. Both approaches are legitimate: the goal is gaining an understanding of brain-behavior relationships. -must consider practical issues, too. Temporal resolution (how quickly the measurement or image is obtained); spatial resolution (the accuracy of localization in the brain); and the degree of invasiveness are all pertinent. In addition, it is not feasible to consider MRI-based methods for studies of very young children because they have difficulty remaining absolutely still for long periods.

Barry Everitt (2014)

-proposes that the repeated pairing of drug-related cues to drug taking forms neural associations, or learning, in the dorsal striatum, a region in the basal ganglia consisting of the caudate nucleus and putamen. -unconscious processes—a habit. -The result: drug users lose control of decisions related to drug taking, and the wanting—the voluntary control over drug taking—gives way to the craving of addiction. -desire for the drug often is greatest just when the addicted person is maximally high, not during withdrawal. -The similarities between exaggerating normal behaviors and drug addiction suggest that they depend on the same learning and brain mechanisms.

All accredited U.S. and Canadian universities that receive government grant support are required to

-provide adequate treatment for all vertebrate animals. Reviews and specific protocols for vertebrates, including fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, to be used in research, teaching, or testing are administered through the same process. Anyone using animals in a U.S. or Canadian university submits a protocol to the university's institutional animal care and use committee, composed of researchers, veterinarians, people who have some knowledge of science, and laypeople from the university and the community.

Glutamatergic

-receptors, such as NMDA, AMPA, and kainate -Antagonists for the NMDA receptor, such as phencyclidine (PCP, or angel dust) and ketamine (Special K), can produce hallucinations and out-of-body experiences. -PCP inhibits nicotinic acetylcholine receptors as well as inhibiting dopamine reuptake; therefore, PCP is also a dopaminergic agonist, which may account for some of its psychoactive effects. -Ketamine:prescribed for starting and maintaining anesthesia.;being tested as a rapid-acting antidepressant and is in phase III clinical trials for use in treating major depressive disorder -Mematine (Namenda) is an NMDA antagonist that is prescribed in the treatment of Alzheimer disease to prevent neuronal loss.

general brain organization across mammalian species is. . .

-remarkably similar, and the functioning of basic neural circuits in nonhuman mammals appears to generalize to humans. -widely varying animal species to model human brain diseases as well as to infer typical human brain functioning. -stroke=easy to model in laboratory animals because it is possible to interrupt blood supply to a brain area and induce injury and consequent behavioral change.

Compulsive drug taking

-repetitive and persistent drug administration despite negative consequences. It is related to the inability to completely cease taking drugs.

disadvantage of fMRI

-subjects must lie motionless in a long, noisy tube, an experience that can prove claustrophobic. The confined space and lack of mobility also restrict the types of behavioral experiments that can be performed. -changes in blood flow take as long as one-third of a second, the temporal resolution of fMRI is not as precise as that obtained with EEG recordings and ERPs.

withdrawal symptoms

-suddenly stop taking their drug of choice. Symptoms can include muscle aches and cramps, anxiety attacks, sweating, nausea, and even, for some drugs, convulsions and death. Symptoms of alcohol or morphine withdrawal can begin within hours of the last dose and tend to intensify over several days before they subside.

Amphetamine

-synthetic compound. It was discovered in attempts to synthesize the CNS neurotransmitter epinephrine, which also acts as a hormone to mobilize the body for fight or flight in times of stress -amphetamine and cocaine are dopamine agonists. -amphetamine also reverses the transporter that typically packages dopamine into vesicles, thus removing dopamine that was already packaged and increasing its abundance in the synaptic terminal -

brain region is active

-the amount of blood, oxygen, and glucose flowing to the region increases. -Three techniques developed from this logic are functional MRI, optical tomography, and positron emission tomography.. -MRI and computing technologies led to a shift from purely anatomical imaging—which presented a static image of the tissue, as if it were not alive

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and attention-deficit disorder (ADD):

-the most common disorders of brain and behavior in children, with an incidence of 4 percent to 10 percent of school-aged children; can go unrecognized -50 percent of children with ADHD still show symptoms in adulthood -symptoms in adulthood, where its behaviors are associated with family breakups, substance abuse, and driving accidents. -dysfunction in the noradrenergic or dopaminergic activating system, especially in the frontal basal ganglia circuitry. -Ritalin (methylphenidate) and Adderall (mainly dextroamphetamine) increase brain levels of noradrenaline and dopamine treatADHD. 70 percent of children show improvement of attention and hyperactivity symptoms with treatment, but there is little evidence that drugs directly improve academic achievement. This is important because about 40 percent of children with ADHD fail to get a high-school diploma, even though many receive special education for their condition.

ADHD

-we can think of ADHD in people or in rats as one extreme on a spectrum of behaviors that are part of a normal distribution in the general population. Many studies show that treating rats with the dopaminergic agonist methylphenidate (Ritalin), a common treatment for children diagnosed with ADHD, actually improves the performance of rats that do poorly on tests requiring attentional processes. -difficult to treat in children, and interest in developing an animal model is high; take advantage of normal variance -rat strain, the Kyoto SHR rat=abnormalities in prefrontal dopaminergic innervation that correlate with behavioral abnormalities such as hyperactivity -Dopaminergic abnormalities are believed to be one underlying symptom of ADHD in children (as explained in Research Focus 7-4). Methylphenidate can reverse behavioral abnormalities, both in children with ADHD and in the SHR rats.

Ending a Stress Response

-what can happen if the stress response is not shut down: 1)The body continues to mobilize energy at the cost of energy storage. 2)Proteins are used up, resulting in muscle wasting and fatigue. 3)Growth hormone is inhibited, so the body cannot grow 4)The gastrointestinal system remains shut down, reducing the intake and processing of nutrients to replace used resources. 5)Reproductive functions are inhibited. 6)The immune system is suppressed, contributing to the possibility of infection or disease.

genetic inheritance/brain organization.

1 in 250 live births are identical twins, people who share an identical genome -Twin studies show strong concordance rates that support genetic contributions to drug addiction and other psychiatric disorders;environmental factors and life experience -Life experiences act epigenetically to alter gene expression. -a high concordance rate for behavioral traits would imply a strong environmental influence on behavior. Ideally, an investigator would be able to study both the adoptive and biological parents to tease out the relative heritability of behavioral traits. -the alleles (different forms) of specific genes to behaviors

Sensitization is relevant to understanding some psychopharmacological effects of drugs:

1) Many drug therapies, including those for the psychiatric disorder schizophrenia, must be taken for several weeks before they produce beneficial effects. Possibly sensitization underlies the development of these beneficial effects. 2)Sensitization is related to drug dependence. Before a person becomes dependent on or addicted to a drug, he or she must be sensitized by numerous experiences with the drug away from the home environment. 3)Life experiences, especially stressful ones, can produce effects resembling sensitization that prime the nervous system for addiction (Roberts et al.,

The cells of capillary walls in three brain regions that lack blood-brain barrier:

1) Pineal Gland: Entry of chemicals that affect day-night cycles 2) Pituitary Gland: entry of hormones that influence hormones 3)Area Postrema/brainstem: entry of toxic substances that induce vomiting

Molecules of these vital substances cross the blood-brain barrier in two ways:

1) Small molecules, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, and lipid-soluble molecules can pass through the endothelial membranes. 2)Complex molecules of glucose, amino acids, and other food components are carried across the membrane by active transport systems or ion pumps (transporter proteins specialized to convey a particular substance).

Oral administration of a drug:

1) drug must be absorbed through the lining of the stomach or small intestine. 2)Enters bloodsteam;drug must be water-soluble

major steps in neurotransmission at a synapse—each a potential site of drug action:

1)Synthesis of the neurotransmitter in the cell body, the axon, or the terminal 2)Packaging and storage of the neurotransmitter in vesicles 3)Release of the transmitter from the terminal's presynaptic membrane into the synapse 4)Receptor interaction in the postsynaptic membrane, as the transmitter acts on an embedded receptor 5)a.activation by reuptake into the presynaptic terminal for reuse OR b.Inactivation by enzymatic degradation of excess neurotransmitter

PET has important advantages over other imaging methods:

1)can detect the decay of literally hundreds of radiochemicals, which allows the mapping of a wide range of brain changes and conditions, including changes in pH, glucose, oxygen, amino acids, neurotransmitters, and proteins. 2)can detect relative amounts of a given neurotransmitter, the density of neurotransmitter receptors, and metabolic activities associated with learning, brain poisoning, and degenerative processes that might be related to aging. 3)widely used to study cognitive function with great success. For example, PET confirms that various brain regions perform different functions.

found three lines of evidence suggesting a genetic contribution to differences in drug use:

1)if a twin abuses alcohol, his or her identical twin (same genotype) is more likely to abuse it than would be a fraternal twins (only some genes in common). -environments are more similar than those of fraternal twins. 2)people adopted shortly after birth are more likely to abuse alcohol if their biological parents were alcoholic, even though they have had almost no contact with those parents -nervous system changes due to prenatal exposure to the drug 3)most animals do not care for alcohol, selective breeding of mice, rats, and monkeys can produce strains that consume large quantities of it. -gene or set of genes related to alcoholism is found.

four principles used as guidelines in Canada for reviewing experimental and teaching protocols that will use animals:

1)the use of animals in research, teaching, and testing is acceptable only if it promises to contribute to the understanding of environmental principles or issues, fundamental biological principles, or development of knowledge that can reasonably be expected to benefit humans, animals, or the environment. 2)Optimal standards for animal health and care result in enhanced credibility and reproducibility of experimental results. 3)Acceptance of animal use in science critically depends on maintaining public confidence in the mechanisms and processes used to ensure necessary, humane, and justified animal use. 4)Animals are used only if the researcher's best efforts to find an alternative have failed. Researchers who use animals employ the most humane methods on the smallest number of appropriate animals required to obtain valid information.

In a typical event-related potential, N1 occurs _____ milliseconds after a stimulus, and P2 occurs _____ milliseconds after a stimulus.

100; 200

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

1930s, Hans Berger discovered that the brain's electrical activity could be recorded simply by placing electrodes on the scalp. In Berger's words, recording these "brain waves" produces an "electrical record from the head" -a method used during neurosurgery, electrodes are placed directly on the cerebral cortex. 1)EEG changes as behavior changes. 2)An EEG recorded from the cortex displays an array of patterns, some rhythmical. 3)The living brain's electrical activity is never silent, even when a person is asleep or comatose. -aroused, excited, or even just alert=low amplitude and a fast frequency -calm and quietly relaxed, especially with eyes closed=rhythmical brain waves; -alpha rhythms are extremely regular=11 cycles per second and amplitudes=generated in the region of the visual cortex at the back of the brain -relaxed person is disturbed, performs mental arithmetic, or opens his or her eyes, the alpha=rhythms abruptly stop. -reliable tool for monitoring sleep stages, estimating the depth of anesthesia, evaluating the severity of head injury, and searching for brain abnormalities. -progressive sleep stages=progressively slower and larger in amplitude -EEG is an essential tool in the diagnosis of epilepsy and in determining the kind of epilepsy and seizures a person has. -useful tool both for research and for diagnosing brain dysfunction.

Office of Human Research Protections of the National Institutes of Health (NIH)

1986;The act covers all animal uses conducted or supported by the U.S. Public Health Service and applies to any live vertebrate animal used in research, training, or testing. The act requires that each institution provide acceptable assurance that it meets all minimum regulations and conforms with The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals before conducting any activity that includes animals. The typical method for demonstrating conformance with the guide is to seek voluntary accreditation from the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International, a private, nonprofit organization that promotes the humane treatment of animals...

the Brain neurons is farther than about ____________ (μm; 1 μm is equal to one-millionth of a meter) from a capillary.

50 micrometers

A drug taken by an adult that enters the bloodstream is diluted in approximately _____ liters of blood.

6

Dopaminergic

:-drug that increases the effects of dopamine at receptor sites 1)Dopamine Agonists: -Recreationally used dopaminergic agonists include cocaine(coca plant), amphetamine(synthetically produced), and methamphetamine(synthetically produced). -Crack:vaporizes at low temperatures, and the vapors are inhaled;Sigmund Freud (1974)--> cocaine in the late 1800s as an antidepressant & local anesthetic(These local anesthetic agents reduce a cell's permeability to sodium ions and so reduce nerve conduction.).It was once widely used in soft drinks and wine mixtures promoted as invigorating tonics. -amphetamine:It prevents dopamine reuptake by reversing the direction of the transporter, allowing dopamine to continue to interact with postsynaptic D2 receptors.

Steroid and peptide hormones fall into one of three main functional groups:

:1)Homeostatic hormones:maintain a state of internal metabolic balance and regulate physiological systems. Mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone) control both the concentration of water in blood and cells and the levels of sodium, potassium, and calcium in the body, and they promote digestive functions. 2)Gonadal (sex) hormones:control reproductive functions. They instruct the body to develop as male (testosterone) or female (estrogen); influence sexual behavior and conception; and, in women, control the menstrual cycle (estrogen and progesterone), birthing of babies, and release of breast milk (prolactin, oxytocin). These hormones, especially oxytocin, influence mother-infant bonding and, in some species, including sheep, are essential for bonding to occur. 3)Glucocorticoids:a group of steroid hormones secreted in times of stress, are important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism, as well as in controlling blood sugar levels and cellular absorption of sugar. Hormones activated in psychologically challenging events or emergencies prepare the body to cope by fighting or fleeing.

Tolerance

=a decreased response to a drug with repeated exposure. -Harris Isbell and colleagues (1955):volunteers in a prison enough alcohol;daily over a 13-week period.;did not remain drunk for that entire period and had to have their dosage increased;high blood alcohol level was sometimes associated with a low outward appearance of intoxication -Why?: 1)metabolic tolerance:number of enzymes needed to break down alcohol in the liver, blood, and brain increases=alcohol consumed is metabolized more quickly, so blood alcohol levels fall. 2)cellular tolerance:brain cell activities adjust to minimize the effects of alcohol in the blood=behavioral signs of intoxication may be so low despite a relatively high blood alcohol level. 3)Learned tolerance:learning to cope with the demands of living under the influence of alcohol, they may no longer appear intoxicated

optogenetics

=combines genetics and light to control targeted cells in living tissue. A sequence that codes for a light-sensitive protein associated with an ion channel enables investigators to use light to change the shape (conformation) of the channel. -discovery that light can activate certain proteins that occur naturally and have been inserted into cells of model organisms. -opsins=proteins derived from microorganisms, combine a light-sensitive domain with an ion channel -Researchers hail optogenetics for its high spatial and temporal (time) resolution. -Ion channels can be placed into specific cell lines and turned on and off on millisecond time scales. Optogenetics also finds application in behavioral studies. the amygdala=generating fear in animals; if it is targeted with opsins and then exposed to an inhibitory light, rats immediately show no fear and wander about in a novel open space. As soon as the light is turned off, they scamper back to a safe hiding place.

_____ does NOT measure the brain's electrical activity.

Lesioning

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)

MRI method that uses the hydrogen proton signal to determine the concentration of brain metabolites such as N-acetylaspartate (NAA) in brain tissue. This measurement is especially useful for detecting persisting abnormalities in brain metabolism in disorders such as concussion.

Hana is lying in a machine that subjects her brain to a series of magnetic and radio pulses that will create a three-dimensional image of the structure of her brain. Hana is undergoing a(n):

MRI.

physostigmine agonists

Physostigmine-used as a poison by hunters. -inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzyme that breaks down ACh, thus increasing the amount available -small doses, is used to treat myasthenia gravis, a condition of muscular weakness in which muscle receptors are less than normally responsive to ACh.able in the synapse. -short lived in small doses -beneficial effects for memory disorders.

Richard Morris (1981).

Rats are placed in a large swimming pool with high slippery walls that do not allow the rats to escape. A hidden platform lies just below the water surface. Rats are terrific swimmers, and they quickly navigate around the pool until they bump into the platform. They learn that when they climb onto the platform, they are removed from the pool and returned to their home cage—their preferred place. -matching-to-place learning:develop a strategy for finding the platform consistently: it is always in the same location on each trial each day, but each new day brings a new location

most dramatic research example comes from stimulating specific regions of the hypothalamus:

Rats with electrodes placed in the lateral hypothalamus will eat whenever the stimulation is turned on. If the animals have the opportunity to press a bar that briefly turns on the current, they quickly learn to press the bar to obtain the current, a behavior known as electrical self-stimulation. It appears that the stimulation is affecting a neural circuit that involves both eating and pleasure.

limit the types of methods that researchers can use:

Studies of brain-injured patients must take into account factors such as the subject's ability to maintain attention for long periods—during neuropsychological testing or imaging studies;neuropsychological testing or imaging studies, -practical problems such as motor or language impairment may limit the types of methods that researchers can use.

wanting-and-liking theory

Terry Robinson and Kent Berridge (2008);They define wanting as craving, whereas liking is the pleasure the drug produces. With repeated use, tolerance for liking develops, and the expression of liking (pleasure) decreases as a consequence 1)drug dependence:liking to take it within a given social context;show tolerance to the drug's effects and so may begin to increase the dosage to increase liking or decrease -drug enhances classically conditioned cues=possess incentive salience: they induce wanting, or craving, the drug-taking experience. -prefrontal cortex=most daily decisions -drug is taken, it activates endogenous opioid systems that are generally related to pleasurable experiences. And wanting drugs may spring from activity in the nucleus accumbens of the dopaminergic activating system. -mesolimbic pathways,the axons of dopamine neurons in the midbrain project to structures in the basal ganglia, including the nucleus accumbens, to the frontal cortex, and to the allocortex. When drug takers encounter cues associated with drug taking, this system becomes active, releasing dopamine. Dopamine release is the neural correlate of wanting and the repetition of behavior. -incentive sensitization theory.

sensitization and tolerance with drug use:

The drug user may have the opposite reaction, sensitization—increased responsiveness to successive equal doses. Whereas tolerance generally develops with repeated drug use, sensitization is much more likely to develop with intermittent use.

Brain stimulation can also be used as a therapy:

The intact cortex adjacent to cortex injured by a stroke is stimulated electrically, for example, it leads to improvement in motor behaviors. Cam Teskey and his colleagues successfully restored motor deficits in a rat model of Parkinson disease by electrically stimulating a specific brain nucleus

hedonia hypothesis

The pleasurable "rush" would supposedly lead to a variety of impulse control disorders, such as overeating, gambling, and repeated drug taking. But this explanation, -the initial pleasurable experience wears off with repeated drug taking and can become quite aversive, yet the user continues to take the drug. -can't explain why a person may continue to use a drug even though the experience is actually quite unpleasant.

The Corsi block-tapping test

The task is to repeat the sequence correctly. The participant does not see numbers on the blocks but rather must remember the locations of the tapped blocks. -short-term recall of spatial position, an ability we can call block span. -difficult by determining the maximum block span of an individual participant (say, 6 blocks) and then adding one (span + 1). By definition, the participant will fail on the first presentation but, given the span + 1 repeatedly, will eventually learn it;span + 1 task reflects the learning and longer-term memory storage of information.

endothelial cells

The thin layer of cells that line the interior surface of all blood vessels. Only one cell thick in capillaries. -brain capillarie -walls are not fused, so substances can pass through the clefts between the cells. -Astrocytes provide a route for the exchange of food and waste between capillaries and the brain's extracellular fluid

route of administration.

The way a drug enters and passes through the body to reach its target

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a developmental disorder characterized by core behaviors including impulsivity, hyperactivity, and/or inattention. -treatment:Ritalin&Adderall

Curare

a neurotoxin that causes paralysis by blocking acetylcholine receptors in muscle -does not cause the ion channel to open, and it also prevents ACh from binding to the receptor. Once introduced into the body, curare acts quickly and is cleared from the body in a few minutes. -Indigenous peoples living along the Amazon River would use the drug for hunting to paralyze animals

catabolism

a process that takes place in several areas of the body, including the kidneys, liver, and the intestines. The body excretes drugs and their metabolites in urine, feces, sweat, breast milk, and exhaled air.

sensitization.

a simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus

transcranial magnetic stimulation

a small wire coil is placed adjacent to the skull, as illustrated in Figure A high-voltage current pulsed through the coil produces a rapid increase and subsequent decrease in the magnetic field around the coil. The magnetic field easily passes through the skull and causes a population of neurons in the cerebral cortex to depolarize and fire -holes must be drilled in the skull and an electrode lowered into the brain.

dentate gyrus

a subregion of the hippocampus. Mammals require this structure for remembering the context in which they encounter information.

Claudia Gonzalez and her colleagues (2006)

administered nicotine to rats as they learned a skilled reaching task, then studied their later acquisition of a new skilled reaching task. -earlier nicotine-enhanced motor learning impaired the later motor learning. -repeated exposure to psychomotor stimulants such as amphetamine, cocaine, and nicotine can produce long-term effects on the brain's later plasticity (its ability to change in response to experience), including learning specific tasks.

The two most used drugs

alcohol and tobacco *cocaine and heroin, are used by far fewer people *criminalizing drugs clearly is not a solution to drug use or abuse,

light microscopic techniques

allowed Korbinian Brodmann to divide the cerebral cortex into many distinct zones based on the characteristics of neurons in those zones -Today, super-resolution microscopy is also being used to identify the locations of different receptors on the membranes of cells.

Moshe Szyf, Michael Meaney, and their colleagues (see Szyf et al., 2008)

amount of maternal attention mother rats give to their newborn pups alters the expression of certain genes in the adult hippocampus. These genes are related to the infants' stress response when they are adults. (Maternal attention is measured as the amount and type of mother-infant contact; a difference of up to 6 hours per day can exist between attentive and inattentive mothers.) -examined epigenetic differences in hippocampal tissue obtained from two groups of humans: (1) suicides with histories of childhood abuse and (2) either suicides with no childhood abuse or controls who died of other causes. RESULT:The epigenetic changes found in the abused suicide victims parallel those found in the rats with inattentive mothers, again suggesting that early experiences can alter hippocampal organization and function via changes in gene expression.

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),

an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood's oxygen levels

The governments of most developed nations regulate the use of. . .

animals in research; most states, territories, and provinces within a country have additional legislation. Universities engaged in research have their own rules governing animal use, as do professional societies of scientists and the journals in which they publish.

dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

argues that delusions, halucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain; frontal lobe -incidence of schizophrenia is about 1 in every 100, making the success of dopamine antagonists an important therapeutic achievement. -Dopamine antagonists have been widely used to treat psychosis since the mid-1950s, -FGAs act mainly by blocking the dopamine D2 receptor, which immediately reduces motor activity and alleviates the excessive agitation of some people with schizophrenia. -

Sapolsky (2005)

argues that the hippocampus =turning off the stress response. The hippocampus contains a high density of cortisol receptors, and it has axons that project to the hypothalamus. suited to detecting cortisol in the blood and instructing the hypothalamus to reduce blood cortisol levels. - monkeys sickened and died of a syndrome that appeared to be related to stress. Those that died seemed to have been socially subordinate animals housed with particularly aggressive dominant monkeys. Autopsies showed high rates of gastric ulcers, enlarged adrenal glands, and pronounced hippocampal degeneration. The hippocampal damage may have been due to prolonged high cortisol levels produced by the unremitting stress of being caged with the aggressive monkeys.

Tim Bussey, Lisa Saksida, and their colleague

automated touchscreen platform for cognitive and motivational testing of rodents -This innovation removes the variation and stress that humans introduce when testing animals. Moreover, it is possible to program the platform to deliver tests that are highly similar to touchscreen tasks used in human cognitive testing

histological

brains were sectioned postmortem, and the tissue (histo- in Greek) was stained with various dyes. -Scientists can stain sections of brain tissue to identify cell bodies in the brain viewed with a light microscope, and they can selectively stain individual neurons to reveal their complete structure. An electron microscope makes it possible to view synapses in detail. Multiphoton imaging can generate a three-dimensional image of living tissue.

Oxygen

carried on the hemoglobin molecule in red blood cells. Changes in the ratio of oxygen-rich hemoglobin to oxygen-poor hemoglobin alters the blood's magnetic properties because oxygen-rich hemoglobin is less magnetic than oxygen-poor hemoglobin. In 1990, Segi Ogawa and his colleagues showed that MRI could accurately match these changes in magnetic properties to specific brain locations This process, called functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), signals which areas are displaying changes in activity. -functional changes in the brain are inferred from increases and decreases in the MRI signal produced by changes in oxygen levels.

Dr. Edgars explains to her class that there are two main tools for studying changes in brain chemistry in freely moving animals:

cerebral microdialysis and cerebral voltammetry.

Changes in brain chemistry can be measured in freely moving animals using two methods

cerebral microdialysis and cerebral voltammetry. -Fluctuations in brain chemistry are associated not only with behavioral dysfunction but also with ongoing healthy behavior.

Dr. Pelletier wants to study changes in brain chemistry as rats move around in their cages. She can use:

cerebral microdialysis or cerebral voltammetry.

Dr. Vogel has just inserted catheters into rats' brains so she can study their brain chemistry through:

cerebral microdialysis.

Microdialysis

determine the chemical constituents of extracellular fluid, used in the laboratory. clinical application A catheter with a semipermeable membrane at its tip is placed in the brain. fluid flows through the cannula and passes along the cell membrane. Simple diffusion drives extracellular molecules across the membrane along their concentration gradient. -monitor chemistry in the injured brain. The effects of TBI or stroke can be worsened by secondary events such as a drastic increase in the neurotransmitter glutamate.

manipulate the brain is to. . .

develop animal models of neurological and psychiatric disorders -neurology and psychiatry is that it ought to be possible to restore at least some healthy functioning by pharmacological, behavioral, or other interventions. -can manipulate the whole animal by exposing it to differing diets, social interactions, exercise, sensory stimulation, and a host of other experiences. -brain manipulation, the principal direct techniques are to inactivate the brain via lesions or with drugs or to activate it with electrical stimulation, drugs, or light. -Behavioral neuroscientists make a manipulation and then measure brain function and behavioral performance

Drugs are usually used to. . .

diagnose, treat, or prevent illness; to relieve mental or physical pain and suffering; or to improve some adverse physiological condition

. Peter Fox and colleagues (Fox & Raichle, 1986)

discovered that when human brain activity increases, the extra oxygen produced by increased blood flow actually exceeds the tissue's needs. As a result, the amount of oxygen in an activated brain area increases.

Flunctuation

dopamine levels fluctuate in the nucleus accumbens (a structure in the subcortical basal ganglia) in association with stimuli related to rewarding behaviors such as food and sex.

skin absorption of drugs:

drugs as gases or aerosols penetrate the cell linings of the respiratory tract very easily and are absorbed across these membranes into the bloodstream almost immediately after they are inhaled -reach the bloodstream by circumventing the barriers in the digestive system or skin

antagonists

drugs that block/decrease the function of a neurotransmitter -Botulinum toxin, or botulin, is the poisonous agent in improperly processed canned goods-it blocks ACh release -less likely to trigger a neural impulse in the receiving neurons -doesn't fully bind with the receptor=sma effect of decreasing number of neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap

agonists

drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter -Black widow spider venom -increase likelihood messages will pass -mimic neurotransmitters=shape similar enough -same effect of releasing extra neurotransmitters into the synapse -block reuptake into axon terminal=prolong time in the synapse for neurotransmitters

The brain operates on both....

electrical and chemical energy -selectively turn brain regions on or off by using electrical or chemical stimulation

Measuring behavior in humans and laboratory animals differs in large part because

humans speak

Mario Fraga and his colleagues (2005)

experience interactions. The investigators examined epigenetic patterns in 40 pairs of identical twins by measuring two molecular markers related to gene expression;twins' patterns of gene expression were virtually identical when measured in childhood, 50-year-old twins exhibited differences so remarkable as to make them as different epigenetically as young non-twin siblings! -The epigenetic drift in the twins supports the findings of less than 100 percent concordance for diseases in identical twins.;lifestyle factors, such as smoking and exercise habits, diet, stressors, drug use, and education, as well as to social experiences, such as marriage and child rearing,

Dr. Harrison places an electrode outside of a neuron. This _____ recording method means that Dr. Harrison can record _____.

extracellular; up to 40 neurons at once

The simplest way to measure brain chemistry in such diseases(Parkinson=low dopamine levels in the substantia nigra or depression, correlated with low serotonin and/or noradrenaline)

extract tissue postmortem from affected humans or laboratory animals and undertake traditional biochemical techniques, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), to measure specific chemical levels.

Wilder Penfield

first to use electrical stimulation directly on the human cerebral cortex during neurosurgery. Later researchers used stereotaxic instruments to place an electrode or a cannula in specific brain locations. The objective: enhancing or blocking neuronal activity and observing the behavioral effects.

striatum

fluid removed at a constant rate so that changes in brain chemistry can be correlated with behavior. For example, if a rat is placed in an environment in which it anticipates sex or a favored food, microdialysis will record an increase in dopamine within the basal ganglia regions of the caudate nucleus and putamen

Neurons are regulated by

genes -DNA segments that encode the synthesis of particular proteins within cells. Genes control the production of chemicals in a cell, so it is possible to relate behavior to genes and to chemicals inside and outside the cell

. Hormones are secreted by

glands in the body and by the brain. -Hormonal influences change across the life span, influencing development and body and brain function -many hormones act as neurotransmitters, and many neurotransmitters act as hormones.

A rat in Dr. Ram's experiment is attracted to the location where reinforcement occurs and not cues to the reinforcement. Dr. Ram labels this rat a(n):

goal tracker.

Tolerance resembles _________ in that the response to the drug weakens with repeated presentations.

habituation

Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914

heroin and a variety of other drugs illegal and made the treatment of addicted people by physicians in their private offices illegal. -The Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 partly reversed this prohibition, allowing the treatment of patients but with a number of restrictions. In addition, legal consequences attending drug use vary greatly depending on the drug and the jurisdiction.

beginning of the twentieth century, the primary tools of neuroanatomy were

histological

Robert Sapolsky (2004)

hungry lion chasing down a zebra to illustrate the stress response. The chase elicits divergent behavior in the two animals, but their physiological responses are identical. The stress response begins when the body is subjected to a stressor and especially when the brain perceives a stressor and responds with arousal, directed from the brain by the hypothalamus. The response consists of two separate sequences, one fast and the other slow.

In order for a drug to be absorbed by the bloodstream, it must be:

hydrophilic.

Cocaine exerts its effects by preventing dopamine from returning to the presynaptic cell for reuse. In this example, cocaine influences the neurotransmission step called:

inactivation.

hypoglycemia

inappropriate diet can lead to low blood sugar severe enough to cause fainting. Eric Steen and his coworkers (2005) propose that insulin resistance in brain cells may be related to Alzheimer disease. Hunger and eating are influenced by a number of homeostatic hormones, including leptin and ghrelin.Ghrelin (from the Indio-European gher, meaning "to grow"), secreted by the gastrointestinal tract, regulates growth hormones and energy use. Ghrelin also induces hunger. It is secreted when the stomach is empty; secretion stops when the stomach is full.

Electrical stimulation of the brain is

invasive -holes must be drilled in the skull and an electrode lowered into the brain.

Deep-brain stimulation (DBS)

is a neurosurgical technique. Electrodes implanted in the brain stimulate a targeted area with continuous pulses of low-voltage electrical current to facilitate behavior. -; to the globus pallidus in the basal ganglia of Parkinson patients makes movements smoother, often allowing patients to dramatically reduce their intake of medications -approved treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder,treatment for intractable psychiatric disorders such as major depression, schizophrenia, and possibly for epilepsy;

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

is based on the principle that hydrogen atoms behave like spinning bar magnets in the presence of a magnetic field -neural regions as lighter or darker, depending on density, on the horizontal slice through the head. -An anatomical alternative to the CT scan -hydrogen atoms point randomly in different directions, but when there is a static magnetic field, they line up in parallel as they align themselves with the static field's lines of force. MRI scanner, radio pulses are applied to a brain whose atoms have been aligned in this manner, and each radio pulse forms a second magnetic field. The second field causes the spinning atoms to deviate from the parallel orientation caused by the static magnetic field to a new orientation. -radio pulse ends and the hydrogen atoms realign with the static field, they emit a tiny amount of energy, and a coil detects this realignment. Based on the coil, a computer re-creates the position of the hydrogen nuclei, producing a magnetic resonance image. Magnetic resonance images may be based on the density of the hydrogen atoms in different brain regions. Areas with high water (H2O) content (cell body-rich areas), for example, stand out from areas with lower water content (axon-rich areas).

resting-state fMRI (rs-fMRI)

is collected when participants have their eyes closed or are asked to look at a fixation cross and to keep their eyes open. -the dense blood vessel supply to the cerebral cortex allows for a spatial resolution of fMRI on the order of 1 millimeter, affording good spatial resolution of the brain activity's source. -researchers have succeeded in inferring brain function and connectivity by studying fMRI signals when participants are resting -4-minute blocks -shorten this period by increasing the strength of the static magnetic field and developing more sensitive coils. -detected disease states such as dementia and schizophrenia where patients have trouble with performing cognitive tasks

electroencephalographic waveforms called event-related potentials (ERPs)

largely the graded potentials on dendrites that a sensory stimulus triggers;a discrete sensory stimulus produce complex electroencephalographic waveforms -ERPs are mixed in with so many other electrical signals in the brain that they are difficult to spot -detect ERPs is to produce the stimulus repeatedly and average the recorded responses. Averaging tends to cancel out any irregular and unrelated electrical activity, leaving in the EEG record only the potentials the stimulus generated. -(N) and positive (P) waves that occur within a few hundred milliseconds after the stimulus. -noninvasive&inexpensive/ EEG too -Because certain brain areas respond only to certain sensory stimuli;relative responses at different locations can be used to map brain function. -detect which brain areas are processing particular stimuli but can also be used to study the order in which different regions participate. -128 electrodes simultaneously to detect ERPs at many cortical sites -computer can also convert the averages at different sites into a color code, graphically representing the brain regions most responsive to the signal.; computed averaging techniques reduce the masses of information obtained to simpler comparisons between electrode sites -ERPs is important because we want to know the route that information takes as it travels through the brain -children learn and process information differently as they mature, as well as how a person with a brain injury compensates for the impairment by using undamaged brain regions. -areas of the brain involved in processing and the order in which the areas participate.

preventing the growth of new dentate gyrus neurons leads to. . .

memory deficits -healthy rats and ADX rats—rats with adrenal glands removed, thus eliminating the hormone corticosterone. Without corticosterone, neurons in the dentate gyrus die. -Conclusion: Dentate gyrus neurons are necessary for contextual learning. -spend little time investigating because the objects are familiar. If, however, they encounter an object in the wrong context, they are curious and spend about three-quarters of their time investigating, essentially treating the mismatched object as new. But the ADX rats with fewer cells in the dentate gyrus treated the mismatched and in-context objects the same, spending about half of their investigation time with each object.

Is Memory a single function?

memory is not a single function;multiple, independent memory systems exist. We have memory for events, colors, names, places, and motor skills, among other categories, and each must be measured separately. It would be rare indeed for someone to be impaired in all forms of memory.

Adderall

misuse can carry serious health risks, including mental health problems, depression, bipolar disorder, incidents of aggressive or hostile behavior, and addiction -focus attention

John O'Keefe and his colleagues (O'Keefe & Dostrovsky, 1971)

neurons in the rat and mouse hippocampus vigorously fire when an animal is in a specific place in the environment. -Place Cells:code the spatial location of the animal and contribute to a spatial map of the world in the brain. -The 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine -mice with a genetically engineered mutation that produces deficits in spatial memory, place cells lack specificity: the cells fire to a very broad region of their world. As a result, these mice have difficulty finding their way around, much as human patients with dementia tend to get lost. One reason may be that a change similar to the engineered mutation in mice takes place in human brain cells.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

offers a classification system for diagnosing neurological and behavioral disorders, including those caused by drug use. -The vast majority of medically prescribed drugs were not created to act on specific neurotransmitter systems; rather, drugs were tested on different patient groups, and specific uses in medical treatments were approved based on analysis of their effectiveness.

Until the early 1970s,

only way to actually image the living brain was by using X-rays that produce static images of brain anatomy from one angle.

Dr. Beddowes is imaging a brain using light injectors and light detectors. Dr. Beddowes is doing research using:

optical tomography.

Ginny is writing an essay in which she discusses how absorption spectra vary in different circumstances. Ginny is MOST likely writing an essay about:

optical tomography.

Dr. Amsler explains to her class that an fMRI can indicate which brain areas are currently less active because as _____ content _____, hemoglobin becomes more magnetic.

oxygen; falls

Dr. Mundi explains to her class that an fMRI can indicate which brain areas are currently in use because as _____ content _____, hemoglobin becomes less magnetic.

oxygen; rises

drugs and the brain

pass either into the bloodstream and eventually enter the brain or through an indwelling cannula;allows direct application of the drugs to specific brain structures -influence the activity of specific neurons in specific brain regions -ex.haloperidol=treat schizophrenia=reduces dopaminergic neuron function and makes healthy rats dopey and inactive (hypokinetic). -drugs that increase dopaminergic activity, such as amphetamine, produce hyperkinetic rats—rats that are hyperactive. The advantage of administering drugs is that their effects wear off in time as the drugs are metabolized

Substance abuse

pattern of drug use in which people rely on a drug chronically and excessively, allowing it to occupy a central place in their life. Advanced state of substance dependence, known as addiction, people exhibit three characteristics: escalation, compulsive drug taking, and relapse: -Escalation refers to increased drug consumption through increased dose or dosing frequency (Kenny, 2007). -Tolerance to the psychoactive effects of the drug cannot explain escalation. Instead, escalation reflects a pathological increase in the motivation to consume a drug (Oleson & Roberts, 2009) -Escalation of drug use is a critical factor in the transition from sporadic use to the compulsive and relapsing drug use that characterizes addiction.

expenses of experiments

perturbing the brain is generally less costly than some imaging methods, many of which require expensive machinery. EEG, ERP, and fNIRS are noninvasive and relatively inexpensive to set up (less than $100,000 each). MRI-based methods, MEG, and PET are very expensive (more than $2 million each) and are therefore typically found only in large research centers or hospitals. Similarly, epigenetic studies can be very expensive if investigators consider the entire genome in a large number of biological samples.

Richelle Mychasiuk and colleagues (2011)

stressing pregnant rats led to wide changes in gene expression in their offspring, in both the frontal cortex and the hippocampus. However, the investigators found virtually no overlap in the altered genes in the two brain regions: the same experience changed different brain regions differently.

The _____ is NOT protected by the blood-brain barrier so that it can receive hormones.

pituitary gland

Tardive dyskinesia (TD)

potentially disabling motor disorder that may occur following regular use of antipsychotic drugs -grimacing, sticking out the tongue, or smacking the lips, as well as rapid jerking movements or slow writhing movements

Gene Expression

process by which a gene produces its product and the product carries out its function -, the way genes become active or not. -epigenetic factors do not change the DNA sequence, the genes that are expressed can change dramatically in response to environment and experience; -gene expression can result from widely ranging experiences, including chronic stress, traumatic events, drugs, culture, and disease.

digit dexterity

properly observed only during slow-motion video playback.

opsins

proteins from microorganisms, combine a light-sensitive domain with an ion channel. The first opsin used for the optogenetic technique was channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2). When ChR2 is expressed in neurons and exposed to blue light, the ion channel opens and immediately depolarizes the neuron, causing excitation. In contrast, stimulation of halorhodopsin (NpHR) with a green-yellow light activates a chloride pump, hyperpolarizing the neuron and causing inhibition. A fiber-optic light can be delivered to selective brain regions such that all genetically modified neurons exposed to the light respond immediately

A significant limitation of PET

radiochemicals, including the so-called radiopharmaceuticals used in diagnosing human patients, must be prepared in a cyclotron quite close to the scanner because their half-lives are so short that transportation time is a severely limiting factor. Generating these materials is very expensive.

Terry Robinson and Jill Becker (1986)

recorded rats reaction to an injection of amphetamine, which is a dopaminergic agonist. -Every 3 or 4 days, the investigators injected the rats and found their motor activities—sniffing, rearing, and walking—more vigorous with each administration of the same drug dose -animals still showed an escalation of motor behavior. Even a single exposure to amphetamine produced sensitization.

Cortisol levels

regulated by the hippocampus, but if these levels remain elevated because a stress-inducing situation perpetuates, cortisol eventually damages the hippocampus, reducing its size. -The damaged hippocampus is then unable to do its work of reducing the level of cortisol. -Research has not yet determined whether the cumulative effects of stress can damage the human hippocampus. -hippocampus=memory, stress-induced hippocampal damage is postulated to result in impaired memory. -amygdala=emotion, stress-induced changes are postulated to result in increased emotional responses

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

regulates testing of compounds;Most of the attention on alternatives has focused on the use of animals in testing and stems from high public awareness of some tests for pharmacological compounds, especially toxic compounds.

Opium

substance derived from the opium poppy from which all narcotic drugs are derived;Papaver somniferum; active in morphine -thousands of years to produce euphoria, analgesia, sleep, and relief from diarrhea and coughing -Friedrich Sertürner isolated two chemicals from opium: codeine and morphine. Codeine is often an ingredient in prescription cough medicine and pain relievers. -All opioids are potently addictive -include respiratory depression, which is the primary cause of death of opioid addicts, decreased blood pressure, pupil constriction, hypothermia, drying of secretions -tolerance and sensitization, an opioid user is at constant risk of overdosing -naloxone (Narcan, Nalone) act as antagonists at opioid receptors. Naloxone is a competitive inhibitor: it competes with opioids for neuronal receptors. Because they can enter the brain quickly, competitive inhibitors rapidly block the actions of opioids and so are essential aids in treating opioid overdoses. -act as an opioid antagonist-naloxone

psychoactive drugs

substances that alter mood, thought, or behavior; are used to manage neuropsychological illness; and may be taken recreationally.

Radioactive 15O

release tiny positively charged subatomic particles known as positrons (electrons with a positive charge). Positrons are emitted from an unstable atom because the atom is deficient in neutrons. The positrons are attracted to the negatively charged electrons in the brain, and the collision of the two particles leads to annihilation of both, which produces energy. -This energy, in the form of two photons (a unit of light energy), leaves the head at the speed of light and is detected by the PET camera. The photons leave the head in exactly opposite directions from the site of positron-electron annihilation, so annihilation photon detectors can detect their source, computer identifies the coincident photons and locates the annihilation source to generate the PET image. -The PET system enables blood-flow measurement in the brain because the unstable radioactive molecules accumulate there in direct proportion to the rate of local blood flow. Local blood flow in turn is related to neural activity because potassium ions released from stimulated neurons dilate adjacent blood vessels. The more the blood flow, the higher the radiation counts recorded by the PET camera. -They subtract the blood-flow pattern when the brain is in a carefully selected control state from the pattern of blood flow imaged when the subject is engaged in the task under study. This subtraction process images the change in blood flow between the two states. The change can be averaged across subjects (middle row) to yield a representative average image difference that reveals which brain areas are selectively active during the task (bottom). PET does not measure local neural activity directly; rather, it infers activity on the assumption that blood flow increases where neuron activity increases.

William Scoville and Brenda Milner (1957)

removed both hippocampi as a treatment for epilepsy. The surgery rendered this patient amnesic. During his ablation research, Lashley had never removed the hippocampi because he had no reason to believe the structures had any role in memory. And because the hippocampus is not accessible on the brain's surface, other techniques had to be developed before subcortical lesions could be used. -The solution to accessing subcortical regions is to use a stereotaxic apparatus, a device that permits a researcher or a neurosurgeon to target a specific part of the brain for destruction

The mirror-drawing task

requires a person to trace a pathway, such as a star, by looking in a mirror -difficult because our movements appear backward in the mirror. -Curiously, patients with certain types of memory problems have no recollection of learning the task on the previous day but nevertheless perform it flawlessly.

To avoid compensation following permanent lesions. . .

researchers developed temporary and reversible lesion techniques such as regional cooling, which prevents synaptic transmission. A hollow metal coil is placed next to a neural structure; then chilled fluid is passed through the coil, cooling the brain structure to about 18ºC . When the chilled fluid is removed from the coil, the brain structure quickly warms, and synaptic transmission is restored. Another technique involves local administration of a GABA agonist, which increases local inhibition and in turn prevents the brain structure from communicating with other structures. Degradation of the GABA agonist reverses the local inhibition and restores function.

zoopharmacognosy

self-medication by animals with plants, soils, and other natural substances -"animal" + "drug" + "knowing"

Amy is under a lot of stress, she is short on money, and her mother is quite sick. Amy, who is an intermittent binge drinker, is at risk for experiencing:

sensitization.

When discussing the three types of antidepressants in her lectures, Dr. Valdez explains that they are all similar in that they all act as:

serotonin agonists.

Cocaine and brain damage

similar to those of amphetamine, so cocaine also is suspect with respect to brain damage. Cocaine use is related to the blockage of cerebral blood flow and other changes in blood circulation. Brain-imaging studies show that brain regions are reduced in size in cocaine users, suggesting that cocaine use can be toxic to neurons

Cerebral voltammetry

small carbon fiber electrode and a metal electrode are implanted in the brain, and a weak current is passed through the metal electrode. The current causes electrons to be added to or removed from the surrounding chemicals. Changes in extracellular levels of specific neurotransmitters can be measured as they occur. -advantage of not requiring the chemical analysis of fluid removed from the brain, as microdialysis does, but it has the disadvantage of being destructive -advantage of not requiring the chemical analysis of fluid removed from the brain, as microdialysis does, but it has the disadvantage of being destructive

Peptide hormones

such as insulin, growth hormone, and the endorphins, are made by cellular DNA in the same way other proteins are made. They influence their target cell's activity by binding to metabotropic receptors on the cell membrane, generating a second messenger that affects the cell's physiology or gene transcription.

stereotaxic Apparatus

surgical instrument that permits the researcher to target a specific part of the brain;dostral-caudal (front-to-back) measurements correspond to the y-axis in Figure 7-6. Dorsal-ventral (top-to-bottom) measurements, the z-axis, are made relative to the surface of the brain. Medial-lateral measurements, the x-axis, are made relative to the midline junction of the cranial bones

Magnetoencephalography

technique that measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain;Although the magnetic field produced by a single neuron is vanishingly small, the field produced by many neurons is sufficiently strong to be recorded on the scalp. -magnetic counterpart of the EEG or ERP. -localize the cell groups generating the measured field in three dimensions; -Magnetic waves conducted through living tissue undergo less distortion than electrical signals do, so an MEG can yield a higher resolution than an ERP. -precisely identify the source of the activity being recorded. -The disadvantage of MEG is its high cost in comparison with the apparatus used to produce EEGs and ERPs.

Steroid hormones

testosterone and cortisol, are synthesized from cholesterol and are lipid (fat) soluble. Steroids diffuse away from their site of synthesis in glands, including the gonads, adrenal cortex, and thyroid. They bind to steroid receptors on the cell membrane or in the cell and frequently act on cellular DNA to influence gene transcription. -as many as 100 hormones are classified chemically as either steroids or peptides.

recency memory task

that are words or pictures. On some trials, a question mark appears between the items. Their task is to indicate whether they have seen the items before and, if so, which item they saw most recently. They might be able to recall that they have seen items before but may be unable to recall which was most recent. Conversely, they might not be able to identify the items as being familiar, but when forced to choose the most recent one, they may be able to identify it correctly. -recall information verbally, although this too measures a form of memory.

DSM-5

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.

Dr. Martello chooses NOT to study the hippocampus with intracellular recording because with this method:

the cell can die, and the animal must be asleep.

Many abusers of recreational drugs say that "using isn't fun anymore" but they find that they cannot stop. The _____ is a theory of addiction that cannot explain this behavior.

the dependency hypothesis

synthetic biology

the design and construction of biological devices, systems, and machines not found in nature—has transformed how neuroscientists manipulate brain cells. Techniques include inserting or deleting a genetic sequence into the genome of a living organism.

The earliest theory of drug addiction is known as:

the hedonia hypothesis.

Broca aphasia

the inability to speak fluently despite having average comprehension and intact vocal mechanisms. -could be the result of damaged region where the presence of fewer neurons and more fluid produces a contrast that appears as a dark area in the CT scan.

chemogenetics

the inserted synthetic genetic sequence codes for a G protein-coupled receptor engineered to respond exclusively to a synthetic small-molecule "designer drug." -acronym DREADD (designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs) -advantage is that the drug activates only the genetically modified receptors, and the receptors are activated only by the designer drug, not by endogenous molecules -specificity is high, but temporal resolution is much lower than with optogenetics because receptors are activated by drugs rather than by light.

Psychopharmacology

the study of how drugs affect the nervous system and behavior

Behavioral neuroscience

the study of the biological bases of behavior—seeks to understand the brain-behavior relationships in humans and other animals

neuropsychology

the study of the relationships between brain function and behavior with a particular emphasis on humans -

THE FAST RESPONSE

the sympathetic division of the ANS prepare the body and organs for fight or flight. The parasympathetic division for rest and digest is turned off. The sympathetic division stimulates the medulla on the interior of the adrenal gland to release epinephrine. The epinephrine surge prepares the body for a sudden burst of activity. Among its many functions, epinephrine stimulates cell metabolism, readying the body's cells for action.

blood-brain barrier

the tight junctions between the cells of blood vessels found in the brain, blocks passage of most water-soluble substances. -protects the brain's ionic balance and denies many neurochemicals passage into the brain -

Companies that use animals for research are not required to. . .

to follow this process. In effect, however, if they do not, they will be unable to publish the results of their research because journals require that research conform to national guidelines on animal care. In addition, discoveries made using animals are not recognized by government agencies that approve drugs for clinical trials with humans if they do not follow the prescribed process. Companies therefore use Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) standards, which are as rigorous as those used by government agencies.

Large molecules pass through the blood-brain barrier via:

transporter proteins

CRISPR-Cas9 (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats)

was discovered in bacteria for fighting viruses; it serves as an all-purpose tool for cutting the DNA of any cell. -Scientists simply provide the bacteria's Cas9 protein with the RNA sequence corresponding to the length of DNA they would like to remove from the subject. In this way, the CRISPR system can be used to silence one or many genes by cutting out those regions in the DNA. Then the DNA's repair machinery can be harnessed to insert a new sequence that replaces the one that was removed. -answer the question: What is the role of this gene or these genes in this behavior? As a therapeutic intervention, it could eventually lead to the elimination of many forms of inherited disease. It could also counter antibiotic-resistant microbes, disable parasites, and improve food security.

If a drug is taken orally and gets to the bloodstream via the intestines, it must be a:

weak base.