Biology- Reporting Category 4: Biological Processes and Systems
Anaerobic Respiration
- a process of fermentation - use anaerobic respiration in situations where there is not enough oxygen to meet energy demands (like strenuous exercise) - the pyruvate made from glucose is only partially broken down - lactic acid is also a product of anaerobic respiration and makes muscles sore during exercise and gives yogurt its sour taste
Dark Reaction
- also called the Calvin cycle - ADP, NADP+, and CO2 react to form the sugar glucose - occurs in the stroma portion of the chloroplast.
Aerobic Respiration First Step
- has two steps: glycolysis and the Krebs cycle - glycolysis: the breakdown of glucose into a form (pyruvate) that can be converted into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - glucose enters cells through diffusion from the bloodstream - once in the cell, the mitochondria absorb the glucose and start glycolysis - the product of glycolysis is pyruvate and 8 ATP.
Light-dependent Reaction
- high-energy electrons are emitted when light hits the chlorophyll - the electrons are passed along in a chain of molecules called the electron transport chain - as electrons are passed along, useful energy gets stored as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - water is broken down in this step, and oxygen gas is produced, as well as a high-energy molecule called NADP+ needed for the next step - occurs in the thylakoid structure in the chloroplast.
Regulation is done by ____________ produced by the ____________ system that reach their destination through the ____________ circulatory system.
- hormone - endocrine - circulatory
Xylem moves _____ and _____ upward from the roots.
- minerals - water
Aerobic Respiration Second Step
- second step is the Krebs cycle, aka citric acid cycle - the opposite reaction of photosynthesis - oxygen is used to make ATP, and carbon dioxide and water are byproducts of the reaction
Phloem moves _____ and _____ downward.
- sugar - nutrients
Respiration
- the cell's way to take the energy stored inside food and convert it to a useful form that powers other cell processes - there are two types of respiration: aerobic and anaerobic.
Geotropism
- the growth response of a plant in regards to gravity - roots have positive geotropism as they grow downward, while stems and leaves have negative geotropism as they grow upwards, against gravity.
Phototropism
- the growth response of a plant to light - stems grow towards light, so they have positive phototropism, while roots have negative phototropism as they grow away from the light
There are two steps in photosynthesis:
- the light-dependent reaction - the dark reaction
Flower Reproduction
- the reproductive organs in a flower are the pistil and stamen - a seed is a mature, pollinated ovule, or fertilized egg - hormones in a plant's root system trigger seed growth in the shoot system
Photoperiodism
- the response of flowering plants to changes in the durations of light and dark periods during the day - responsible for different species of plants blooming at different times of the year.
The root system uptakes ______ and _______.
- water - minerals
What is a chain of amino acids called?
. A chain of amino acids joined together is a polypeptide chain.
Only __ ATP are created from anaerobic respiration.
2
At the end of aerobic respiration, a total of ______ molecules of ATP are created.
38
Photosynthesis Equation
6CO2 + 6H2O --> light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2
What does a catalyst do?
A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction without being used in the reaction.
How many polypeptide chains does a complete protein have?
A complete protein has one or more polypeptide chains.
What is a Disaccharide?
A disaccharide is two simple sugars joined together.
What is a Polysaccharide?
A polysaccharide is many simple sugars formed together in a chain
What is the useful form of energy called?
ATP
The following steps show how enzymes work. Step 2:
An enzyme then binds to the substrate at the active site.
What are Biomolecules?
Biomolecules are molecules produced by living organisms.
What are Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are sugars and starches and are comprised of three elements: hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen.
Nutrient absorption
Digestion of starches begins in the mouth. Food continues to be broken down in the stomach. Mechanical digestion occurs when food is chewed and the muscular system churns the food. Chemical digestion occurs from water, acid, and enzymes. Once food is broken down, nutrients are absorbed by the blood and carried by the circulatory system to cells.
How does the digestive system work with the circulatory system to deliver nutrients to cells?
Digestive systems breaks down the food into nutrients. The circulatory system carries the nutrients to cells.
What does each amino acid have?
Each amino acid has a carbon atom (C), an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a group represented by R.
The following steps show how enzymes work. Step 1:
Each enzyme is shaped in a special way. An enzyme has an active site with a specific shape that fits a specific molecule, called a substrate.
Reproduction
Hormones produced in the endocrine system control ovulation in females and sperm creation in males.
What is inside the chloroplast?
Inside the chloroplast is chlorophyll.
What are carbohydrates made of?
Like carbohydrates, they only have carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but differ in their arrangement.
What are other names for lipids?
Lipids are also called fats, fatty acids, and oil.
What are the roles of lipids?
Lipids store energy, cushion internal organs against trauma, form part of the cell membrane, and help make hormones.
Defense
Mucus in lungs can trap bacteria and viruses in the respiratory system. T-cells, phagocytes, and white blood cells in the immune system destroy viruses. Skin in the integumentary system provides a mechanical barrier. Nerves in the nervous system can sense pain to help people remove themselves from dangerous situations.
What are nucleic acids made of?
Nucleic acids consist of nucleotides.
What are nucleotides made of?
Nucleotides consist of three components: a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
What organisms photosynthesize?
Photosynthesis is done by plants, some bacteria, and some protists.
In what organelle does photosynthesis take place?
Photosynthesis is done on the cellular level by the chloroplast organelle.
Where is protein found?
Protein is found in hair, muscle, support structures, and enzymes
What is R?
R is a different element or molecule unique to each amino acid.
Regulation
Regulation is done by hormones secreted by the endocrine system. The circulatory system carries the hormones in the blood to where they are needed.
What is a Simple Sugar?
Simple sugars are called monosaccharides
Immune System
T-cells, phagocytes, and white blood cells destroy viruses
Why is chlorophyll green?
The chlorophyll absorbs blue and red light energy and reflects green.
The following steps show how enzymes work. Step 5:
The enzyme assumes its original shape and is free to work again.
The following steps show how enzymes work. Step 4:
The product is released from the active site.
Transport
The root system uptakes water and minerals dissolved in the water.
How many amino acids make protein?
There are 20 amino acids that make protein.
The following steps show how enzymes work. Step 3:
Together, the enzyme and the substrate form an enzyme-substrate complex. The enzyme interacts with the substrate to weaken its bonds. As the bonds weaken, a new molecule called a product is formed. One or two products may be formed by an enzyme.
How are two amino acids bonded together?
Two amino acids are bonded together by a peptide bond.
Respiratory System
Which system heavily influences the reproductive system?
Substrate
a molecule that interacts with an enzyme
Chlorophyll
a pigment that traps light energy
Enzyme
a protein molecule that acts as a catalyst in a living organism
Catalyst
a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up in the reaction
What are the four nitrogenous bases?
adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).
Most organisms use __________ respiration.
aerobic
How is the phosphate group represented?
by a circle
How is the sugar represented?
by a heptagon
Important biomolecules include...
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Enzymes help these reactions occur by acting as a ___________.
catalyst
Lipids do not form long ________ of repeating units.
chains
At what step is glucose produced?
dark reaction
Which system heavily influences the reproductive system?
endocrine
Carbohydrates are generally used as an...
energy source
Once these organisms convert sunlight energy into sugar, cells then make other molecules like...
fats, proteins, and other carbohydrates.
Enzymes play an ______________ role in biological systems.
important
At what step is oxygen produced?
light-dependent reaction
Maltose is a substrate. What is the name of the enzyme that acts on maltose?
maltase
Chemical reactions inside organisms are _____________ for life to be sustained.
necessary
A tree that grows upwards, despite gravity, has _______ geotropism.
negative
Nervous System
nerves send pain signals to help a person leave a dangerous situation
Shoot System
new plant growth that includes stems, flowering stems, and leaves
Lipids are ____ soluble in water.
not
Most carbohydrates are soluble in water; cellulose is ____ soluble in water.
not
What is DNA and RNA made of?
nucleic acids
All of life is highly __________.
organized
Crocuses can bloom in the winter, while dahlias bloom in the fall. This is due to different responses to daylight length or ________.
photoperiodism
A sunflower is placed facing away from a window. The following day, the sunflower is facing the window. This is due to ___________.
phototropism
An enzyme is a special type of _________ biomolecule.
protein
Integumentary System
skin provides a mechanical barrier
Cellulose in plants, a type of carbohydrate, is used for...
structural support
The active site on an enzyme will be shaped to fit a specific _________.
substrate
The name of an enzyme is often a form of the ____________ name, ending in "-ase."
substrate's
What is an amino acid?
the building block of protein
What is a nucleic acid?
the building blocks of DNA
What is a nucleotide?
the building blocks of nucleic acids
Pistil
the female reproductive organs of a flower, including the stigma, style, ovule, and ovary
Stamen
the male reproductive organs of a flower, including the anther, filament, and pollen grains
What forms the rungs of the ladder in a DNA model?
the nitrogenous base
Active Site
the place on an enzyme that binds to the substrate
Photosynthesis
the process in which organisms take energy from the Sun or other light source and convert it into sugar
What forms the backbone of the DNA?
the sugar and phosphate group
Xylem
the vascular tissue in plants that moves water and dissolved minerals upward from the root and also helps form the woody element of the stem
Phloem
the vascular tissue in plants that transports sugars downward from the leaves
Phloem Tissues
transport sugar and nutrients throughout the plant. Phloem tissue is on the outer edge of stems and roots, while xylem is inward.
Xylem Tissues
transport water and minerals to the leaves through the shoot system. In woody plants, secondary xylem forms the "woody portion" of the stem called cambium. Primary xylem is found in nonwoody plants and in the nonwoody portion of woody plants.
Once an enzyme binds to a substrate, the enzyme interacts with the substrate to ____________.w
weaken its bonds
Aerobic
with oxygen
anaerobic
without oxygen
Secondary ________ forms the woody portion of a redwood tree.
xylem
Can the same enzyme act as a catalyst again after the products leave?
yes
