Bioethics Midterm
Be able to reproduce and explain the proportionality principle. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
"Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness." -Basis for Mills' utilitarianism, source of moral values and what makes an action right, based on happiness or pleasure. -Hedonistic utilitarianism because it implies that pleasure is the only source of moral value. -Because the only thing that has intrinsic (in and of itself) value is happiness, "everyone wants to be happy!" as opposed to extrinsic value (good, valuable because it gets us something else (example: money).
Be able to list and explain the four characteristics of moral norms. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
Be able to list and explain the four characteristics of moral norms. (Vaughn, Ch. 1) a. Characteristics of moral norms i. Normative dominance 1. laws are not necessarily just 2. Tampa clergy ii. Universality 1. Apply in all relative circumstances iii. Impartiality 1. Who they get applied to is everyone 2. No person is better than any other iv. Reasonableness 1. Not always what we think
Be able to describe/define the following: bioethics, morality, ethics, descriptive ethics, normative ethics, metaethics, and applied ethics. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
Bioethics: applied ethics focused on health care, medical science, and medical technology i. How it got started 1. 1969 2. Hastings center 3. Started as response to scandals b. Morality: Our beliefs about what we think right and wrong actions are. What we think makes someone a good person c. Ethics: the study of morality using the tools and methods of philosophy. d. Descriptive ethics: i. Describing the way world is ii. Tells you the way things are iii. Science is used to describe morality iv. It is saying the action that is being done not asking whether it is right or wrong v. 1967: Leon County fully integrated the schools 1. Back then, if a poll was done then it would not have told us what we should do vi. Polling people won't tell us what the answer to these questions are vii. Is not due to majority opinion e. Normative ethics: the search for, and justification of moral standards, or norms f. Applied ethics: i. How the world ought to be ii. Bioethics iii. Use all the moral norms and concepts to resolve or to look at these sorts of questions and problems
Be able to explain what we can learn from heroes and saints, according to Mayo. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
He argues that saints and heroes demonstrate that moral examples are what is really important in morality, not rigid rules. We should survive not to regiment our lives according to moral tenets, but to be virtuous people.
Be able to identify the special capacity that humans have that sets them apart from other animals, according to Kant. (Covered in lecture on Kant)
Man and generally any rational being exists as an end in himself, not merely as a means to be arbitrarily used by this or that will, but in all his actions, whether they concern himself or other rational beings, must be always regarded at the same time as an end.
Be able to explain what Wolf means by a moral saint and distinguish between the loving saint and the rational saint. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
Moral saint: a person whose every action is as morally good as possible, a person, that is, who is as morally worthy as can be. A moral saint might be someone whose concern for others plays the role that is played in most of our lives by more selfish, or at any rate, less morally worthy concerns. Loving saint: the moral saint who acts as a saint out of love. Rational saint: the moral saint who acts as a saint out of duty.
Be able to explain the original position. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
Original position: what principles would free and rational persons choose based solely on rational self-interest.
Be able to define paternalism and identify examples of paternalism. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
The overriding of a person's actions or decision-making for her own good. (pg. 10)
Be able to define/describe natural law theory. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. A view that comes in both secular and religious versions but has been nurtured and adopted by the Roman Catholic Church. -Reason and rationality are highly important. -Moral realism: moral law exists outside of human nature and we need to realize these laws. -Actions are right if they adhere to laws discerned in nature through human reason.
Be able to explain the difference between an absolute duty and a prima facie duty. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Absolute duty: applies without exceptions. An absolute principle that we should not lie demands that we never lie regardless of the circumstances or the consequences. (pg 8) b. Prima facie duty: applies in all cases unless an exception is warranted. Exceptions are justified when the principle conflicts with other principles and is thereby overwritten.
Be able to explain what it means for an act to be supererogatory. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Action is one that is "above and beyond" our duty. Good thing to do but not required. (pg 8 1st paragraph) i. Ex: giving all your possessions to the poor.
Be able to explain Mill's view about hierarchies of pleasure and competent judges. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. And there needs to be less hesitation to accept this judgment respecting the quality of pleasures, since there is no other tribunal to be referred to even on the question of quantity.
Be able identify & describe the five principles of bioethics. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Autonomy: refers to a person's rational capacity for self-governance or self- determination- the ability to direct one's own life and choose for oneself. (pg. 9) b. Non-maleficence: this principle asks to not to intentionally or unintentionally inflict harm on others. c. Beneficence: it states that we should do good to others. Constitutes the very sould of morality. d. Utility: this principle says that we should produce the most favorable balance of good over bad (or benefit over harm0 for all concerned. e. Justice: refers to people getting what is fair or what is their due.
Be able to describe the five features/characteristics of the ethics of care, according to Held. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. Central focus of the ethics of care is on the compelling moral salience of attending to and meeting the needs of the particular others for whom we take responsibility b. In the epistemological process of trying to understand what morality would recommend and what it would be morally best for us to do and to be, the ethics of care values emotion rather than reject. c. The ethics of care rejects the view of the dominant moral theories that the more abstract the reasoning about a moral problem the better because the more likely to avoid bias and arbitrariness, the more nearly to achieve impartiality. d. Like much feminist thought in many areas, it re-conceptualizes traditional notions about the public and the private. e. The conception of persons with which it begins.
Be able to define/describe the following: consequentialism, utilitarianism, act- utilitarianism, rule-utilitarianism, deontology, categorical imperative, hypothetical imperative, natural law theory, virtue ethics, and casuistry. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. Consequentialism: the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences or results. b. Utilitarianism: the view that the right actions are those that result in the most beneficial balance of good over bad consequences for everybody involved. c. Act-utilitarianism: the idea that the rightness of actions depends solely on the relative good or bad produced by individual actions. d. Rule-utilitarianism: avoids judgment rightness by specific acts and focuses instead on rules governing categories of acts. e. Deontology: rightness of actions is determined not solely by their consequences but partly or entirely by their intrinsic nature. (pg. 36) f. Categorical imperative: "do this regardless". g. Hypothetical imperative: is a command to do something if we want to achieve particular aims as in "if you want good pay, work hard". (pg. 38) h. Natural law theory: the view that right actions are those that conform to moral standards discerned in nature through human reasoning. (pg. 40) i. Virtue ethics: it focuses on the development of virtues character. The key to moral life, for it is from a virtuous character that moral conduct and values naturally arise. j. Casuistry: method of moral reasoning that emphasizes cases and analogy rather than universal principles and theories from which moral judgment are supposed to be deduced. (pg. 47)
Be able to identify and explain the three criteria for evaluating moral theories. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. Consistency with our considered moral judgments b. Consistency with the facts of the moral life c. Resourcefulness in moral problem solving (pg.47-48)
Be able to explain the difference between deductive arguments and inductive arguments. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Deductive arguments: designed to support their conclusions decisively. b. Inductive arguments: are supposed to give probable support to their conclusions. i. 85% of the students at this university are republicans ii. Sonia is a student at this university iii. Therefore, Sonia is probably a republican
Be able to reproduce the cultural differences argument (covered in the reading, but named in the lecture)
a. Different cultures have different moral codes b. Therefore, matters of opinion and opinions vary from culture to culture
Be able to distinguish between ethical questions, legal questions, and questions of personal preference or taste. (Covered in lecture)
a. Ethical questions: not empirical questions like scientific and legal questions i. What is the most effective way of sterilizing women? (empirical/scientific question) ii. Is it legal for states to sterilize women without their consent? iii. Is it permissible for the California prison system to sterilize inmates without their consent? (ethical question) b. Legal questions: having to do with the law i. Ex: is it legal do drive under the influence? c. Personal preference questions: does not refer to its morality i. Ex: is it a good movie? (question of taste)
Be able to explain Mill's response to the objection that utilitarianism is a moral theory fit for swine. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. Greatest happiness principles: holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse pf happiness. b. Right actions are those that result in greater overall well-being (utility) for the people involved than any other possible actions.
Be able to explain why cultural relativism does not entail a commitment to tolerance. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. If people's moral judgment differs from culture to culture, moral norms are relative to culture (there are no objective moral standards). b. People's moral judgments to differ from culture to culture. c. Therefore, moral norms are relative to culture (there are no objective moral standards).
Be able to explain the following problems for relativism: the infallibility problem, the moral progress problem, the moral criticism problem, and the social reformer problem. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Infallibility problem: Implies that cultures and societies are morally infallible because what they dictate as right or wrong is always morally acceptable (what is right)/morally reprehensible (what is wrong). b. Moral progress problem: There would be no way to gauge moral progress in a society because what a society/culture says is right is right and there are no objective moral standards as a yardstick for comparison. c. Moral criticism problem: implies that we cannot legitimately criticize other cultures because if a culture approves of its actions, then those actions are morally permissible. d. Social reformer problem: Social reformers such as MLK and Susan B. Anthony could never be morally right because they go against what their culture/society said was morally right.
Be able to explain the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic value. (Covered in lecture on Mill)
a. Intrinsic: of something is said to be the value that that thing has "in itself," or "for its own sake," or "as such," or "in its own right." b. Extrinsic: the opposite of intrinsic. Outside.
Be able to define liberal individualism. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. It is the belief that the individual should be free to pursue what they perceive as their rights and abilities, with a minimum of interference from government It emphasizes the individual over the community. b. There is little to distinguish it from libertarianism
Be able to explain why Kant believes that the only thing that is good without qualification is the good will. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. Kant argues that consequences can never make an action right or wrong b. Why i. Rejects claim that pleasure=good and pain=bad ii. Consequences are outside of our control c. So what does make an action right or wrong
Be able to explain why moral goodness and legality are not the same things. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Moral goodness: i. Lying to a friend about a personal matter, deliberately trying to destroy yourself through reckless living, or failing to save a drowning child (when you easily could have) may be immoral but not illegal. b. Legality: i. Norms enacted or enforced by the state to protect or promote the public good. ii. Legally right or wrong c. Often what is immoral also turns out to be illegal.
Be able to describe/define the following: moral objectivism, moral absolutism, ethical relativism, subjective relativism, and cultural relativism (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Moral objectivism: the idea that at least some moral standards are objective. b. Moral absolution: the belief that objective moral principles allow no exceptions or must be applied the same way in all cases and cultures. c. Ethical relativism: according to this view, moral standards are not objective but are relative to what individuals or culture believe. d. Subjective relativism: ethical relativism pertaining to individuals. More precisely stated as the view that right actions are those sanctioned by a person. e. Cultural relativism: the right actions are those sanctioned by one's culture. (pg. 13)
Be able to define moral theory and to explain the difference between theories of right action and virtue-based theories. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. Moral theory: explains why not one event causes another but why an action is right or wrong or why a person or a person's character is good or bad. b. Theories of right action: moral theories that concentrate on right or wrong actions are known as theories of obligation (duty). c. Virtue-based theories: moral theories that focus on good or bad persons or characters. (pg. 34)
Be able to reproduce and explain the doctrine of double-effect. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. Morphine: pain medication but also slows down breathing, therefore for an ill patient about to die that would accelerate the death (pg. 40) b. A person may perform an action that she foresees will produce both a good effect and a bad effect provided that's: i. 1. The action itself is neither morally good or morally neutral ii. 2. The good effect and not the bad effect is intended iii. 3. The good effect is not brought about as a result of the bad affect iv. 4. The bad affect must not be of greater importance than the good effect. (the good effect is sufficiently desirable to compensate for following the effect)
Be able to explain the difference between an action that is obligatory and one that is permissible. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Obligatory: concerns our duty, what we are obligated to do. Obligations are about conduct, how we ought or ought not to behave. Action is one that would be wrong not to perfomr (pg. 8) b. Permissible: one that is permitted. It is not wrong to perform it
Be able to name, reproduce, and explain Rawls' principles of justice. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. Principle of equal liberty: each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with similar liberties for all. b. Difference principle: social and economic inequalities should be arranged so that they are both (a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged persons, and (b) attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of equality of opportunity.
Be able to explain the reasons why the cultural differences argument fails.
a. Rachel argues that this argument is invalid because the claim that there is no objective "truth" about a particular subject matter does not follow from the fact that there is a disagreement about what the truth is. He gives the following refutation by analogy. i. Some people believe that the earth is flat, whereas others believe that it is an oblate spheroid. ii. Therefore, there is no objective "truth" in geography (i.e., there is no fact of the matter about whether the earth is flat or an oblate spheroid)
Be able to describe/define the following: retributive justice, distributive justice, libertarian, and egalitarian (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Retributive justice: concerns the fair meting out of punishment for wrongdoing. Some argue that justice is served only when people are punished for past wrongs, when they get their just deserts. b. Distributive justice: concerns the fair distribution of society's advantages and disadvantages- for example jobs, income, welfare aid, health care, rights, taxes, and public services. c. Libertarian: emphasize personal freedoms and the right to pursue one's own social and economic well-being in a free market without interference from others. (pg. 12) d. Egalitarian: maintain that a just distributions in an equal distribution. Social benefits, whether jobs, food, health care, or something else-should be allotted so that everyone has an equal share.
Be able to explain the Euthyphro problem. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Socrates asks a penetrating question: Are actions morally right because God command them because they are morally right? In the first option, God creates the moral law (the divine command theory); in the second, the moral law is independent of God's will so that even God is subject to it. (pg.17-18)
Be able to define and recognize clear examples of the following fallacies: straw man, appeal to ignorance, slippery slope, and appeal to the person. (Vaughn, Ch. 1)
a. Straw man: this fallacy is the misrepresentation of a person's views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed. (pg. 24) b. Appeal to the person: hominem fallacy. Appeal to the person is the rejecting of a statement on the grounds that it comes from a particular person, not because the statement, or claim, itself is false of dubious. c. Slippery slope: suggests the danger if stepping on a dicey incline, losing your footing, and sliding to disaster. Arguing erroneously that a particular action should not be taken because it will lead inventively to other actions resulting in some dire outcomes. d. Appeal to ignorance: tries to prove something by appealing to what we don't know. (pg. 24) i. A claim is true because it has not been proven false ii. Claim is false because it has not been proven true
Be able to explain the difference between Kohlberg's view of moral development and Gilligan's view of moral development. (Covered in lecture)
a. The debate between Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan dominated the subject of moral development following Gilligan's 1982 book, "In a Different Voice," one of the first to challenge male-centered psychological research. The differences between Kohlberg and Gilligan boil down to whether males and females define "morality" differently -- with men focusing on justice concerns, according to Kohlberg, and females more focused on caring and relationship needs, according to Gilligan. b. Kohlberg's i.Kohlberg's model consists of three main levels of moral progression, each consisting of two substages, producing the six-stage sequence of moral development. Specifically, the levels are 1) Pre- conventional stage: Occurring from birth to about age nine, moral judgments during this period are egocentric, based primarily on fear of punishment and unquestioning deference to authority. 2) Conventional stage: Spanning the age range of 10 to 20, individuals at this level are more able to view situations from the perspectives of others. They become aware of social expectations, and the intentions behind their actions weigh into decisions. 3) Post-conventional stage: Occurring from age 20 on, people at this level are able to make moral judgments based on impartial logic and universal standards of right and wrong that are independent of culture. People here balance their moral values against what is best for the common good. Few people reach this highest level of moral development, according to Kohlberg's tests. c. Gilligan's Stages i. Gilligan's three-level progression of moral development identified different values and beliefs as accompanying each stage. Gilligan believed women's development of a sense-of-self played a larger role in their decision making than cognition. Her levels were defined as: 1) Pre-conventional stage: A young girl's morality is oriented toward herself and individual survival; decisions are made based on what is practical and best for her. 2) Conventional stage: Here, a female develops a sense of responsibility to others. Morality is equated with goodness and self-sacrifice -- one's own wishes should be subordinated to the cares of others. 3) Post-conventional stage: To achieve this highest level of moral development, a woman realizes that her needs are equal to others. The focus shifts from being "good" to recognizing universal truths -- primarily the unethical nature of violence and exploitation of others.
Be able to match authors with representative quotes from the selected readings - Mill, Kant, Mayo, Held, and Wolf
a. Utilitarianism: John Stuart Mill (pg. 53) b. The moral law: Immanuel Kant (pg. 56) c. Virtue and the Moral Life: Bernard Mayo (pg. 62) d. The ethics of care: Virginia Held (pg. 65) e. Moral Saints: Susan Wolf (pg. 70)
Be able to explain why Mayo thinks that a morality of principles alone is insufficient to capture true morality. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
a. We should strive not to regiment our lives according to moral tenets, but be virtuous people. b. What I ought to do? c. Connection to moral ideas. Be brave, be patient, be lenient.
Be able to reproduce, explain, and apply the two versions of The Categorical Imperative. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
i. Imperative: command ii. "if it is wrong to lie, it is always wrong no matter what it's for" b. The formula of universal law: act always on the maxim or principle that you can consistently will as a principle of action for everyone similarly situated c. The formula of humanity: act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means but always at the same as an end
Be able to explain why the ethic of care was developed. (Vaughn, Ch. 2)
is a normative ethical theory that holds interpersonal relationships and care or benevolence as a virtue as central to moral action. It is one of a cluster of normative ethical theories that were developed by feminists in the second half of the twentieth century.[1] While consequentialist and deontologicalethical theories emphasize universal standards and impartiality, ethics of care emphasize the importance of response. The shift in moral perspective is manifested by a change in the moral question from "what is just?" to "how to respond?".[2] Ethics of care criticize application of universal standards as "morally problematic, since it breeds moral blindnessor indifference.
