Biology 116- Chapter 19 & 21: Learning Outcomes [Blood Vessels & Respiratory System]

Besides containing valves, cite another major difference between the arterial and venous systems.

A major anatomical difference b/w the arterial and venous system is the existence of dual (superficial and deep) venous drainage in the neck and limbs.

Name the several age-related factors that affect the respiratory system.

Aging results in deterioration of elastic tissue, arthritic changes that stiffen rib articulations, decreased flexibility at costal cartilages, decreased vital capacity, and some degree of emphysema.

What effect does an increase in the respiratory rate have on Co2 levels?

An increase in the respiratory rate reduces CO2 levels.

Which would reduce the peripheral resistance: an increase in vessel length or an increase in vessel diameter?

An increase in vessel diameter would reduce peripheral resistance. (An increase in vessel length would increase peripheral resistance).

Identify the conditions that would shift the balance between hydrostatic and osmotic forces.

Any condition that affects either blood pressure or osmotic pressures in the blood or tissues will shift the balance b/w hydrostatic and osmotic forces.

Which is greater: arterial pressure or venous pressure?

Arterial pressure is much higher than venous pressure because it must push blood a greater distance and through progressively smaller & thinner vessels.

Identify three ways that carbon dioxide is transported in the bloodstream.

Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood stream dissolved in the plasma, bound to hemoglobin, or as bicarbonate ions in the plasma.

Describe autoregulation as it relates to cardiovascular function.

Cardiovascular autoregulation involves local factors changing the pattern of blood flow within capillary beds in response to chemical changes in interstitial fluids.

Trace the path of a drop of blood from the left ventricle to the right hip joint.

Left ventricle--> ascending aorta--> aortic arch--> thoracic aorta--> abdomical aorta--> right common iliac--> right external iliac--> right femoral--> right deep femoral--> right hip joint

Describe lung cancer.

Lung cancer is an aggressive class of malignancies that affect the epithelial cells lining the conducting passageways, mucous glands, and alveoli. More people die from lung cancer than from any other type of cancer.

Neural and endocrine regulatory mechanisms influence which factors?

Neural and endocrine regulatory mechanisms influence heart rate, stroke volume, peripheral resistance, and venous pressure.

Define oxyhemoglobin.

Oxyhemoglobin is hemoglobin to which oxygen molecules have bound.

Name the arterial structure in the neck region that contains baroreceptors.

The arterial structure in the neck region that contains baroreceptors is the carotid sinus.

Describe the structure and the function of the blood air barrier

The blood air barrier is made up of the fused basement membranes of the alveolar epithelium and capillary endothelium. Because it is very thin and oxygen and carbon dioxide are lipid soluble, diffusion occurs rapidly across the membrane.

Identify the branches of the external carotid artery.

The branches of the external carotid artery are the superficial, temporal, maxillary, occipital, facial, lingual, and external carotid arteries.

Describe the structure and function of the cerebral arterial circle.

The cerebral arterial circle (also known as the circle of Willis) is a ring-shaped anastomosis that encircles the infundibulum of the pituitary gland. Its anatomical arrangement creates alternate pathways in the cerebral circulation, so that if blood flow is interrupted in one area, other blood vessels can continue to perfuse the entire brain w/ blood.

Distinguish between the conducting portion and respiratory portion of the respiratory tract.

The conducting portion of the respiratory tract begins at the nasal cavity and extends through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles. The respiratory portion includes the respiratory bronchioles and alveoli.

Describe the lung borders and landmarks.

The curving anterior and inferior borders of each lung follow the contours of the rib cage. The apex of each lung extends superiorly to the first rib, and the base of each lung rests on the superior surface of the diaphragm.

Explain the R x 1/r^4 equation.

The equation R x 1/r^4 states that resistance (R)is inversely proportionate to the fourth power of the vessel radius (r). This means that a small change in vessel diameter results in a large change in resistance.

Name the first two branches of the common iliac artery.

The first two branches of the common iliac artery are the internal iliac artery and the external iliac artery.

List the 5 classes of blood vessels.

The five general classes of blood vessels are arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.

Describe the function of the hepatic portal system and name its primary vessel.

The function of the hepatic portal system is to carry blood w/ absorbed nutrients from the digestive organs to the liver for processing. The primary vessel of the hepatic portal system is the hepatic portal vein.

Describe the structures of the glottis.

The glottis is the "voicebox" of the larynx. It is made up of the vocal folds (structures that contain the vocal ligaments and are involved with sound production) and the rima glottidis (the opening between the vocal folds and the arytenoid cartilages).

Name the immediate and long -term problems related to hemorrhage.

The immediate, short-term problem during hemorrhage is to maintain adequate blood pressure and peripheral blood flow; the long-term problem is to restore normal blood volume.

Which vessel collects most of the venous blood inferior to the diagram?

The inferior vena cava collects most of the venous blood inferior to the diaphragm.

Name the veins that drain the dural sinuses of the brain.

The internal jugular veins drain the dural sinuses of the brain.

What pressures determine the direction of airflow within the respiratory tract?

The intrapulmonary pressure (pressure inside the respiratory tract) and the atmospheric pressure (pressure outside the respiratory tract) determine the direction of airflow. Air moves from the area with the higher pressure to the area with the lower pressure.

Identify the largest artery of the body.

The largest artery in the body is the aorta.

Identify two veins that carry blood away from the stomach.

The left & right gastroepiploic veins carry blood away from the stomach.

Name the lobes and fissures of each lung.

The left lung is divided into a superior lobe and an inferior lobe by the oblique fissure; the right lung, the horizontal fissure separates the superior lobe from the middle lobe, while the oblique fissure separates the superior and middle lobes from the inferior lobe.

Identify the major branches of the inferior vena cava.

The major branches of the inferior vena cava are the lumbar, gonadal, hepatic, renal, adrenal, and phrenic veins.

Name the various measurable pulmonary valves.

The measurable pulmonary volumes are the tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume (ERV), residual volume, and inspiratory reserve volume (IRV).

What physical changes affect the volume of the lungs?

The movements of the diaphragm and rib cage affect the volume of the lungs.

Which chemical factors in blood or cerebrospinal fluid stimulate the respiratory centers?

The pH, PO2, and PCO2 in blood and cerebrospinal fluid stimulate the respiratory centers.

Identify the paired and unpaired cartilages that compose the larynx.

The paired cartilages are the arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform. The unpaired cartilages are the thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, and epiglottis.

Name the paired central nervous system nuclei that adjust the pace of respiration.

The pairs of central nervous system nuclei that adjust the pace of respiration are the apneustic centers and the pneumotaxic centers in the pons.

The plantar venous arch carries blood to which three veins?

The plantar venous arch delivers blood to the anterior tibial, posterior tibial, and fibular (peroneal) veins.

Identify the primary inspiratory muscles.

The primary inspiratory muscles are the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles.

Describe the pulmonary circuit.

The pulmonary circuit transports blood from the right ventricle through the pulmonary arteries, capillaries in the lungs, and pulmonary veins and returns it to the left atrium.

Define respiratory defense system.

The respiratory defense system is a series of filtration mechanisms that prevent airway contamination by debris and pathogens.

How does the respiratory minute volume differ from the alveolar ventilation?

The respiratory minute volume is the amount of air moved into and out of the respiratory tract each minute, whereas alveolar ventilation is the amount of air reaching the alveoli each minute. Because some of the air never reaches the alveoli but instead remains in the anatomic dead space, alveolar ventilation is lower than respiratory minute volume.

What membrane lines the conducting portion of the respiratory tract?

The respiratory mucosa lines the conducting portion of the respiratory tract.

Describe the respiratory pump.

The respiratory pump is a mechanism by which a reduction of pressure in the thoracic cavity during inhalation assists venous return to the heart.

Which brainstem centers generate the respiratory rate?

The respiratory rhythmicity centers in the medulla oblongata generate the respiratory pace.

Why is the vascularization of the nasal cavity important?

The rich vascularization of the nasal cavity by the expandable veins in the lamina propria radiates body heat, so inhaled air is warmed before it leaves the nasal cavity. The heat also evaporates moisture from the epithelium to humidify the incoming air.

Which chamber of the heart receives blood from the systemic circuit?

The right atrium receives blood from the systemic circuit.

Compare the two main bronchi.

The right main bronchus is larger in diameter than the left main bronchus and it descends toward the lung at a steeper angle than the left primarybronchus.

Johnny is angry, so he tells his mom that he will hold his breath until he turns blue and dies. Explain whether this will likely happen.

This is unlikely to happen. When Johnny holds his breath, carbon dioxide levels in his blood increase, causing increased stimulation of the inspiratory centers, forcing him to breathe again.

Whenever Thor gets angry, a large vein bulges in the lateral region of his neck. Which vein is this?

Thor's bulging vein is his external jugular vein.

Identify the three chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPDs).

Three COPDs are asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema.

Name the two arteries formed by the division of the brachiocephalic trunk.

The two arteries formed by the division of the brachiocephalic trunk are the right common carotid artery and the right subclavian artery.

Define tissue perfusion.

Tissue perfusion is blood flow to tissues sufficient to deliver adequate oxygen and nutrients.

List the factors that contribute to total peripheral resistance.

Total peripheral resistance reflects a combination of vascular resistance, vessel length, vessel luminal diameter, blood viscosity, and turbulence.

Describe the location of the lungs within the thoracic cavity.

Within the thoracic cavity, the left and right lungs are surrounded by the left and right pleural cavities, respectively.

Trace the path of a drop of blood from the right forearm to the right atrium.

right forearm--> right brachial-> right axillary--> right subclavian--> right brachiocephalic--> superior vena cava--> right atrium

A blockage of which branch of the aortic arch would interfere with the blood flow to the left arm?

A blockage of the left subclavian artery would interfere w/ blood flow to the left arm.

A blood clot that blocks the popliteal vein would interfere with blood flow in which other veins?

A blockage of the popliteal vein would interfere w/ blow flow in the tibial and fibular (peroneal) veins (which form the popliteal vein) and the small saphenous vein (which joins the popliteal vein).

Define bronchopulmonary segment.

A bronchopulmonary segment is a specific region of a lung supplied by a segmental bronchus.

Describe a capillary.

A capillary is a small blood vessel, located between an arteriole and a venule, whose thin wall permits exchange between blood and interstitial fluid by diffusion.

How is blood pressure mainlined in the veins against the force of gravity?

Assisted by the presence of valves in the veins, which prevent backflow of blood, the contraction of surrounding skeletal muscles squeezes venous blood toward the heart.

Explain the relationship among BPG oxygen, and hemoglobin.

BPG (2,3 bisphosphoglycerate) is a compound generated by RBCs during glycolysis that decreases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. For any partial pressure of oxygen, if the concentration of BPG increases, the amount of oxygen released by hemoglobin will increase.

Explain the function of baroreceptor reflexes.

Baroreceptor reflexes respond to changes in blood pressure. The baroreceptors - located in the walls of the carotid sinuses and aortic arch - monitor the degree of stretch at those sites. When blood pressure increases, the cardiac centers decrease cardiac output and the vasomotor center if inhibited, resulting in vasodilation; when blood pressure decreases, the cardiac centers increase cardiac output and the vasomotor center is stimulated, resulting in vasoconstriction.

How would blockage of the trachea affect blood ph?

Blockage of the trachea would interfere with the body's ability to gain oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide. Because most carbon dioxide is transported in blood as bicarbonate ion formed from the dissociation of carbonic acid, an inability to eliminate carbon dioxide would result in an excess of hydrogen ions, which lowers blood pH.

Define blood flow and describe its relationship to blood pressure and peripheral resistance.

Blood flow is the volume of blood flowing per unit of time through a vessel or group of vessels; it is directly proportional to arterial pressure (increased pressure results in increased blood flow) and inversely proportional to peripheral resistance (increased resistance results in decreased blood flow).

What are blood islands and from which cells do they form?

Blood islands are aggregations of embryonic cells scattered within the yolk sac that form blood vessels and blood cells. During embryonic development, these islands give rise to hematopoietic stem cells and hemangioblasts.

During exercise, hemoglobin releases more oxygen to active skeletal muscles than it does when those muscles are at rest. Why?

Both increased temperature and decreased pH (from heat and acidic wastes generated by active skeletal muscles) cause hemoglobin to release more oxygen during exercise than when the muscles are at rest.

Define Boyle's law.

Boyle's law states that at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume.

What is the function of chemoreceptor reflexes?

Chemoreceptor reflexes respond to decreasing pH and oxygen levels and to increasing CO2 levels in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) by adjusting cardiovascular and respiratory activity. These reflexes stimulate responses by the cardiovascular centers to increase blood pressure through vasoconstriction and increased cardiac output and stimulate responses by the respiratory centers to increase the respiratory rate, which increases pH and oxygen levels and decreases CO2 levels.

Where are chemoreceptors located?

Chemoreceptors are located in carotid bodies, in the aortic bodies, and on the ventrolateral surfaces of the medulla oblongata.

Are chemoreceptors more sensitive to blood CO2 levels or blood O2 levels?

Chemoreceptors are more sensitive to blood carbon dioxide levels than they are to blood oxygen levels.

Compare chronic bronchitis with emphysema.

Chronic bronchitis is long-term inflammation of the mucous membranes in the bronchial tubes; emphysema is a condition in which the alveolar surfaces of the lungs are destroyed and alveoli merge, which reduces respiratory surface area and oxygen absorption, causing breathlessness. People who have chronic bronchitis are sometimes called "blue bloaters"; those with emphysema are called "pink puffers"

Describe circulatory shock, progressive shock, and irreversible shock.

Circulatory shock occurs when blood loss exceeds about 35% of the total blood volume. Circulatory shock involves a series of positive feedback loops that are initiated after homeostasis has been disrupted. Progressive shock is he next stage after circulatory shock. It, too, is a series of positive feedback loops that accelerate tissue damage. Irreversible shock is the fatal stage that occurs if the positive feedback loops initiated during progressive shock are not broken.

Identify the compensatory mechanisms that respond to blood loss.

Compensatory mechanisms that respond to blood loss include an increase in cardiac output, a mobilization of venous blood reservoir, peripheral vasoconstriction, and the release of hormones that promote the retention of fluids and the maturation of erythrocytes.

Define compliance and resistance.

Compliance is the ease with which the lungs expand and recoil. Resistance is an indication of how much force is required to inflate or deflate the lungs.

Why can cystic fibrosis become lethal?

Cystic fibrosis causes production of dense mucus that restricts respiratory passages and accumulates in the lungs. Harmful bacterial infection of the lungs may also develop, leading to death.

Define Dalton's law.

Dalton's law states that in a mixture of gases, the individual gases exert a pressure proportional to their abundance in the mixture.

Describe the pattern of fetal blood flow to and from the placenta.

Deoxygenated blood flows from the fetus to the placenta through a pair of umbilical arteries, and oxygenated blood returns from the placenta in a single umbilical vein. The umbilical vein then drains into the ductus venosus within the fetal liver.

Describe the forces that drive oxygen and carbon dioxide transport between the blood and peripheral tissues.

Driven by differences in partial pressure, oxygen enters the blood at the lungs and leaves it in peripheral tissues; similar forces drive carbon dioxide into the blood at the tissues and into the alveoli at the lungs.

Describe the changes in cardiac output and blood flow during exercise.

During exercise, cardiac output increases, and blood flow to skeletal muscles increases at the expense of blood flow to fewer essential organs. Unless compensatory vasoconstriction occurs in "less essential" organs, such as those of the digestive system, vasodilation in skeletal muscles would cause a potentially dangerous decrease in blood pressure and blood flow throughout the body during exercise.

Compare dysplasia, metaplasia, and anaplasia.

Dysplasia is the development of abnormal cells; metaplasia is the development of abnormal changes in tissue structure; neoplasia is the conversion of normal cells to tumor (cancerous) cells; and anaplasia is the spread of the malignant cells (metastasis) throughout the body.

Define edema.

Edema is an abnormal accumulation of interstitial fluid in peripheral tissues.

Distinguish among efferent and afferent vessels.

Efferent vessels (arteries) carry blood away from the heart, afferent vessels (veins) carry blood to the heart, and exchange vessels (capillaries) exchange nutrients, dissolved gases, and wastes b/w the blood & interstitial fluid.

Identify the hormones responsible for short term regulation of decreasing blood pressure and volume.

Epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medullae provide short-term regulation of decreasing blood pressure and blood volume.

Describe the role of natriuretic peptides.

Excessive stretching of the right atrium during diastole causes the release of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). Excessive stretching of the ventricles during diastole causes the release of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP). The roles of these peptides are to trigger responses whose combined effects act to decrease blood volume and blood pressure. As blood volume and blood pressure decrease, natriuretic peptide production ceases.

Define external respiration, gas diffusion, and internal respiration.

External respiration is all processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide b/w the blood, lungs, and the external environment. Gas diffusion is the movement of O2 and CO2 across the blood air barrier b/w alveolar air spaces and alveolar capillaries and across capillary walls b/w blood and other tissues.

At what sites of the body are fenestrated capillaries located?

Fenestrated capillaries are located where solutes as large as small peptides move freely into and out of the blood. These sites include endocrine glands, the choroid plexus of the brain, absorptive areas of the intestine, and filtration areas of the kidneys.

Under what general conditions would fluid move into a capillary?

Fluid moves into a capillary (reabsorption) whenever blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP) is greater than capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP).

Where does gas exchange between the air and lungs occur?

Gas exchange b/w air & the lungs occurs in the alveoli.

Briefly describe general patterns of blood vessel organization.

General patterns of blood vessel organization include the following: (1) The peripheral distributions of arteries and veins on the body's left and right sides are generally identical, except near the heart, where the largest vessels connect to the atria or ventricles; (2) a single vessel may have several names as it crosses specific anatomical boundaries, making accurate anatomical descriptions possible; and (3) tissues and organs are usually serviced by several arteries and veins.

What is the function of hemangioblasts?

Hemangioblasts remodel blood islands first into capillary networks and then into larger arterial and venous networks.

What is the significance of Henry's law to the process of respiration?

Henry's law states that at a given temperature, the amount of a particular gas that dissolves in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas. Henry's law underlies the diffusion of gases b/w capillaries and interstitial fluid.

Define hypercapnia and hypocapnia.

Hypercapnia is an increase in the Pco2 of arterial blood above the normal range; hypocapnia is an abnormally low arterial Pco2.

How are hypoxia and anoxia different?

Hypoxia is low tissue oxygen levels. Anoxia is when oxygen is cut off completely.

In a healthy person, where is blood pressure greater: in the aorta or inferior vena cava? Explain your answer.

In a healthy person, blood pressure is greater in the aorta than in the inferior vena cava. If the pressure were higher in the inferior vena cava than in the aorta, blood would flow in the reverse direction.

Why are valves located in the veins but not arteries?

In the arterial system, pressures are high enough to keep the blood moving away from the heart and through arteries and capillaries. In the venous system, blood pressure is too low to keep the blood moving back toward the heart. Valves in veins prevent blood from flowing backward whenever the venous pressure drops.

Trace the pathway of airflow along the passages of the lower respiratory tract.

Pathway of airflow along the lower respiratory tract: trachea--> main bronchi--> lobar bronchi--> segmental bronchi--> terminal bronchioles--> pulmonary lobule.

Trace the pathway of air through the upper respiratory system.

Pathway of entering air: nostrils--> nasal cavity--> nasal vestibule (guarded by hairs that screen out large particles) --> superior, middle, and inferior meatuses (air bounces off the conchal surfaces) --> choanae (openings b/w the nasal cavity and nasopharynx) --> nasopharynx--> oropharynx--> laryngopharynx--> larynx.

Distinguish between phonation and articulation.

Phonation is the production of sound and is one component of speech. Articulation is the modification of sound by the tongue, teeth, and lips for clear speech.

Define pulmonary lobule.

Pulmonary lobules are the smallest subdivisions of the lungs; branches of the pulmonary arteries, pulmonary veins, and segmental bronchi supply each lobule.

Define respiratory rate.

Respiratory rate is the number of breaths taken each minute.

Trace a drop of blood through the lungs, beginning at the right ventricle and ending at the left atrium.

Right ventricle --> pulmonary trunk--> right and left pulmonary arteries--> pulmonary arterioles--> alveoli--> pulmonary venules--> pulmonary veins--> left atrium

Grace is in an automobile accident and her celiac trunk is ruptured. Which organs will be affected most directly by this injury?

Rupturing the celiac trunk would most directly affect the stomach, inferior portion of the esophagus, spleen, liver, gallbladder, and proximal portion of the small intestine.

Which ventilates alveoli more effectively: slow deep breathes or rapid shallow breathes? Explain why.

Slow, deep breaths ventilate alveoli more effectively because a smaller amount of the tidal volume of each breath is spent moving air into and out of the anatomic dead space of the lungs.

What function do the C-shaped tracheal cartilages allow?

The C-shaped tracheal cartilages allow room for the esophagus to expand when food or liquids are swallowed.

Explain the decrease in PO2 from the pulmonary venules to the blood arriving in the peripheral capillaries of the systemic circuit.

The PO2 decreases from about 100 mm Hg to 95 mm Hg in the pulmonary veins as it mixes w/ venous blood from capillaries surrounding the conducting passageways. The blood arriving at the peripheral capillaries has a PO2 of 95 mm Hg.

When do the accessory respiratory muscles become active?

The accessory respiratory muscles become active whenever the primary respiratory muscles are unable to move enough air to meet the oxygen demands of tissues.

Identify the 6 structures that are vital to fetal circulation but cease to function at birth, and describe what becomes of these structures.

The six structures vital to fetal circulation are two umbilical arteries, one umbilical vein, the ductus venosus, the foramen ovale, and the ductus arteriosus. After birth, the foramen ovale closes and persists as the fossa ovalis, a shallow depression; the ductus arteriosus persists as the ligamentum arteriosum, a fibrous cord; and the umbilical vessels and ductus venosus persist throughout life as fibrous cords.

List the structures of the upper respiratory system.

The structures of the upper respiratory system are the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx.

Describe the systemic circuit.

The systemic circuit transports blood through the arteries, capillaries, and veins of the body from the left ventricle to the right atrium.

Describe the distribution of total blood volume in the body.

The systemic venous system and systemic arterial system contain 64 and 13 percent of the total blood volume, respectively. The remaining volume is contained in the heart (7%), pulmonary circulation (9%), and systemic capillaries (7%).

Name the three branches of the internal carotid artery.

The three branches of the internal carotid artery are the ophthalmic, anterior cerebral, and middle cerebral arteries.

Identify the three veins that merge to form the hepatic portal vein.

The three veins that merge to form the hepatic portal vein are the superior mesenteric, inferior mesenteric, and splenic veins.

Compare the oxygen content in the two circulatory outlets.

The two circulatory circuits of the cardiovascular system are the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit. The pulmonary circuit carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium. The systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood to the organs and tissues of the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.

Name the two large veins that collect blood from the systemic circuit.

The two large veins that collect blood from the systemic circuit are the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava.

Identify the two types of capillaries with a complete endothelium.

The two types of capillaries w/ a complete endothelium are continuous capillaries and fenestrated capillaries.

List the unpaired branches of the abdominal aorta that supply blood to the visceral organs.

The unpaired branches of the abdominal aorta that supply blood to the visceral organs are the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery.

Identify the veins that combine to form the brachiocephalic vein.

The veins that combine to form the brachiocephalic vein are the external jugular, internal jugular, vertebral, and subclavian veins.

Calculate the mean arterial pressure for a person whose blood pressure is 125/70.

Using the formula MAP= diastolic pressure + (pulse pressure)/3, MAP equals 70 + (125-70)/3, which equals 70 + 18.3, or 88.3 mmHg.

What factors are involved in the formation of varicose veins?

Varicose veins are sagging, swollen superficial veins in the thighs and legs. They result from the pooling of blood due to gravity and the failure of venous valves.

How does the kidney respond to vasoconstriction of the renal artery?

Vasoconstriction of the renal artery would decrease both blood flow and blood pressure at the kidney. In response, the kidney would release EPO and renin. EPO increases the rate of red blood cell formation, which leads to an increase in blood volume. The release in renin would lead to an increase in the level of angiotensin.

Compare a ventricular septal defect with tetralogy of Fallot.

Ventricular septal defects are abnormal openings b/w the left and right ventricles. Tetralogy of Fallot includes a ventricular septal defect plus three other heart defects: a narrowing of the pulmonary trunk, a displaced aorta, and an enlarged right ventricle w/ corresponding thickened right & left ventricles.

Why is it beneficial for capillary pressure to be very low?

Very low capillary pressure is beneficial because it allows time for diffusion b/w the blood and the surrounding interstitial fluid.

What would happen if the alveoli surfactant were not produced?

W/o surfactant, the alveoli would collapse because of the normally high surface tension in the thin layer of water coating the alveolar surfaces.