BIS 2B Final Review

why do CFCS follow a different pattern than the other greenhouse gases?

-CFCS used by companies led to larger hole in the ozone -countries came together in the Montreal protocol

Mitosis

-DNA copied once and 2 cells were made with identical copy of DNA from each parent 1. starts by taking a chromosome and making 2 copies 2. then the two copies are lined up separated out into 2 cells

Photosynthesis

-light energy (in photons) is capture by pigments, such as chlorophyll, and used to make ATP -final product is glucose C6H12O6 -most plants absorb blue and red wavelengths and that is why they reflect green and yellow usually

phylogenetic tree

A family tree that shows the evolutionary relationships thought to exist among groups of organisms -speciation creates new branches, new lineages

Alloploidy

A hybrid individual or cell having two or more sets of chromosomes derived from two different species

postzygotic barriers

1) Reduced Hybrid Viability: hybrid offspring do not complete development or have low survivorship 2) Reduced Hybrid Fertility: hybrid offspring are viable, but incapable of reproduction (horse + donkey= mule) 3) Hybrid Breakdown: hybrid offspring are viable and fertile, but subsequent offspring F2 generation are inviable or sterile able to produce offspring but their offspring F2 has low viability

Hamilton's Rule and Kin Selection

For altruism to evolve, the additional benefit (B) obtained by the recipient must be greater than the cost to the altruist (C), adjusted for the degree of relatedness (r) between the individuals Helping behavior can evolve when B x r > C

If you were studying the organisms you discussed in questions 23.2 and 23.3 (the previous questions), what species concept would you use instead of the biological species concept? Explain your choice in 2-3 sentences.

For fossils, the morphological species concept may be more useful, because it focuses on phenotypes. With fossils, you lack genetic or reproductive data, so phenotypes may be the most effective way to assess which organisms are the same or different species. •For bacteria, the lineage species concept may be more useful, because it focuses on genetic relatedness and shared ancestry. When taxa are asexual, you can define the species by finding genetically similar groups with a shared evolutionary history, which can usually be clearly defined and connected to a group's ecology and evolution.

Chaparral shrub syndorme

burst of one strategy immediately after the fire. Don't get lots of fire persisters until there has been a decent amount of time where fires have not occurred

genetic drift

chance events that cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next, especially in small populations small population: A2 allele is very rare, after a single generation, it is lost entirely large population: A3 is rare but with enough individuals carrying even one A3 the allele persists in future generations

Mutation

change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information

photosynthesis evolves after the first evidence of life, so if our first organisms were not photosynthetic how were they getting energy to perform respiration?

chemoautotrophy or chemosynthesis (light from chemical compounds) (deep ocean valves)

why are the seasonal patterns opposite in teh atcama and sahra deserts?

chile in southern hemisphere and sahara part of africa is in the northern hemisphere

Which two penguin species have the same intrinsic growth rate?

chinstraps and emperors

where on earth do the most productive ecosystems occur?

highest net primary productivity is in the tropics and declines as we go to higher latitudes. on land driven mainly by precipitation and temperature. so areas with highest precipitation and highest temperatures are the most productive.

Tropical Rainforest Biome

located near the equator, warm all year long so very little seasonality in temperature

abiotic stress: temperature

most reactions increase as temperature increases then will reach a max and decrease

why is it important to do the math when trying to find the distance between things for linkage mapping?

must do linkage math 1 by 1 because multiple linkage events can hide the true distance along the chromosome

what is the source if all genetic variation?

mutation

net primary production

takes the quantity (rate of) photosynthesis and subtracts out the respiration at all trophic levels NPP= GPP-rate of respiration

What biome does this climatograph represent? A.Desert B.Grassland C.Tropical Rainforest D.Tundra E....?

temperate grassland

oxygen revolution

the accumulation of oxygen released by cyanobacteria beginning 2.6 billion years ago -provides path for the first aerobic bacteria

thermal regulation (endotherms)

retaining heat: countercurrent heat exchange losing heat: evaporative heat loss

The graph below shows the temperature (y axis) through the time of day (x axis) of the air (blue), a willow plant (orange) and a cushion plant (green). The cushion plant has a low and compact growth form, while the willow plant has a tall, open growth form. These differences allow the cushion plant to increase heat (fill in the blank) in this environment and is an example of (fill in the blank).

retention, adaptation

As the amount of sunlight increases, plants will invest more resources in _______, which will _______ the root:shoot ratio. A.Roots; increase B.Shoots; increase C.Roots; decrease D.Shoots; decrease E.Huh?

roots, increase

As the number of days since watering increases, unwatered plants will invest more resources in _______, which will _______ the root:shoot ratio. A.Roots; increase B.Shoots; increase C.Roots; decrease D.Shoots; decrease E.Huh?

roots; increase

how to estimate (r) using life tables

r≈(ln R0)/(G)

What size of seed does optimal foraging theory predict the birds should eat? Seeds 2 cm in length Seeds 1 cm in length Seeds 4 cm in length Seeds 3 cm in length Any seeds 1-4 cm in length

seeds 4 cm in lenght

resource partitioning

sharing limiting resources by using them in different ways allowing them to coexist

holotype

single individual that best represents that species

Semelparous

single reproductive episode before death

in what direction are air masses moving? A.From north to south B.From south to north C.From east to west D.From west to east E.What?

south to north

linkage mapping

using genetic information to determine the physical arrangement of genes on chromosomes -female Aa Bb Cc -male aa bb cc if these were on 3 different chromosomes we would expect to see about the same # of offspring phenotypes

which one of these time periods has the highest r?

usually big base and narrow top 1980

why does land show more warming than the ocean as a result from increases in the greenhouse gas concentrations?

water has a very high specific heat energy when compared to land so the ocean can absorb a lot more heat before warming to the same extent as the land

what drives productivity in the ocean?

water movement -highest productivity in ocean is where upwelling occurs and coastal regions in general -deep ocean currents tend to have high/higher nutrients -upwelling and coastal zones generally nutrient dense from the runoff of the land

what is the overall pattern in the figure? what does this indicate about the resilience of life on earth?

we start with not a lot of life, then it increases and decreases, and towards the last hundred years we see a massive increase. the type of growth pattern is vaguely looking like an exponential growth curve. -this indicates that even with mass extinctions not everything dies. The remaining organisms or things that lived then take overall the available niches that were left behind -after an extinction we see a quick turn around or increase in diversity because what is able to survive then has no competition.

in what direction are air masses moving? A.From north to south B.From south to north C.From east to west D.From west to east E.What?

west to east

what drives oscillation?

what metabolic processes produce CO2? respiration what metabolic processes consume CO2? photosynthesis how does the relative magnitude of these two processes differ throughout the year and in different habitats? not all cells do photosynthesis but all living things respire. and organisms that photosynthesize do not do it all the time

Mendel's Law of Segregation

when any individual produces gametes, the two copies of a gene separate so that each gamete receives only one copy

% recombination

(# of recombination offspring)/ (total number of offspring) distance between b&a 18+112+102+15/1000= 24.7 mu

doubling time in populations

(ln(2))/(r)=t

exponential growth

(r)= number of births minus the number of deaths per generation time r=0 no change in population size r>0 population increasing r<0 population decreasing

Successful Dispersal

- Travel to a viable habitat - Survive the journey - Establish a viable population upon arrival

Cretaceous period (145-65 mya)

- dinosaurs tyrannosaurs rex, velociraptor, triceratops -didn't overlap with Jurassic dinosaurs

Early paleogene period (65 mya)

-130 new mammal genera. -radiation of flowering plants (angiosperms)

C4 photosynthesis

- first products is C4 carbon molecule -separate CO2 uptake and building sugar in space -mesophyll cells take up CO2 -bundle sheath cells build sugar -more water efficient but spends more ATP -(ex: Grass, corn, good in warm and moist but NOT wet environments)

Origin of Species

-1859: Charles Darwin's book explained how various species evolve over time and only those with advantages can survive and reproduce -Species change through time -Species share a common ancestor and have diverged gradually through time (descent with modification) -Changes in species through time are due to increased survival and reproduction of some individuals over others, based on differences in their traits (natural selection)

desert

-30 degree north & 30 degree south, low precipitation, higher temperatures, but high seasonality -superblooms can occur

declining population approach

-A proactive approach to species conservation that focuses on detecting, diagnosing and preventing population declines in order to keep the population above a minimum viable size.

keystone species

-A species that influences the survival of many other species in an ecosystem -starfish species ate most of the the prey species so that they did not come in competition with one another very much, so when it was removed the top competitors one out and made diversity go down -when the starfish (keystone species) was removed diversity immediately tanked

Butterflies drink nectar through a tongue-like structure called a proboscis (photo below). If the flower is longer than the length of the butterfly's proboscis, it is unable to reach the nectar, consequently, butterflies can only drink nectar from flowers that are the same length or shorter than their proboscis. The graphs show histograms of the proboscis length in millimeters of two species of butterfly, D. plexippus and D. eresimus when the occur allopatrically (graph A) and sympatrically (graph B). A) In sympatry, character displacement is occurring B) In allopatry, the distribution of proboscis lengths in the species almost entirely overlap C) In sympatry, D. plexippus competitively excludes D. eresimus D) In allopatry, resource partitioning is occurring E)In sympatry, the two species feed on the same plant species

-A, B -never have resource partitioning in allopatry because the species are not in the same habitat -cant say it competitively excludes because both species are still present

Ecosytem engineers

-An ecosystem engineer is any animal that creates, significantly modifies, maintains or destroys a ecosystem (ecology)|habitat]]. These organisms can have a large impact on species richness and landscape-level heterogeneity of an area. -beavers overall higher diversity across the whole river ecosystem

human migration

-Homosapiens originated in Africa then to Europe and Asia -across the baring straight land bridge they got to different areas or continents in modern day

Huntington's disease What type of dominance relationship do the Huntington's disease alleles show? A.Simple dominance B.Codominance C.Incomplete Dominance D.Wait, what?

-Huntington's Disease; progressive breakdown of nerve cells in the brain, usually beginning in middle-age simple

greenhouse effect

-Natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases. -global warming, heat energy gets trapped and warms up the environment

End-Permian Mass Extinction (252 mya)

-O2 tanks because the forests and organisms that were producing O2 die -plants die go to the bottom of the ocean and get covered over and the sediment pressure, the pressure of the water, and long time periods compress these into oil and coal deposits. -fossil fuels come from the fossil remains of the organisms that lived during the carboniferous period -also is when we have Pangaea

Leibig's law of the minimum

-law stating that a population increases until the supply of the most limiting resource prevents it from increasing further

The figure below shows the degree of prezygotic isolation between different pairs of Drosophila species. The x-axis indicates the genetic distance between the species, and the y-axis indicates the level of isolation. Which of the statements below is/are supported by the graph (and explanation from lecture)? (select all that apply)

-On average, species that are more genetically different have fewer successful cross-species matings and/or fertilizations -On average, species that are more genetically similar have less prezygotic isolation

algal bloom

-The rapid growth of a population of algae -results from high amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus from runoff -because gases do not dissolve in water easily they result in regions of dangerously low oxygen availability especially on the ocean floor

Mendel's Pea Experiment Hypothesis blending model

-When two strains of peas with contrasting traits are bred, their characteristics are irreversibly blended in succeeding generations -variation between parents is lost and offspring that are intermediate. -pea experiments with F2 seeds being 3/4 round, and 1/4 wrinkled 3:1 ratio challenges the blending hypothesis

the structure of DNA

-a gene is just a section of DNA that codes for some function (like eye color or a function of metabolism) -DNA is inside the nucleus and is a double helix structure -DNA wraps around larger complex proteins which are then organized into larger groups called nucleosomes which are then organized and wrapped to form whole chromosomes

the target increase in genera is seen in the recent past since the end of the cretaceous period. why then is the Cambrian period considered an "explosion" of life?

-a good amount of animals that still exist today got their start during this time. -sets the stage for the animal diversity that we see today. -cambrian period is when predators came around. creating diversity in life.

Dead Zone Gulf of Mexico

-a large zone of hypoxia caused by excessive decomposition of algae -hurricanes can help make the dead zones slightly less severe

hadley cell

-a large-scale atmospheric convection cell in which air rises at the equator and sinks at medium latitudes, typically about 30° north or south. -typically why the tropics are so wet the hot air rises up then rains back down -air masses typically rise and fall are near 30 degrees -center of the hadley cell is warm and wet ecosystems -where the hadley cells fall warm and dry (desserts)

CAM photosynthesis

-about 7% of all plants -separate CO2 uptake and building sugar in time -open somata at night store CO2 as acid in the vacuole -close somata during the day convert acid back to CO2 to build sugar -most water efficient but requires two extra ATP per sugar molecule and slows growth (ex: cactus good in dry ecosystems)

the ocean absorbs heat and CO2

-absorbs a lot of the heat energy that the greenhouse gases caused in the atmosphere -warmer ocean will generate more powerful and frequent storms because the storms get their energy from the heat coming from the now warmer ocean -absorbs CO2 directly so some of those greenhouse gases go directly into the ocean which drives ocean acidification

do plants use evaporative cooling?

-any time somata is open to let CO2 into the leaves your also losing water -if a plant has a lot of somata it looses more water so it is cooler

upwelling zones

-areas along coasts where the ocean current runs into a continent and where the water actually comes up from the bottom to the surface area -usually very high in nutrients becausee as organisms die they decompose at the bottom of the ocean due to gravity -usually very high productivity

Root to shoot ratio

-as above ground resources become more available (sunlight) you can get the quantity you need with LESS above ground tissue -investments in roots increases root:shoot ratio -investments in shoots decreases the roots:shoots ratio

what determines a biome?

-average annual temp and annual precipitation -seasonality and fire

global warming

-because we are trapping more energy in the earths atmosphere we are increasing the temperature in the atmosphere

Mediterranean biome

-california, south america, africa, mediteranean -seasonality in temperature and seasonality in temperature and the wet season is the cold season and the warm season is the dry season -chaparral landscape -seasonality in temperature and precipitation but they are OPPOSITE -fire prone ecosystems

Chemoautotrophs

-can use the harmful metallious chemicals produced from hydrothermal events in a chemical reaction to feed themselves -they use the compounds to generate sugar and energy

sickle cell anemia

-codominance both discrete phenotypes -sickle cell protects against malaria -heterozygote advantage carries of at least one sickle cell were most protective

bleaching events

-coral bleaching does not mean coral death but it does mean imminent death if it does not improve -results from ocean acidification which happens from increases in CO2 absorption -coral cover: drops to about 10%, after a couple years start to cover -coral recruitment: almost 0 after a bleaching event then recovers again -good news recovery CAN occur BUT it takes about 10-12 years which is a long time -not about how severe an individual bleaching event is but about how much time in between bleaching events giving the coral to recover or not

allele

-different versions of a gene -different alleles produce different versions of the same trait

Jurassic period (201-145 mya)

-dinosaurs stegosaurus and stenopterygius

temperate deciduous forest

-eastern united states, europe, some parts if china -seasonality in both precipitation and temperature. -enough precipitation to support forests -change in chlorophyl throughout the years drive the color changing leaves

Meoisis

-ends with 4 cells containing 1 chromosome in each 1. single chromosome becomes a duplicated pair 2. recombination occurs where some variants on genes of one chromosome get transferred to the other 3. all get lined up -law of independent assortment lies in meiosis I of gamete formation, when homologous pairs line up in random orientations at the middle of the cell as they prepare to separate. -law of segregation: The behavior of homologous chromosomes during meiosis can account for the segregation of the alleles at each genetic locus to different gametes. -only passes on one copy of each chromosome to the final daughter cells. -human sperm and egg cells only have one copy of each one they only have 23 chromosomes

Carboniferous Period (359-304 mya)

-enormous forests, mass plant diversity -invasion of land by plants and tetrapods increasing the o2. o2 is highest that earth experiences in its history. -giant flying insects -too much O2 is combustible which can lead to explosions and fires

boreal forest

-europe, russia, north america -colder temperatures but similar seasonality in temp and precipitation -important role in the carbon cycle -at the same latitude in the southern hemisphere there is ocean so no boreal forest could exist

arctic tundra

-exclusion of greenland, high latitudes, everything north of boreal forest -high latitude, seasonality in temperature and extremely low precipitation -permafrost: *frozen soil limits where plants can be accessed and where animals can burrow *it keeps organisms from operating (respiration) in certain parts melting of permafrost: 1. increased instability (mud landslides etc) 2. increase in greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere (respiration increases) 3. increased CO2 in the atmosphere= increased warming

Oligocene Epoch (34-23 mya)

-first C4 photosynthesizers -cooler, drier conditions lead to expansion of grasslands -drives the evolution of large herbivores that can eat the grasses

triassic period (252-201 mya)

-first dinosaurs (243 and 235 mya) -triassic mammals (small and rodent like)

small population approach

-focuses on the small populations with reduced diversity -minimum viable population -effective population size

Silurian Period (443-417 mya)

-follows the Ordovician extinction -formation of land plants origin of terrestrial fungi, origin of terrestrial arthropods (insects and spiders) -the formation of the land plants did not have roots so without roots, land plants rely on mycorrhizal fungi or diffusion for nutrient uptake

recombination

-genes at different loci on the same chromosome can recombine and separate by crossing over -genes on the same chromosome can be separated via recombination -happens multiple times on the same chromosome -2 different chromosome copies swapping stretches of DNA

climate change: ocean acidification

-genotypes are best suited to the environments are different -the fact that we loose so much diversity means that the genotype that does best in the highest CO2 level is no longer present in our current CO2 level population

what process drives the overall increase in CO2 levels?

-greenhouse gas emissions -oscillation still occurring even if we were not releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. -climate change and use of fossil fuels

what does COVID mean for climate change? Climate policy?

-in order for us to have a reduction in GHGs to limit global warming to 1.5 celcius we need to maintain the 8% emissions decrease

Cambrian explosion (542-488 mya)

-in this time period, immense diversification of animal life in terms of species and niches -first predation occurs in this time period -adaptions for predation and adaptions for defense -mass explosion of life

what happens to the ocean when there is more CO2 in the atmosphere?

-increases in carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and free hydrogen ions which we use to measure acidity so this is what is directly driving acidification of the ocean. -because their are increases in the carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and hydrogen ions the amount of free carbon ions in the water used to build shells and skeletons is decreased -leads to an decrease in the ph of the ocean

End-Cretaceous extinction (65 mya)

-iridium in geologic area which indicates asteroid -occurred probably somewhere in the gulf of Mexico region

temperate grassland

-kansas -seasonality in temperature and precipitation BUT lower levels of precipitation than we saw in forests -medium precipitation enough to be above a desert but not enough to be above a forest

types of islands

-land separated by water -lakes, separated by land -mountains separated by valleys -forests separated by open land any fragmented or isolated ecosystems could function like an island

pool= particular area in the ecosystem where carbon can exist (boxed values arrow=flux=process by which carbon moves from one pool to another burning: moves carbon from the landscape into the atmosphere photosynthesis: moves carbon from the atmosphere into plant bodies ocean: carbon is dissolved out into the atmosphere or carbon is moved from the atmosphere into the ocean making it more acidic harming marine life

-largest pool: rock comments and fossil fuels (but inactive), largest thats active is ocean water -largest flux: photosynthesis

For the climatographs shown below, which of the following statements is/are true? Select all that apply gray line is temperature black bars are precipitation

-location C is in the southern hemisphere (cool months are June and July highest at January and December are warm so this is southern hemisphere ) -location B is in the northern hemisphere -location A is a mediterranean climate -seasonality in the colder months is NOT a grassland pattern -Location B is a temperate deciduous forest in the northern hemisphere -Location C is actually southern hemisphere temperate deciduous forest

Which of the following are long-term consequences of genetic drift in small populations? (select all that apply)

-loss of diversity -increased homozygosity -increased susceptibility to environmental stressors like disease

effects of fragmentation

-more species (diversity) in the connected habitat and that continued to increase as the study went on -birds were dispersing 20 more species of plants to the connected habitat

C3 photosynthesis

-most common pathway (85% of all plants) -most energy efficient -all mesophyll cells take up CO2 and build sugar -two problems: 1. water loss when CO2 comes in 2. photorespiration: inefficient, slow picking up O2 (ex: tree, fern, moss, in a wetter environment where water inefficiency is not as big of a concern)

plants and mycorrhizae

-most plants have a relationship with mycorrhizae -allows for a plant to access more because of the relationship it has. (see picture) -ectomycorrhizae: outside, fungal forms a mantal or sheath on the outside of the root arbuscular mycorrhizae: fungus penetrates the cortical cells of the roots of a vascular plant forming arbuscules, penetrate root cells and share nutrients between the fungal body and plant body (grasses)

Charles Lyell and Gradualism

-new species arise from the result of slight modifications (mutations and resulting phenotypic changes) over many generations. -change is slow and gradual often not even visible on human time scales (ex: grand canyon and erosion the process took years)

genetic diversity (wollemi pine)

-no genetic variation, had no polymorphism

gene expression

-not every gene is turned on in every cell -genes aren't doing anything they are the instructions which are then translated into proteins -central dogma: information in genes is transcribed (DNA-> RNA) and then translated (RNA--> proteins)

rainshadow effect

-occurs when air masses move over mountain ranges -winward= wet -leeward=dry

transfer RNA

-one side matches up with the RNA sequence and one side that holds an amino acid -bind to messenger RNA and add an amino acid

ideal types

-organisms tended toward some ideal form -perfect version of object or organism and any deviation was seen as imperfect holotypes paratypes

gene flow to wild populations

-pollen transferred from agricultural population to wild population

top down effect

-prey upon other organisms in the ecosystem -ex: otters depleting and sea urchin population going up and then sea urchins prey on kelp. the kelp was decreased greatly when the sea otters were removed or depleted.

Cycle of CO2 (keeling curve)

-production staying about constant -in beginning part of the year production of CO2 is more dominant than photosynthesis -later in the year the consumption of CO2 seems to be a larger magnitude process than respiration and CO2 globally goes down May-September -May-September is when photosynthesis is using up more CO2 than what respiration is producing (northern hemisphere growing system)

rubisco

-protein that picks up CO2 from the atmosphere and turns it into sugars -made up of lots of nitrogen -1/3 of a plants nitrogen goes into making the protein rubisco

legumes and rhizobium

-rhizobium bacteria infect the roots of legumes (beans, peas) to form nitrogen fixing nodules on the plant roots -N2 is not easy for plants to covert into a form they can use so the bacteria can. -plant receives N2 from the bacteria and the bacteria receives sugars from the plant and protection -mutualism relationship -CO2 is the only resource that a plant obtains from air, all the other nutrients are absorbed through the soil by the roots

boreal forest and atmospheric CO2

-southern hemisphere more constantly increasing where northern hemisphere is much more seasonal up and down pattern throughout the year -drives the up and down pattern throughout the year but overall increase is from greenhouse gas emissions from anthropogenic activities

hydrothermal vents

-spots on the ocean floor where hot gases and minerals escape from earth's interior into the water -thought to be where first organisms occurred on earth -only ecosystem that does not get its energy from the sun

Transcription

-synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template -occurs in the cell nucleus

Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 mya-11.7 kya)

-tar pits in which organisms are preserved very well -closing living relative is the chimpanzee

bottom up effects

-the abundance of higher trophic levels depends on factors such as nutrients and prey availability from lower trophic levels -ex: algae density killing the fish in the water.

linkage

-the closer genes are the less likely it is to separate out the inheritance -looking at 2 diff alleles that are really far apart any crossover will separate out the combinations

the anthropocene

-the modern geological era during which humans have dramatically affected the environment 1. hunting and fishing 2. antibiotic resistance 3. herbicide and pesticide resistance 4.

island equilibrium model

-the number of species present on an island at equilibrium will be the balance between immigration to the island nearby land masses and extinction of organisms on the island -assumes competition is occurring -as we accumulate species on the x-axis the rate of immigration will decrease because those species are likely already represented -as immigration increases extinction increases because there is more competition

Why are wetlands important?

-they filter pollutants out of the water -reduce sediment load -provide habitat for wide variety of species -protect inland areas from storm surges and major tides and floods -they are declining

how could the fossil record provide evidence for gradualism?

-through transitional fossils or transitional species. -when gradual change occurs we can find fossils that represent those changes at each step and build a time pattern of how that change occurred

How do urban environments differ from natural environments? how might these differences affect natural selection in urban organisms?

-urban are usually warmer temperature -canopy cover higher in non-urban -impervious surfaces larger or more common in urban environments

why are wetlands in decline?

-urban expansion -agricultural expansion

foundation species

-very numerous in the ecosystem and form the habitat in which organisms in the ecosystem use -ex: corals, trees

Devonian Period (419-359 mya)

-when tetrapods first colonized land -transitional fossils in the shift from fish to terrestrial groups (amphibians, reptiles, mammals)

density dependent controls

-would the impact of the factor be different if there was less individuals in the population -factors affecting population size that DO depend on the number of organisms in the population. (ex: disease/pathogens, predators, resources such as space)

parapatry speciation

-zinc mine example -occurs when new species evolve in contiguous, yet spatially segregated habitats. Unlike allopatric speciation, the populations that are diverging during parapatric speciation maintain a zone of contact and do not cease the exchange of genes completely.

If an organism with the genotype CcDd produces gametes, and these two genes assort independently, what proportion of their gametes will have the cD genotype?

.25

A population of otters in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium has two alleles for whisker length. Long whiskers (allele L) are incomplete dominant to short whiskers (allele l). In this population, the frequency of heterozygotes is 0.48, and long-whiskered otters are more common than short-whiskered otters. What is the frequency of the L allele?

.6

Assuming this population of budgies is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, what is the frequency of the BB genotype? A.0.96 B.0.64 C.0.48 D.0.5 E.I'm pretty sure we don't have enough information here to answer that.

.64

primary vs secondary succession

1 - development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life (lava). starts with ground and there is no soil 2 - life progresses where soil remains (clear cut forest, fire)

1. How does the biological species concept define a species? (1-2 sentences) 2. Describe a species or group of organisms to which the biological species concept cannot be easily applied. (1 short sentence) 3. Why does the biological species concept not work for this group? (1-2 sentences)

1. 1) a species is defined as a group of individuals who can (potentially) successfully interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring, 2) the group must also be reproductively isolated from other groups. 2. sexual organisms (e.g. bacteria, some fungi), fossil organisms, ring species, species that are allopatric and are not easy to bring into contact with each other, two species with a large hybrid zone, etc.). 3. strong answer focused on the lack of data on (potential) interbreeding or reproductive isolation between the taxa of interest.

binomial nomenclature system

1. Biological names are in Latin and are written in italics. 2. The first word in the name indicates the genus, while the second word denotes its specific epithet. 3. When the name is handwritten, both the words are separately underlined. When printed, the name is in italics. 4. The first letter of the first word is always written in capital, while the first letter of the specific epithet, i.e. the second word, is a small letter.

Endangered species: 1. State level: California species of special concern (125 birds, 45 herps, 62 fish, 36 mammals) 2. Federal level: endangered species act of 1973 (2,000) 3. international level: CITIES (35,500), IUCN red list (20,000)

1. California native and endemic species that are of special concern that are declining or we need to keep our eye on 2. us native and endemic organisms 3. (CITIES) convention on international trade of endangered species. (ICUN)

Which of the follow is/are a mechanism by which species in danger of extinction can be identified and/or protected? Select all that apply

1. Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) 2. California Species of Special Concern 3. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List 4. United States Endangered Species Act

Central Dogma

1. DNA is opened up and a small segment of it is copied to a different molecule RNA (now instead of thymine there is uracil) 2. RNA transcript is then read and turned into proteins (translation), the instructions in the DNA become instructions for adding particular amino acids to build a protein

traits of domesticated species

1. Drooping ears 2. Short, rolled tails 3. Forehead marks 4. Wavy hair 5. Altered reproductive cycles

habitat loss and alteration

1. deforestation 2. desertification (expansion of the ex: Sahara dessert)

Patterns of Natural Selection

1. directional selection 2. stabilizing selection 3. disruptive selection 4. frequency dependent selection

At LOW elevation, are Abiesmore likely to be found near Pinus? At HIGH elevation, are Abiesmore likely to be found near Pinus?

1. No 2. Yes high elevation overall more positive interactions to have a neighbor near you when compared to low elevations. high elevations tend to be more difficult to live in when we start to see more positive interactions because it is more likely both individuals will be benefitted from interacting. its easier for species in low elevation to grow and thrive so they dont need the partner as much.

extinctions: causes and impacts

1. Ordovician (444 mya): global warming, anoxia (loss of o2 in the water most organisms were marine), sea level rise 2. Devonian (359 mya): asteroid, reduced speciation 3. Permian (252 mya): volcanoes, glaciation, sea level drop 4. Triassic (201 mya): really rapid greenhouse effect fro the volcanic release of methane 5. Cretaceous (65 mya): asteroid impact in Yucatan 6. Holocene (present): humans anthropogenic affects on the earth

translation

1. RNA strands leave the nucleus and attach to the ribosome which happens in the cytoplasm outside of the nucleus 2. the individual sequence of RNA helps with specific binding of different other molecules that carry amino acids and help build a chain 3. a chain of amino acids builds the larger protein

conditions for natural selection

1. Reproduction: Individuals reproduce to create the next generation 2. Variation: Individuals vary in their traits 3. Inheritance: Individuals pass on some of their traits to their offspring 4. Differential success: Individuals with different traits differ in their survival or reproductive success (fitness)

The map below shows average temperature in 2010-2019 compared to historical averages in 1951-1978, with positive values indicating warmer recent conditions and negative values indicating cooler recent conditions. Which of the statements below is supported by the figure?

1. The Northern Hemisphere has experienced more warming than the Southern Hemisphere 2. The Arctic has experienced the most severe warming 3. Landmasses have generally experienced more warming than the ocean

Which of the following are potential explanations for how altruistic behaviors might evolve by natural selection? (select all that apply)

1. The behavior might selectively help an individual's relatives, increasing inclusive fitness 2. The behavior might selectively help an individual's relatives, increasing inclusive fitness

Which of the following puts the events in the history of life in the correct order?

1. The evolution of C3 photosynthesis; the Cambrian explosion; Carboniferous coal formation; the Oligocene epoch (Expansion of grasslands produced C4 photosynthesis) 2. precambrian era, tiktaalik, permian extinction, pleistocene megafaunal extinction (prior to the holestene or the era currently today)

A new mutation arises in a population. Which of the following is a possible fate of this mutation?

1. Through gene flow, the mutated allele may be transferred to other populations 2. Whether it is beneficial or not, the mutation may become fixed in the population because of genetic drift, especially if the population is small 3. The mutation may be removed from the population if the mutation reduces life expectancy and/or reproductive output 4. If the mutation is beneficial, it may increase in the population due to natural selection

1. what is the genotype of IV-6? 2. is the trait dominant or recessive for females? 3. If person IV-1 has children with a non-colorblind, non-carrier female, what are the chances that their male offspring will be colorblind?

1. X^Bx^b 2. recessive 3. 0%

what determines how many trophic levels an ecosystem can support?

1. available energy (primary productivity) 2. efficiency of energy transfer across trophic levels energy efficiency usually more impactful because it is operating at every trophic step. where as the primary productivity only impacts the starting value

Refer to the figure of atmospheric oxygen levels throughout Earth's history. 1. Note that the first photosynthetic organisms appear almost 1.5 billion years after the first life. If the first organisms on Earth did not perform photosynthesis, how did they obtain sugar for respiration? 2. note that the first aerobic (requiring oxygen) bacteria appear almost 2 billion years after the first life. if the first organisms on earth were not aerobic how did the perform respiration? A) Anaerobic respiration or fermentation B) Chemosynthesis C) Aerobic respiration D) Predation on other bacterial species E) Herbivory

1. chemosynthesis 2. Anaerobic respiration or fermentation

1. competition 2. amensalism 3. predation/parasitism 4. commensalism/facilitation 5. mutualism

1. competition: everybody loses, when individuals require the same shared limiting resource 2. amensalism: a relationship between organisms of two different species in which one is unaffected and the other is negatively impacted by the association 3. predation/paratism: one species benefits and the other is harmed or affected 4. commensalism: an association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor harm. 5. mutualism: A relationship between two organisms in which both benefit from the association

Energy flow and efficiency

1. consumption efficiency: is the proportion of available biomass that is ingested by consumers 2. Assimilation efficiency: is the proportion of the ingested biomass that consumers assimilate by digestion 3. production efficiency: is the proportion of assimilated biomass used to produce new consumer biomass 4. biomass not ingested or assimilated enters the pool of detritus

is this trait dominant or recessive? which females are heterozygous?

1. dominant -x-linked trait -look at the female daughter she gets one X from mom and one X from dad and she has the trait meaning she is heterozygous so the trait must be dominant 2. 1, 4, 8, 10 mom must be heterozygous because one of the sons does not have the trait

secondary pollution because of COVID

1. drop in Nox emissions from transportation 2. increases ozone and NO3 radical formation 3. which increases oxidizing capacity of atmosphere 4. which forms secondary particulate matter

categories of species

1. endemic: those found in one region and nowhere else 2. native: from that area but also might be from other places 3. introduced: not native and been transported out of the their native areas by humans. 4. invasive: they cause some sort of negative impact on the native ecosystem that is there

Importance of Angiosperms

1. evapotransportation: drives precipitation patterns, water coming up through the plants and leaves through the leaves. as the angiosperms radiate the alter the hydrologic cycle 2. increase our o2 percentage 3. primary productivity and carbon cycle (photosynthesis) 4. alter the nitrogen cycle (rhizobia bacteria relationship) 5. create basically a new niche. provide nectar and fruit. (angiosperms are the only fruit producing organisms) (nuts are fruits)

how do scientists reconstruct the possible migratory routes of early humans?

1. fossil evidence of humans (first skull found in Morocco) 2. remains of human activities (tools, necklaces) or human settlements 3. genetics (mitochondrial DNA inherited entirely from your mother doesn't relate as much to morphological traits so can use a maternal lineage to reconstruct the migration)

extreme cases of drift

1. founder effect: a new population is created with few individuals from the initial population 2. genetic bottlenecks: when population size is severely reduced due to environmental impacts

examples of prezygotic barriers

1. habitat isolation: species occupy different habitats and never come into contact (fish in shallow/deep) 2. temporal isolation: breed during different times (coral) 3. behavioral isolation: individuals do not recognize each other as potential mates (anything signaling between male/female (firefly signaling)) 4. mechanical isolation: physical differences between the organisms that prevent successful mating (pollen on different parts of a pollinator bee) 5. gametic isolation: sperm not able to fertilize egg (sea urchin only sperm that are genetically compatible can successfully fertilize the eggs. prevents other species from mating because sperm is not compatible)

Threats to biodiversity include

1. habitat loss and alteration 2. climate change 3. over exploitation 4. invasive species 5. pollution

Which of the following precipitation patterns are caused by the rain-shadow effect (check all that apply)? -Low precipitation at the poles -High precipitation at the thermal equator -Low precipitation at 30 N and 30 S latitudes -Low precipitation at the geographic equator -High precipitation on the windward side of a mountain range -Low precipitation on the leeward side of a mountain range

1. high precipitation on windward side of a mountain range 2. low precipitation on the leeward side of a mountain range

why do organisms have vestigial structures? vestigial structure: A structure or trait that is rudimentary, atrophied, or no longer 'serves a purpose'

1. if you inherit the trait from a common ancestor it will take time for that trait to atrophy or be lost but there is a needed selective pressure. 2. may not be vestigial we may just not know the purpose

Constraints on Natural Selection

1. law of physics (no insanely large insects) 2. evolutionary history (rays) 3. tradeoffs (coming more adapted in one way makes you worse off in another way) 4. lack of variation in the population

consequences of drift

1. loss of overall diversity (fixed or lost alleles) 2. increases in homozygosity of the more common allele 3. increases in deleterious recessive conditions 4. increases susceptibility to future stressors

Which of the following precipitation patterns are caused by the hadley cell (check all that apply)? -Low precipitation at the poles (neither of them) -High precipitation at the thermal equator -Low precipitation at 30 N and 30 S latitudes -Low precipitation at the geographic equator -High precipitation on the windward side of a mountain range -Low precipitation on the leeward side of a mountain range (inaccurate, has generally high precipitation due to the hadley cell)

1. low precipitation at 30N and 30 S latitudes 2. high precipitation at the thermal equator

value of biodiversity

1. market products 2. ecotourism 3. ecosystem services 4. science 5. intrinsic value (child has value even tho they dont really provide anything)

which of the phenotypes should be most common? which phenotypes should be least common?

1. most common phenotypes are the ones that are the same as the parents, it is a clue they are linked 2. least common are the ones that require two crossovers 18 Abc 15 aBC so S id the one in the middle

major geophysical events and major biological events

1. plate tectonics and continental drift 2. climate change (driven by continental movement, orbital cycles, changing greenhouse gases) 3. changing sea level 4. changes in earths magnetic field 5. asteroid impacts 1. origin of life 2. evolution of photosynthesis 3. evolution of eukaryotes and multicellularity 4. Cambrian explosion 5.colonizing land 6. mass extinction 7. major radiations (angiosperms) 8. evolution and migration of humans

Controlling invasive species

1. prevention: rigorous oversight of incoming organisms 2. public education and support: online reporting and identification tools 3. physical or chemical removal: pesticides, herbicides, hunting 4. biocontrol: introduce predators or pathogens

how do we define aquatic biomes

1. salt content 2. in fresh water systems how deep and how fast the water is moving 3. salt water system pelagic zone, pressure, temp, open ocean or ocean floor

How much time passed between the evolution of C3 photosynthesis and the evolution of C4 photosynthesis?

2 billion years

For the following questions, consider Point C in the map of the Earth's orbit at right. 1. What month is it? Your answer should be one word. 2. Where is the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) located during this time of year? Explain your answer in 1 sentence. 3. Is this a solstice or an equinox? Define in 1 sentence the term you choose.

1. september 2. The (ITCZ) is located near or above the equator because the axis is not tipped towards or away meaning the ITCZ would likely be right on or near the equator. 3. This is an equinox because the axis is neither tipped toward or away

rates of speciation

1. sexual selection and dimorphism: in a species of birds when the males and females look more dissimilar there was more sexual selection and mate choice happening. in genera that had more dimorphism (males and females look different) between male and female birds had higher species richness. the extra level of mate choice gives leeway for a new adaptation has the potential for rapid reproductive isolation. if there is also female preferences for this new trait. 2. specialist vs generalist pollination: if a mutation occurs in which changes the flower shape that may lead to a new pollinator that can only pollinate that one flower type and not others than that species can quickly be reproductively isolated 3. dispersal ability: birds that were less efficient long distance flyers (shorter stubbier wings) had greater species diversity. lower dispersal then even a small environmental change can be a vicariant event that separates populations leading to reproductive isolation at the level of habitat and geography. increased dispersal means that individuals can move greater distances, so populations can be well-mixed across greater areas (more gene flow), and only very large-scale vicariance events could actually fully separate a population into two. 4. specialist vs generalist diets: higher species diversity in the plant eating groups. plant eating groups tend to be more specialized because plants are not that nutritious and they often produce certain toxic chemicals so organisms that eat the plants have often developed specialized ways to process the toxic aspect making them more specialized prezygotic: because if you specialize on a plant you spend most of your tome on it postzygotic: because if you specialize for a plant and then reproduce your hybrid offspring might not be well adapted to eat either of the two parent food plants 5. terrestrial vs aquatic: land animals have higher species diversity than aquatic 6. plant life history: animal pollinated plants tend to have higher rates of speciation, higher speciation for herbs and shrubs

diversity index

1. species richness: total # of species in the habitat 2. species evenness: relative abundance of each species - A numerical measure of species diversity that is derived from both the number of species (variety) and their proportional abundance.- D=(p1^-p1).

The number of trophic levels in an ecosystem is limited by two factors. What are they?

1. starting available energy (primary productivity) 2. efficiency of energy transfer across trophic levels (efficiency usually more impactful)

1. facultative 2. obligate 3. conditional 4. symbiotic

1. the species does not require the interaction in order to survive/reproduce 2. the species DOES require the interaction in order to survive/reproduce 3. the positive or negative impact of the relationship changes depending on the environmental conditions under which the interaction occurs 4. the interaction involves a very close association between the two species, often with one species living on or in the other

what life history characteristic would make an organism more likely to become invasive?

1. tolerant to a wide range of conditions (especially disturbance) 2. fast growing 3. high dispersal ability 4. high reproductive output: continuous breeding, early maturity, high number of offspring 5. asexual production (do not even need two individuals to reproduce) 6. no obligate mutualism's (not needed required partners in order to survive and produce) 7. defense against predators/herbivores 8. for plants: having few or no special germination requirements 9. for animals: many/diverse food sources

Below is a table for the size of a population of yeast cells in a flask. What is r for this population across this time window? Hint: recall that the exponential growth equation is Nt = N0ert

193.7=(4.7)e^(r)(5) r=.74

How many of the organisms on the slide were intentionally introduced in North America in order to control other invasive species or solve other environmental problems?

4-7

Rank the populations from LOWEST r to HIGHEST r A.5, 1, 4, 3, 2 B.2, 4, 1, 3, 5 C.2, 3, 4, 1, 5 D.5, 3, 1, 4, 2 E.1, 2, 3, 4, 5

5,3,1,4,2

In moths, fuzzy antennae (allele F) is dominant over smooth antennae (allele f). If a heterozygous moth mates with a smooth-antennae moth, what percentage of the offspring would you expect to have fuzzy antennae? A.0% B.25% C.50% D.75% E.100%

50%

How long does it take for speciation to occur? A) Any of the the other options, depending on the biology of the species, the strength of selection acting on the population, and the mechanism of speciation B) Decades C) Millions of years D) A single generation E) Thousands of generations

A

The figure below shows the location of 6 genes. Alleles for which of the gene pairs below are MOST likely to be inherited together? A.Gene 1 & Gene 2 B.Gene 3 & Gene 4 C.Gene 5 & Gene 6 D.Gene 1 & Gene 3

A

What are the allele frequencies in this population (W, w)? A.13/18, 5/18 B.7/9, 2/9 C.14/18, 4/18 D.15/18, 7/18 E.How is this different from genotype frequencies?!?

A

Lotka-Volterra Model

A continuous-time model that calculates the influence of each of two populations (predator and prey, or competitors) on the abundance of the other used exponential growth equation in their process

What is coral bleaching? What conditions cause it? Can corals recover or is bleaching a 'death sentence'?

A coral is 'bleached' if it has lost its mutualist partner, zooxanthellae. The zooxanthellae provide the color of the coral body, so their loss makes the coral white, which is the origin of the term 'bleached'. Conditions that cause bleaching include warming temperatures, ocean acidification, and certain chemicals used in sunscreens (among other causes). A bleached coral is not yet dead -it can recruit new zooxanthellae if the stressor that caused the bleaching ends and if the coral are given time to recover before a new stressor occurs. Unfortunately, some stressors (like temperature increases) are not temporary, and individual bleaching events are occurring more and more rapidly, rarely giving coral reefs time to fully recover between events.

intrasexual selection

A direct competition among individuals of one sex (usually the males in vertebrates) for mates of the opposite sex.

extinction vortex

A downward population spiral in which inbreeding and genetic drift combine to cause a small population to shrink and, unless the spiral is reversed, become extinct.

Define and give an example of the following terms: keystone species, foundation species, ecosystem engineer. a. Are humans a keystone species? b. Are humans a foundation species?c. Are humans an ecosystem engineer?

A keystone species is a species that is relative rare in the ecosystem (small population size) but very impactful on the ecosystem, especially in terms of increasing the overall species diversity of the ecosystem. A foundation species is very abundant in the ecosystem, and contributes to the structure of the ecosystem by serving as the physical habitat for other species. An ecosystem engineer physically alters the habitat in ways that affect the abiotic components of the ecosystem, and consequently, which species can exist in the ecosystem. Generally, ecosystem engineers increase diversity across a landscape through habitat diversification (creating patches of area they have influenced within a large landscape of unaltered habitat). a.No. Keystone species are rare and their presence increases diversity of the ecosystem. Humans do neither of those. b.Not really. Humans are common, though our bodies do not form the physical structure of the habitat (like coral reefs and tropical rainforest trees do). You could make an argument that our cities form habitats, but I think a stronger case can be made for cities making us ecosystem engineers. c.Yes. We certainly alter habitat a lot, and urban-to-rural landscapes do have varieties of species that prefer human-influence dare as to non-human-influenced.

Superfund Act

A law passed by the U.S. Congress in 1980 that held companies responsible for any hazardous chemicals that they might create.

World Heritage Site

A place of great natural or cultural value that has been placed on UNESCO's World Heritage List

point mutation (substitution)

A point mutation is when a single base pair is altered.

According to the lineage species concept, what is a species?

A population of organisms that share a unique genetic/evolutionary history

climax community

A stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in species over time

What is the difference between a top-down trophic cascade and a bottom-up trophic cascade? Give an example of each.

A top-down trophic cascade is one in which the initial change in the system occurs near the top of the trophic levels and the impacts of the change cascade down to lower trophic levels. The example in lecture was the orca à sea otter à urchin à kelp example. A bottom-up trophic cascade is one in which the initial change in the system occurs at the bottom of the trophic levels and the impacts of the change cascade up to higher trophic levels. The example in lecture was the nutrients for aquatic plants, which led to algal blooms and fish death.

Epistasis

A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited. when multiple genes interact to determine the phenotype ex:An example of epistasis is pigmentation in mice. The wild-type coat color, agouti (AA), is dominant to solid-colored fur (aa). However, a separate gene (C) is necessary for pigment production.

Which of these statements is NOT true?

A) a single species can be a keystone species and a foundation species B) a single species can be a keystone species an ecosystem engineer C) a single species can be a foundation species and ecosystem engineer D) all of the above are true

A) survivorship curve type 1 B) survivorship curve type 2 C) survivorship curve type 3

A) low death rates during early and middle life and an increase in death rates among older age groups B)a constant death rate over the organism's life span C)high death rates for the young and lower death rates for survivors

How would you calculate each of the following genotype frequencies? •Heterozygous, Allele 2 and Allele 3 •Homozygous for Allele 5 •Heterozygous, Allele 7 and Allele 10 A.2qr; t2; 2vy B.qr2; 2t; vy2 C.2q2r2; 2t2; 2v2y2 D.(p+q)2; (t+t)2; (v+y)2 E.This just looks terrifying

A. 2qr; t2; 2v

All of the species in Lake Malawi are more closely related to each other. What does that tell you about these phenotypic patterns? A.Convergent evolution is leading to analogous traits in these two lakes B.Share ancestry is leading to homologous traits across organisms in both lakes C.J. ornatusand M. auratus are an example of sympatric speciation D.There may be many different niches that these fish can occupy, in each lake E.Fish, fish, lots of fish

A.Convergent evolution is leading to analogous traits in these two lakes AND D. There may be many different niches that these fish can occupy, in each lake

Based on these data, for which species is the pale-causing mutation a recessive allele, and for which is it dominant? A.Dominant in S. undulatus, recessive in A. inornata B.Recessive in S. undulatus, dominant in A. inornata C.Incomplete dominance in both D.I'm not sure how to tell

A.Dominant in S. undulatus, recessive in A. inornata because recessive can reach maximum fixation meaning more white sand individuals in the white sand habitat additionally in the dark habitat white individuals can not be 100% removed because with a dominant trait there is still some recessive left over because of the dominant traits can also be heterozygotes

what biome is represented by each climatograph?

A: grassland mild seasonality, mild precipitation, ranging temperatures. -June & July cool months AND Jan & Dec warm means southern hemisphere -B: tropical rainforest, rainforest near enough to rainforest cant determine which hemisphere they are in so we say EQUITORIAL too near to the equator to determine which hemisphere they are in C: dessert, northern hemisphere D: high precipitation, not high seasonality in precipitation, but lots of seasonality in temperature Deciduous forest in northern hemisphere E: dessert in the southern hemisphere F: Mediterranean warm season is in June and July is in northern hemisphere

ocean acidification

Absorption of CO2 is what drives ocean acidification which as a number of negative impacts on organisms, such as reduction in carbonate ions that organisms use to build shells and skeletons, coral bleaching, altered sensory perception of the environment, etc. Absorption of heat energy is also warming the ocean, which could cause physiological stress for organisms that are now outside their optimum temperature range. Warming also increases sea levels, which could negatively impact tidal organisms (as tides will overall now be higher). - when CO2 is relatively low in the atmosphere, most of the carbon in the ocean is in the free carbon ions which are taken out of the water column by the ocean organisms and used to build their skeletons and shells

acclimation vs adaptation

Acclimation -reversible changes in organisms phenotype (morphology, physiology) -allows organisms to respond to its environment to improve performance Adaptation -long term genetic response of population that improves performance

Which of the following would be considered a vicariant event? (check all that apply) Sea level drops, exposing a bridge of land between two continents Sea ice that connects two landmasses melts, leaving open ocean between them A mountain range forms as two tectonic plates collide Sea level rises, splitting a large island into two small islands

All are correct

pioneer species

First species to populate an area during primary succession A lichen species that produces many spores, disperses long distances, and requires little soil

For each of the organisms listed below, describe at what stage(s) of its life cycle it would disperse and describe the necessary conditions for successful dispersal (for example, does it require the assistance of another organism?) and the types of physical boundaries that would limit or prevent dispersal. a. A basidiomycete fungus (a mushroom) b. A poriferan (a marine sponge) c. A freshwater fish d. A land snail e. A bison f.An iguana

All successful dispersal requires the organism to be 'picked up' by whatever mechanism disperses it (which could be its own muscle power), travel some distance, and then be able to survive in the area where it lands. a.Fungi generally disperse on the wind as spores; they will be limited by the direction the wind blows and any processes that influence air movement b.Sessile marine organisms generally disperse as zygotes or larvae on the water column; they will be limited by the direction of ocean currents, and by needing to land in a location that has the appropriate abiotic conditions (especially in terms of depth, and appropriate ground substrate) c.Technically, mobile animals can disperse at any life stage, though many of them do it at juvenile stages. Most freshwater fish cannot cross land or oceans (exceptions include mudskippers and salmonids), so are usually limited to the watershed in which they were born. d.One might think that snails would be poor dispersers because they are slow movers, but as we saw in lecture, they may be dispersed in the gut of migratory birds very long distances. They colonized Hawai'i unassisted by humans, so they are not limited by as many physical barriers as one might expect. e.Dispersal in herd organisms can vary depending on age and sex. In bison, females stay with a family unit and males disperse once they are sexually mature (~3 years). They are limited by major physical barriers like mountain ranges or the ocean. f.Like most mobile animals, iguanas generally disperse as juveniles. They are limited in distance by their own stamina and by major physical barriers like mountain ranges, etc. Interestingly, many lizards have colonized islands by 'rafting' on mats of plant material that float on ocean currents. Unlike snails, they didn't quite make it to Hawai'i this way (all herps in Hawai'i are introduced, except for sea turtles), but they have made it to many other distant islands this way (such as the Caribbean and Galapagos).

At the start of the silver fox domestication experiment, all the foxes were categorized as Class 3 (Aggressive). How then could natural selection operate on this population?

Although all foxes were aggressive, there was still variation in how aggressive (e.g. attacking vs intimidating)

intertropical convergence zone

An area of Earth that receives the most intense sunlight; where the ascending branches of the two Hadley cells converge. (mass of clouds on the images) -wherever the band of clouds is shown is the thermal equator -if the ITCZ is north of the equator its summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern hemisphere

what is evolutionary radiation? what makes an evolutionary radiation an adaptive radiation? describe an example of an adaptive radiation?

An evolutionary radiation is a rapid series of speciation events in a short period of time. When this speciation involves the species each evolving to be adapted to different niches, this is an adaptive radiation. One example is the Hawaiian honeycreepers. An ancestral finch population speciated into many species that specialized on different food sources in different habitats on the islands.

Heterotroph

An organism that cannot make its own food and gets food by consuming other living things.

Autotroph

An organism that makes its own food

In class, Laci referred to the Ogallala Aquifer as 'fossil water.' How are aquifers similar to other 'fossil' resources like oil and coal?

Aquifers are similar to fossil fuels in that they come out of the ground, and are very slow to replenish (so, essentially non-renewable). Aquifers are different though in that they did not form from fossil organisms (as coal and oil did).

Why might natural selection favor a predator that is LESS efficient, or a disease/pathogen that is LESS virulent? Hint: think about the Lotka-Volterra simulation I showed in class and what happened to the expected oscillations when we changed the values for the terms in the equations.

As we saw in the orange mite experiment, if a predator is too efficient then it drives its prey extinct and then also dies out itself. The same is true for a pathogen -if it kills its host before the host can transmit it to another individual, then the pathogen dies out too. Consequently, there is some natural selection for reduced virulence or efficiency, because if you are too efficient, you use up your resources (hosts) too quickly and then also die.

This figure shows all the geologic time periods from 4.6 billion years ago (bottom right) to today (top left). which letter marks the time period from which our first know fossils originate?

B

Which of the following would be least likely to be considered a symbiotic interaction? A) Many tropical tree species have other plants (like orchids and bromeliads) living on their branches. These plants, called epiphytes, are physically held up by the tree and obtain their water and nutrients from the air and/or decaying piles of debris (leaves, etc) that collect on the tree branches B) When Trifolium and Medicago plants are grown from seed together in a pot, the mean weight of each surviving plant increases through time as the plants grow; however, the density of plants decreases as some individuals die. C) Many temperate trees have mistletoe living on their branches. The mistletoe seed sprouts at the base of a branch and the roots of the mistletoe break through the bark of the tree and tap into its supply of water and nutrients from the soil and, in some cases, sugar from photosynthesis. D)The yucca moth is the sole pollinator of the yucca flower. The female yucca moth lays eggs in the base of the flower and the developing moth larvae eat the developing yucca seeds and fruit. E) Rhizobium bacteria infect the roots of legumes (beans and peas) and provide the plant with nitrogen in return for sugar from photosynthesis.

B

where on the earths orbit does the month of june occur?

B

The figures below show loss of birds in North America since 1970. Panel A shows total loss (y axis) of all bird species through time (x axis) for all of North America (inset map). Panel B shows bird loss (y axis) through time (x axis) broken down by habitat (different color lines, colors labeled in Panel C). Panel C shows the average percent change in population sizes (x axis) of birds from different habitats (y axis) and the proportion of species declining in each habitat type (pie graphs). Which of the statements below is/are supported by the figure (select all that apply).

B) While wetland bird populations are increasing on average, nearly half of wetland bird species are showing declines C) Total bird loss in North American since 1970 totals nearly 3 billion birds D)Grassland species are most significantly impacted in terms of both overall loss and proportion of species experiencing decline

Successful predation relies on three factors that predators (and herbivores) attempt to increase and which prey species (and plants) attempt to decrease: detection, capture, and consumption. Which of the traits listed below relate to capture? Select all that apply A) Enhanced eyesight in hawks B) Enhanced speed in cheetahs C) The leaf-tailed gecko's similarity in appearance to tree bark D) Schooling in fish E) The armor of an armadillo F) High levels of undigestible compounds in leaves

B) enhanced speed in cheetahs, C) the leaf-tailed geckos similarity in appearance to tree park, D) schooling in fish

According to the phylogenetic tree provided, which of the following groups are monophyletic? Select all that apply A) Australopithecus B) Paranthropus C) Homo D) Ardipithecus

B,C,D

The graphs at right show computer simulations of the effects of genetic drift in populations of different sizes. Each red line is an individual simulated population and the blue line is the 'average' across all simulations of that population size. Which of the statements below correctly describes the fate of the A1 allele in these populations? A.The A1 allele is more beneficial in smaller populations B.In larger populations, drift has a smaller impact on frequency of the A1 allele C.Drift results in higher genetic diversity in smaller populations D.Drift causes reduced genetic diversity in both small and large populations, and higher diversity in medium-sized populations E.I haven't had enough caffeine yet for this

B.In larger populations, drift has a smaller impact on frequency of the A1 allele

Between bats and birds, which trait is homologous and which is analogous? A.Wings = homologous, 4 limbs = analogous B.Wings = analogous, 4 limbs = homologous C.Both homologous D.Both analogous E.I'm not sure

B.Wings = analogous, 4 limbs = homologous

In class, we discussed temporal patterns in four greenhouses gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Of these greenhouse gases, only CFCs are no longer increasing in the atmosphere, having plateaued in the 1990s. Why do CFCs follow a different temporal pattern than the other greenhouse gases?

Because an international agreement, the Montreal Protocol, limited CFC emissions and no such agreements have been developed for the other greenhouse gases

Describe how biocontrol is supposed to work. Why is this often not the way it works? Describe an example of unsuccessful biocontrol and successful biocontrol.

Biocontrol is supposed to manage invasive species by introducing a predator or pathogen of the invasive species which will reduce the population size of the invasive species below whatever level causes negative environmental or economic consequences. This method requires intentionally introducing an additional species to manage the first introduced species, which can be risky if the biocontrol species also becomes invasive. That has happened lots of times (examples in class include feral cats, rosy wolf snail, etc). With sufficient research and a close enough association between the species, however, biocontrol can work (example in class was the glassy winged sharpshooter).

how are the founder effect and population bottleneck similar/different? which one would you predict to have more serious negative impact on the species as a whole?

Both are a reduction in the gene pool of the population under consideration through reduction in population size. The major difference is that for a founder event, the larger original population still exists and can maintain genetic diversity (and possibly contribute it to the founder population through migration). In a bottleneck event, the small population is all that remains and whatever genetic diversity is (or is not) present there is all the species as a whole as left. Consequently, the bottleneck is more likely to have severe negative consequences for the species.

Which map shows the location of grasslands?

C= grasslands A= tropical rain forest B= deserts (sahara) D= temperate deciduous forest

Ecosystem A has ecological efficiency of 10% and primary production of 300 gC/m2/day. Ecosystem B has ecological efficiency of 1% and primary production of 3,000 gC/m2/day. What will be the difference in the energy available to the tertiary consumers in these ecosystems? A.29.7 gC/m2/day B.2.7 gC/m2/day C.0.297 gC/m2/day D.0.27 gC/m2/day E.Wait, what?

C

Given the following genotype frequencies, which of these populations is NOT in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? A. AA = 0.01, Aa= 0.18, aa= 0.81 B. AA = 0.25, Aa= 0.50, aa= 0.25 C. AA = 0.36, Aa= 0.60, aa= 0.04 D. AA = 0.09, Aa= 0.42, aa= 0.49 E. I have no idea where to even start on this

C

What are the genotype frequencies in this population? (WW, Ww, ww) A.3/9, 3/9, 3/9 B.7/9, 2/9 C.6/9, 1/9, 2/9 D.7/9, 7/9, 2/9 E.Mumble mumble homozygous...

C

Which climatograph represents a Mediterranean climate?

C

From the traits described below, which species is neither r-selected, nor K-selected, nor both, but instead falls in the middle of the continuum between the two extremes? Select all that apply A) A species that lives for 800+ years and is unable to breed for the first 50 years of life B) A species that lays thousands of eggs, then migrates to other habitats before the eggs hatch C) A species with a Type II survivorship curve D) An extremely long-lived species that provides minimal care for its numerous offspring

C) a species with a type II survivorship curve

The figure below shows the global human population from the year 1760 to the year 2100 (the dark blue shaded curve is actual population size, the light blue shaded curve is projections into the future). The solid red line represents the annual growth rate of the global human population through the same time period. A) The projected future growth rate is positive, meaning the human population will continue to increase through 2100 B)Human population size has stabilized and is projected to remain at about the current level into the future C)The projected future growth rate at 2100 is lower than any in recorded human history, meaning the human population has surpassed the carrying capacity of Earth D) The annual growth rate peaked about 1960, meaning the human population is declining slowly

C)The projected future growth rate at 2100 is lower than any in recorded human history, meaning the human population has surpassed the carrying capacity of Earth

You crosspollinate a pea plant with white flowers and pea plant with purple flowers. All offspring are purple. When you allow the F1 generation to reproduce, the offspring will be: A.All purple B.50% purple, 50% white C.75% purple, 25% white D.75% white, 25% purple E.Flowers will have a mix of purple and white petals

C.75% purple, 25% white

Below is a life table for a population of scrub jays in Davis. Which of the statements below is supported by the life table data? A.This population has a Type III survivorship curve B.The generation time is ~6.5 years C.The average number of offspring per individual is ~2.2 D.The population is declining

C.The average number of offspring per individual is ~2.2

Rank the three photosynthetic pathways from LEAST water efficiency to MOST water efficient A.C3; C4; CAM B.CAM; C4; C3 C.C3; CAM; C4 D.C4; C3; CAM E.There's a lot of Cs.

C3, C4, CAM

Compare and contrast the California Species of Special Concern, Endangered Species List, CITES-listed species, the IUCN Red List, and World Heritage Sites.

CA SSC = State level, focused on organisms in Cali, lists only exist for herps, birds, mammals, and fish; ESA = federal level, focused on organisms in United states, includes all taxonomic groups, managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service; CITES = international, focused on preventing international trade of vulnerable organisms (no other protections); IUCN Red List = international, functions similarly to the ESA, includes more 'categories' such as vulnerable, etc (ESA has only threatened and endangered); World Heritage = international (managed by UNESCO), focus is on sites not species and can include culturally-important sites (ex: Taj Mahal) not just nature/wilderness sites.

why do we see an increase in O2 following the invasion of land? what was the terrestrial landscape like at this time?

Carboniferous phase (sican forests developing?) when first forests are spreading and producing a lot producing a lot of O2. also reach highest CO2 levels.

Which of the following scenarios would match with Cuvier's perspective on how patterns of life on earth were created? What about Gradualism? A) Climatic temperature and rainfall patterns slowly change in a desert habitat as the earth cools at the start of an ice age. B) All of these scenarios provide support for Cuvier's perspective C)Fossil vertebrates found in rocks of slightly different ages are similar, but with small differences in the length of the bones in their hands. D)A volcanic eruption removes all plant and animal life from an island E)There are no dinosaur fossils occurring in geologic layers younger than 65 million years old, despite a broad diversity of dinosaur fossils found in nearby, older geologic layers

Catastrophism: D and E Gradualism: A and C

Which of these species pairs listed below existed closer together in time? A. Tyrannosaurus rex and Stegosaurus B. Tiktaalik and humans C. First living organisms and first photosynthetic bacteria D. Velociraptors and humans

D

Which of the following are examples of prezygotic reproductive barriers? (select all that apply) A) Two different oak tree species interbreed frequently, and produce hybrid offspring that grow poorly and have particularly high mortality B) Two different seal species interbreed frequently, and produce viable, fertile offspring C)Two different fungus species interbreed occasionally, but their hybrid offspring are incapable of reproducing D)Two different hummingbird species in an area breed during different seasons E)Two different beetle species inhabit different tree species in the same forest

D and E

How many genetically unique gametes (sperm or egg) can single human produce? A.No more than 23 B.No more than 46 C.About 1,058 D.More than 8,388,608

D.More than 8,388,608 23 different chromosomes and we have two copies of each chromosome so imagine if one gene that was different between the two chromosomes. that is 2 possibilities for the first chromosome and two possibilities for the second chromosome. so if one gene was variable that is 2^23

diversity index calculation

D= (.25^-.25)(.125^-.125)(.188^-.188)(.063^-.063)(.375^-.375)= 4.302 Pi= 4/16 or total number of one type of species over total number of individuals

DNA (coding) sense strand, anti-sense (non-coding), and mRNA

DNA (coding) sense strand: ATG TCA CAT TTT DNA (non-coding) anti-sense strand: TAC AGT GTA AAA mRNA matching the sense (coding) strand of DNA: AUG UCA CAU UUU tRNA carries amino acids corresponding to the mRNA codon: MET SER HIS PHE

What are dead zones and why do they commonly form at the mouth of large rivers?

Dead zones occur when high nutrient inputs produce an algal bloom that then dies and decays, which depletes the oxygen in lower water levels to the point that many organisms suffocate. They are commonly found at the mouths of large rivers because watersheds concentrate terrestrial runoff into rivers, which produces a large input of nutrients in a small area of the ocean. The Mississippi River produces a dead zone each year in the Gulf of Mexico due to its enormous watershed (3.2 million square kilometers; 40% of the continental US) and the prevalence of agricultural land and municipal waste within the watershed.

avoiding or succeeding predation (predator)

Detection: owl fantastic hearing and sight, extra types of sensory organs capture: pack hunting in wolves helps with capture, and snapping turtle uses worm like tongue to lure in food consumption: anaconda being able to eat things greater than their own body size,

avoiding or succeeding predation (prey)

Detection: relates to camouflage capture: school of fish, palm tree very tall consumption: armor plates make it hard for them to be actually eaten

Zooxanthellae

Dinoflagellates that live within the tissues of reef corals and other marine animals and have a mutualistic relationship

Which of the following is NOT required in order for natural selection to occur in a population? A) There is variation in phenotypes of individuals in the population B) All of these are required for natural selection to occur C)Offspring inherit traits from their parents D)Individuals with some phenotypes produce more offspring than individuals with other phenotypes E)Individuals in the population compete with one another for mates

E

Which of these species names is written correctly?A.Wonderpus photogenicus B.amorphophallus titanum C.Eriovixia Gryffindori D.Smilodon Fatalis E.Lapsias lorax

E.Lapsias lorax

Describe how the following terms relate to one another: consumption efficiency, assimilation efficiency, production efficiency, and ecological efficiency.

Each of the efficiency terms focus on a particular 'step' of the process of energy movement between trophic levels. Consumption efficiency relates to how much of the biomass available at the lower trophic level is consumed by the higher trophic level. Assimilation efficiency focuses on how much of the biomass that is consumed is digested (and not excreted). Production efficiency focuses on how much of the biomass that is digested is converted into biomass at the higher trophic level (and not burned for metabolic processes like respiration). All of these together represent ecological efficiency, which is the amount of total biomass at the higher trophic level compared to the lower.

principle of allocation

Each organism has a limited amount of energy that can be spent on obtaining food, escaping from predators, coping with environmental fluctuations (maintaining homeostasis), growth, and reproduction

You may have heard it argued that being a vegetarian is more energy efficient than eating meat. Use your knowledge of energy transfer across trophic levels to describe whether you accept or reject this argument.

Eating at a lower trophic level is more energy efficient from an ecosystem level perspective (though your assimilation efficiency may be reduced due to the cellulose issue described in Q3 above). You can think of it in two ways, either through the efficiency steps, or in terms of the energy pyramids. For example, you have to feed a cow a lot of corn in order for it to produce meat. Each of those efficiency steps (especially assimilation and production) lead to there being less meat mass on the cow than there was corn mass fed to it. If you just ate the corn mass directly, you bypass those inefficiencies. Second, in terms of the energy pyramids, moving to a lower trophic level increases the amount of energy available to you at the trophic level you consume because lower trophic levels always contain more energy than higher levels.

Ectotherms vs. Endotherms

Ectotherms: body temp controlled primarily by external conditions Endotherms: body temp controlled primarily by metabolic energy

Describe how the diversification of angiosperms in the Paleogene influenced the terrestrial environment and the diversification of other taxonomic groups.

Effects on biogeochemical cycles through increased transpiration influencing rainfall patterns, increased photosynthesis affecting atmospheric O2 and CO2 levels, species interactions with Rhizobia influencing N cycling. Also, angiosperms create two new niches for animals: nectar feeders, and fruit-eaters. As angiosperms radiate, animals that rely on nectar, fruit, or even plant tissues themselves (like the insect groups shown in the slides) also radiate.

in class, Laci stated that diagrams of energy across trophic levels must always have a pyramid shape (most energy in the producers, decreasing at each level up to the top predators), but that diagrams of biomass or numbers of individuals in each trophic level can be a variety of shapes. Describe why energy diagrams must be a pyramid, and describe examples of ecosystems that may have biomass or number of individuals that are not pyramid-shaped.

Energy diagrams must always take the shape of a pyramid (each higher level smaller than the level below it) because the primary producers (bottom of the pyramid) are the only step at which energy enters the system (through photosynthesis). At all other trophic levels, energy is lost through respiration and other forms of inefficiency, and no other energy can enter the system, producing a pyramid shape.

evolution vs. development

Evolution: Changes in the frequencies of a trait in a population over generations Development: Changes within an individual during a lifetime

Humans intentionally exert selection on organisms through breeding (ex. crops and pets). Give an example of how humans unintentionally and/or indirectly drive selection in organisms?

Examples from the lecture include selection on smaller body size and horn length due to hunting/fishing, antibiotic/herbicide/pesticide resistance, traits that increase success in urban environments (limb size and lamellae number in lizards, changes in birdsong), etc.

the ogallala aquifer

For the past 60 years, the Ogallala has been pumped out faster than raindrops and snowmelt can seep back into the ground to replenish it, thanks largely to irrigation machinery like the one sleeping nearby. As a result, in parts of western Kansas, the aquifer has declined by more than 60 percent during that period.

Define fundamental niche, realized niche, and carrying capacity. a.Draw a hypothetical fundamental niche for a species and use this diagram to depict how species interactions could shrink or expand the fundamental niche to produce the realized niche. b.Draw a hypothetical logistic growth curve for a species and use this diagram to depict how species interactions could increase or decrease the carrying capacity

Fundamental niche: abiotic conditions in which a species can survive and reproduce (determined by physiological tolerance) Realized niche: the biotic interactions that determine where a species can survive and reproduce(determined by species interactions) Carrying capacity:the maximum number of organisms of a given species that a habitat can support(determined by resource availability) b) Examples from lecture: parasites or pathogens (such as aphids in the photo) might reduce carrying capacity if individuals must be sufficiently spread out in the environment to not infect one another; mutualistic relationships (such as mycorrhizae in the photo) may increase the carrying capacity through increased efficiency of resources use, or access to additional resources.

fundamental niche vs realized niche

Fundamental= all possible niches with no limiting factors (where a species could exist) Realized= With competitor present...actual niche (where they actually are, competition, founder effect, etc)

G

G: generation time; average age of parents across all offspring produced G=∑((x)(lx)(mx))/∑((lx)(mx))

What are the characteristics of typical early successional species and late successional species?

Generally speaking, we expect pioneer species to be r-selected and climax community species to be primarily K-selected (especially if we are focusing on the plant community). This is not to say that no climax community species will be r-selected, just that we expect the majority of early pioneer species to be r-selected and most of the K-selected species to represent the climax community

Two populations of birds with somewhat different coloration live on opposite sides of a peninsula. The habitat between the populations is not suitable for the birds. When birds from the two populations are brought together in captivity, they produce young whose appearance is intermediate between the two parents. These offspring will breed with each other, or with the birds from either parent population, and produce viable offspring. What keeps these two populations from reproducing in nature?

Habitat isolation

describe the consequences of genetic drift why are small populations more affected by drift than smaller populations?

Genetic drift causes an overall reduction in genetic diversity (through loss/fixation of alleles), increases in inbreeding, increases in homozygosity, increases in deleterious recessive conditions, increased susceptibility to future stressors like disease or climate change. Small populations are more affected because there are fewer 'chances' for rare alleles to get passed on. Imagine an allele that is very rare in a population, say freq of 0.001. In a population of 500 individuals, only one will carry this allele -if that individual does not reproduce by chance (not for selective reasons) or if they DO reproduce, but do not use a gamete that carries that allele, it will not be passed onto the next generation. In a larger population, say 500,000, many individuals will carry that allele (even if it is still freq of 0.001) and so it is less likely that none of them will pass it on to the next generation. This gets into the probability math of inheritance and the randomness/likelihood components are often what confuse students.

Aristotle's Scala Naturae,~350 BCE

God Angels Demons Heavens Humans Animals Plants Minerals

The diagram of the hydrologic cycle states that groundwater plays a small role in the global water cycle because it is 'locked in' to rock and soil layers. How is groundwater important for humans? How does the disconnect of groundwater from the global water cycle impact our future?

Groundwater is important for agricultural irrigation, especially in the Midwest United States, where 20% of our industries of corn, wheat, cotton, and beef all rely on the Ogallala Aquifer. The fact that groundwater is 'disconnected' from the rest of the water cycle, however, means that it recharges extremely slowly, much more slowly than we withdraw water. Consequently, this source of water is increasingly difficult and expensive to access and may no longer even be accessible at any cost by 2150.

logistic growth

Growth pattern in which a population's growth rate slows or stops following a period of exponential growth

Which reproductive barrier is most likely to prevent interbreeding between a polyploid species and its diploid sister species?

Hybrid infertility: differences in chromosome numbers will result in infertile hybrids

we listed five conditions that a population must meet in order to be in HWE. How might violation of one assumption lead to or be affected by violations of other assumptions? for example how might natural selection affect the fate of a new mutation in a population?

If the allele is beneficial, natural selection might cause it to increase in the population, while if the mutation is deleterious, natural selection might cause it to decrease. Regardless of its beneficial/deleterious status, genetic drift might cause the mutation to be lost in the next generation. It could be transmitted to other populations via migration. If the mutation affects the individual's reproductive biology, it may affect randomness of mating (by making the carrier more or less attractive to mates, capable of mating, etc)

Describe the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH). Make sure to describe what limits species diversity at both high/intense disturbance and low/mild disturbance.

Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis predicts that species diversity in an ecosystem will be highest at intermediate levels of disturbance. Under low frequency or severity of disturbance, competition will be high and competitive exclusion will limit diversity. Under high frequency or severity of disturbance mortality will be high and only organisms that can quickly colonize after disturbance will be present. Under intermediate levels of disturbance,IDH predicts these two processes 'balance out' with enough time for a variety of species to colonize the area after disturbance, but not so much time that competitive exclusion begins to reduce diversity. Note that IDH is a hypothesis, and while some data/systems appear to support it, others show different patterns between species diversity and disturbance.

What is the difference between an introduced organism and an invasive organism? Which is more likely to become invasive, an r-selected species or a K-selected species? Why?

Introduced organisms have been transported outside their native range but are not necessarily harmful. Invasive species are introduced and are having negative impacts on local habitats or species. An r-selected species is more likely to become invasive given their lower resource demands and high reproductive output.

What time of year is shown in this photo? A. June B. September C. December D. March E. ????

JUNE

Microevolution vs. Macroevolution

Microevolution happens on a small scale (within a single population, allele changes) Macroevolution happens on a scale that transcends the boundaries of a single species. Despite their differences, evolution at both of these levels relies on the same, established mechanisms of evolutionary change: mutation.

what is the main difference between meiosis and mitosis?

Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells, whereas meiosis results in four sex cells.

Which of the following factors are associated with higher rates of speciation? (select all that apply) A) More specialization of diet B) Being a vertebrate living in a terrestrial environment C) Flower pollination by wind D) The ability to efficiently travel long distances E) A mating system with elaborate courtship and highly selective mating decisions

More specialization of diet AND Being a vertebrate living in a terrestrial environment AND A mating system with elaborate courtship and highly selective mating decisions

The island equilibrium model predicts that an island near to other land masses will be able to support ______ species than an island that is far from other land masses because the rate of _________ will be higher due to ___________.

More; immigration; easier dispersal

Interoparous

Multiple reproductive events. Typically in predictable/stable environments. Few, large offspring. Better parents

how do we estimate N0? Mark recapture

N= total population size M = the number caught, marked, and released (1stsampling) C= number caught in 2ndsampling R = the number of marked individuals recaptured in 2ndsampling R/C= M/N N =MC/R

1. what happens to a rare dominant beneficial mutation? 2. what happens to a recessive beneficial allele?

NATURAL SELECTION ACTS ON PHENOTYPES: when the beneficial allele is recessive, all alleles in heterozygotes are masked by the dominant allele 1. when the beneficial allele is dominant it is likely to increase more quickly in the population because homozygotes for the dominant allele AND heterozygotes show the allele. but do NOT FIX for a while because of that recessive allele in the heterozygotes 2. For a recessive beneficial allele, heterozygotes will not have increased fitness

gene flow and genetic drift are referred to as "non-adaptive evolution". what does this phrase mean? what type of evolution is/are adaptive?

Non-adaptive means it is genetic change that does not (necessarily) benefit the species' ability to survive and/or reproduce. The only type of evolution that is adaptive is natural selection because this is the only one that selects geno/pheno that are beneficial in the environment. All other changes are completely or partially random and may negatively impact the population. For example, in small populations, genetic drift can be so powerful as to increase the frequency of deleterious alleles even when natural selection is working to decrease them.

The map below shows the average temperature in 2010-2019 compared to historical averages in 1951-1978, with positive values indicating warmer recent conditions and negative values indicating cooler recent conditions. Which of the statements below is NOT supported by the figure?

Nowhere on Earth has experienced cooling

factors that influence population growth

Nt= N0+ B -D + I -E B = the number of births D = the number of deaths I = the number of immigrants E = the number of emigrants N = population size t = time (year, generation)

polygenic inheritance

One trait is controlled by many genes -ex: height, skin color, eye color, hair color

disruptive (diversifying) selection

Phenotypes at both extremes have higher fitness than the mean. Variation is increased, bimodal pattern emerges.

directional selection

Phenotypes at one extreme have the highest fitness. Mean trends toward that extreme

Stabilizing selection

Phenotypes nearest the mean have the highest fitness. The mean stays the same, variation is reduced

Polyploidy

Polyploidy refers to the situation where an organism has more than 2 copies of each chromosome. This can occur when diploid gametes are produced due to mistakes during meiosis. If a polyploid offspring is produced, they may be immediately reproductively isolated from their parent population, because matings between organisms with different ploidy (different number of copies of each chromosome) typically lead to sterile hybrid offspring. In this case, speciation can occur in a single generation due to this instant reproductive isolation.

reciprocal density dependence

Predictable changes in predation, survival, etc produce predictable oscillations in predator and prey population sizes both species depend on the size of the other one

Describe the differences between primary and secondary succession and give an example of the type of disturbance that would lead to each pattern of succession.

Primary succession is succession that begins on bare ground with no soil profile. Examples from lecture include: glacier retreat, dune accretion, lava flows. Secondary succession is succession that has a developed soil foundation (even if everything above ground has been destroyed, though in some cases, some above-ground organisms can survive). Examples from lecture include: fire, land use change (like abandoned agricultural land)

Ro

R0: the net reproductive rate; the mean number of offspring produced per individual across their lifetime R0= ∑(lx)(mx)

frequency-dependent selection

Rarer phenotype has the highest fitness. Frequency of a given phenotype oscillates.

The pedigree below shows inheritance of a particular trait across three generations. Males are shown as squares, females as circles. Shaded shapes indicate the person DOES have the trait, white shapes indicate the person DOES NOT have the trait. This trait is ________, and the genotype of person 10 is ______.

Recessive; homozygous recessive

You are an environmental consultant hired by a town adjacent to a small lake in the Sierras. The figure below describes what you know about the food web of the lake. The town is economically depressed, and residents have proposed two ideas for stimulating the local economy (1) introduce northern Pike (a fish that only eats other fish) into the system to attract sport fishers (and their money) to the area and (2) harvest filter-feeding bivalves from the lake for food (they are quite a delicacy and fetch a hefty price). The town wants you to predict for them the consequences of each proposal for the health of their lake, long renowned for its clear waters.

Removing filter feeders will reduce the herbivory on algae and likely cause an increase in algal growth, reducing water clarity. Introducing Northern Pike will cause a trophic cascade of increased predation pressure on planktivorous fish, reducing their population and causing decreased predation pressure on zooplankton, increasing their population and decreasing herbivory pressure on algae, maintaining or even increasing the water clarity. If all you consider is water clarity, then the Northern Pike might be the best option. You should, however, strongly caution the town about the dangers of introduced species and possible unintended consequences of the presence of Northern Pike beyond water clarity.

intersexual selection

Selection whereby individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from individuals of the other sex; also called mate choice.

Compare and contrast the two approaches to conservation that we discussed in class.

Small Population Approach: focused on populations that are small enough to be close to the extinction vortex, considers factors like minimum viable population (how small can the pop be and still be sustainable) and effective population size (number of reproductive individuals and number of unique genotypes in the pop). Declining Population Approach: focused on populations that are experiencing severe decline even if they are not yet so small that the extinction vortex is a concern, considers factors like environmental drivers of decline and resolving problems that are causing decline

character displacement

Species competing for the same limiting resource diverge in morphology due to natural selection

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

Species diversity is highest at intermediate levels of disturbance because competition reduces diversity at low levels of disturbance and death or mortality reduces diversity at high levels of disturbance

quantifying selection

Strength of Selection: How different is the fitness between individuals with different traits? X Heritability: How much of the variance in the trait is determined by genes?How similar are offspring to parents? = Response to Selection: How different are subsequent generations from previous generations?

One of the hypotheses explaining sexual cannibalism in redback spiders was that males increase their own fecundity when they offer themselves to be eaten by the female. The figure below shows the proportion of female eggs fertilized by a male (y-axis) with respect to the duration of copulation (x-axis). Does the figure support or reject the hypothesis that males offer themselves to be eaten to increase their own fecundity?

Support. Longer copulation times lead to higher proportions of offspring fathered

Survivorship (lx) in a life table?

Survivorship (lx): The proportion of individuals surviving from birth to age class x (Nxof age class x)/(Nx of age class 0)

after how many generations would you predict there will be no heterozygotes in the population?

Technically, the prediction will never be 0 because you are decreasing by half every generation. At some point, however, you reach a point where the expected NUMBER of heterozygotes is less than one individual and at that point loss of heterozygotes is imminent. When this occurs depends on the size of the population (can practice plugging population sizes into the frequencies from Part A to see how many indivs would be predicted at those frequencies)

Why is terrestrial net primary productivity higher in the tropics, but marine net primary productivity is higher in coastal areas?

Terrestrial net primary productivity is driven primarily by temperature (and influenced by precipitation when it is extreme). So, the tropics have high productivity because they are hot and wet. Marine net primary productivity is driven by nutrient availability, not temperature or precipitation. Coastal areas have the highest nutrients due to runoff of fertilizer and waste products from land, and because continents drive upwelling of deep ocean currents (which contain lots of nutrients) to the surface.

The number of trophic levels an ecosystem can support is driven by... (select all that apply)

The amount of energy available (primary productivity) AND The efficiency of energy transfer across trophic levels

biological species concept

The biological species concept defines species as groups of interbreeding (or potentially interbreeding) populations that are reproductively isolated from other groups. This is useful for defining species when organisms are sexually reproducing. It is simple to understand, and it connects clearly to reproductive isolation, which is the central driver of speciation. However, it does not apply to asexual organisms, it is not useful for two populations where there is no data about their potential to interbreed, and there can be confusing cases where there is some interbreeding even though populations remain phenotypically and genetically distinct. ex: horse+donkey=mule (infertile)

Using a specific example of an interspecific interaction from lecture, describe how the same two species can interact to produce a range of outcomes, from positive (facilitative, mutualistic, etc) to negative (competitive, parasitic, etc). What components of the physical or biotic environment determine whether the interaction is positive or negative?

The clearest example of this is the plant/mycorrhizae relationship. Under low soil nutrient conditions, both the mycorrhizae and the plant benefit: the plant is able to access soil nutrients through the fungal hyphae network(not just its own roots) and the mycorrhizae gets sugar from the plant's photosynthesis. Under high soil nutrient conditions, the mycorrhizae still benefits(though possibly less strongly) since a non-photosynthetic organism will pretty much always benefit from getting sugar from a photosynthetic organism. The plant however, may be negatively impacted if soil nutrient levels are high enough that the plant could access all the nutrients it needs through its own root network and does not need the fungal hyphae network. There may even be a small region of moderate soil nutrient availability when this relationship is commensal (the mycorrhizae benefit and the plant is not strongly impacted either way.

What is the competitive exclusion principle? How can organisms avoid the outcome predicted by the competitive exclusion principle?

The competitive exclusion principle states that two species that require the same limiting nutrient cannot coexist; one species will be better able to access or use that resource and will eventually drive the other to extinction in the shared habitat. Organisms can avoid this outcome by limiting competition between themselves and other species through 1) resource partitioning: in which the limiting resources is partitioned and one species accesses only one component of the resources and the other access a different component. Classic examples include physically separating in the habitat (lizard and bird examples in lecture)or using different 'categories' within the resource(the bat example of types and size of insects). Or through 2) character displacement, which is a form of resource partitioning that is coupled with a morphological adaptation for accessing a component of the resource. Classic examples include alterations of beak shape and size to adapt to specific food sources in finches and honeycreepers

The Cambrian Explosion occurred approximately 542 million years ago. During the Cambrian, what 'exploded'?

The diversity of species of Earth, including many major animal phyla that exist today

What is the extinction vortex? What happens to a population that is in the vortex?

The extinction vortex is a process by which the negative ramifications of small population size contribute to continued reductions in population size, creating a positive reinforcement situation in which extinction of the species is inevitable. A population in the extinction vortex will go extinct, the question is only how long it will take to do so.

allopatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.

Describe the island equilibrium model. How does distance from other land masses and size of the island affect the number of species an island can support? a. Sketch a graph that illustrates the model b. How does human activity affect the island equilibrium model? c. Do only islands follow this equilibrium model?

The island equilibrium model predicts the relative number of species an island can support given the balance between immigration of new species dispersing to the island and the extinction of species on the island due to competition. The size of an island influences the number of species it can support by affecting competition for shared resources; small islands with higher competition will have higher extinction rates than large islands. The distance of the island to other landmasses influences the number of species it can support by affecting immigration to the island; islands near to other land masses will be easier to disperse to and have higher immigration rates. a.Diagram shown here à b.Humans make landmasses relatively nearer to each other through our own movement (ships, planes, etc), so we make dispersal relatively easier and increase the rate of immigration. We affect island 'size' in different ways. First, we take up a lot of space with cities and agricultural land (effectively reducing island size); however, for species adapted to human-dominated landscapes, we may increase resource availability (effectively increasing island size). c.No. Any fragmented or patchy habitat could follow the island equilibrium model.

lineage species concept

The lineage species concept defines a species as a group of organisms that shares a common ancestor and can be distinguished from other organisms by particular traits. It directly includes evolutionary context, so species defined this way should accurately reflect the underlying evolutionary history and relationships between species. This concept can apply to any type of organisms. However, it requires the use of genetic data, which can be labor intensive and expensive to gather.

Which species concept would scientists be most likely to use for organisms from the Ediacaran Period (635-541 million years ago)?

The morphological species concept -much simpler and less diverse organisms than the Cambrian explosion -hard to use the biological species concept because we don't know which organisms were interbreeding with which. we have no behavioral data. -lineage species concept would be difficult to use because we don't have any DNA for any of the species. can really only use our tools to get DNA from neanderthals

morphological species concept

The morphological species concept defines species as groups of organisms that have similar physical traits(similar phenotypes). This is useful in cases where there is limited data, such as in the fossil record. However, similarity can also be due to convergent evolution (analogous traits), so this species concept may lead to conclusions that do not accurately reflect the genetics and evolutionary history of a group of populations.

Ecology

The study of how living things interact with each other and their environment

why does specialization lead to faster speciation rates than for groups who are generalists?

There are several ways in which specialization leads to faster rates of speciation, and they generally rely on the fact that specialists may become reproductively isolated more quickly. With specialized pollination, a novel genotype that attracts a different pollinator can lead to immediate reproductive isolation from the parent population. Specialized diets can lead to both prezygotic isolation (individuals feeding on different foods may not encounter each other for mating) and postzygotic isolation (hybrids may be poorly adapted to feed on the foods of either parent).

stop codons are

UAA, UAG, UGA

How would the intermediate disturbance hypothesis predict species diversity to change throughout the course of succession?

We can think of the x axis on a graph of IDH as showing one of two things: 1) severity or frequency of disturbance (as described above) or 2) time since disturbance, which then represents a successional timeline. The same processes described above apply through time: immediately after a successional event, we would expect low diversity because few organisms have had time to colonize or establish themselves in the area. After a very long time(in the climax community), we would expect competition to be high. So, IDH predicts that the highest diversity will be in the middle of the full successional timeline between the succession event and the climax community.

Weather vs. Climate

Weather is what conditions of the atmosphere are over a short period of time -current conditions -individuals events (storm, flood) climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over relatively long periods of time. -mean annual precipitation -mean annual temperature -mean storm frequency tracks

Assuming DNA is replicated correctly (so there are no mutations), in which of the scenarios below would the gametes produced all be genetically identical?

When the parent is homozygous for every gene

The figure below shows population size oscillations for a fictional predator and its prey. Which of the statements below best describes what is happening in the time period marked by the gray box?

When the prey population is small, predator abundance declines

Explain why positive interactions are more likely or common under "stressful" conditions. Draw a graph depicting how the strength of positive interactions changes along some environmental stress gradient (predation pressure, physical stress, etc).

While it seems counter-intuitive, positive relationships can be more common under stressful conditions because each partner is more likely to benefit from the relationship. Under non-stressful conditions, individuals can obtain the nutrients they need and perform life functions like reproduction without 'help'from other species, but when conditions are stressful or more difficult, they are more likely to benefit from cooperation. Example graph from lecture: plants and mycorrhizae across different soil nutrient levels

altruism

a behavior that reduces individual fitness and increases the fitness of other individuals

Wallace's Line

a faunal boundary line drawn in 1859 by the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace that separates the ecozones of Asia and Wallacea, a transitional zone between Asia and Australia.

which of the following organisms would be most likely to become invasive if introduced to a new habitat? A) An animal that feeds on only one species of plant B) A fungus that produces millions of spores that disperse on the wind C) An animal that reaches sexual maturity at 20 years of age D) plant that is pollinated by a single species of insect E)A plant that requires a long period of cold weather in order to germinate

a fungus that produces millions of spores that disperse in the wind

Great Green Wall Initiative

a partnership of 11 countries in Africa formed to prevent further desertification of the South Sahara by planting millions of trees along the desert's border to prevent existing soil from eroding further

complete dominance

a single dominant allele produces one dominant phenotype. the homozygous dominant and heterozygous dominant genotypes have the same phenotypes

Pleiotropy

a single gene can affect more than one trait -several different kinds of phenotypes when 1 gene is varying

paratype

a specimen not formally designated as a type but cited along with the type collection in the original description of a species

The diagram at right describes how energy moves through a trophic level. Recall the definitions of the different types of efficiencies to answer the questions below a. Would you expect the assimilation efficiency to be higher for a carnivore or an herbivore? b. Would you expect the production efficiency to be higher for an ectotherm or an endotherm? c. Would you expect the consumption efficiency of primary consumers to be higher in a forest or a grassland?

a) For this question, many students choose the carnivore; however, digesting the cell walls in plant cellulose is actually extremely difficult for most organisms. You may already be aware of some digestive adaptations that some herbivores have for dealing with this problem, such as multiple stomachs, chewing cud, fermentation chambers in their gut, etc. Some animals, like rabbits, even perform 'coprophagy' where they eat their feces to digest it a second time. Consequently, carnivores generally have higher assimilation efficiency than herbivores. b) The loss pathway in production efficiency is primarily respiration. Endotherms have much higher respiration rates than ectotherms in order to maintain body temperatures. Consequently, we would expect ectotherms to have higher production efficiency because the loss pathway is minimized. c) The plant community in a grassland is mostly grasses, while in a forest it is mostly trees. Most organisms cannot eat wood, so the amount of plant biomass that they can consume is much smaller in a forest than a grassland. Consequently, we would expect consumption efficiency to be higher in grassland herbivores than in forest herbivores.

Atmospheric CO2 has been increasing, as evidenced by the graph shown below. a. Describe the process that drives the oscillation in CO2 levels throughout the year (shown in the inset) b. The relative magnitude of the oscillation varies, as shown in the curves below for Barrow, Alaska; Mauna Loa, Hawai'i; and the South Pole. Using your knowledge of the ecosystems in each of these places, and the overall driver(s) of the oscillation you described in part A, describe how the surrounding environment contributes to the differences seen in the annual oscillations. c. Would you expect the timing of the peaks and troughs in the annual oscillation to be the same across the globe? Explain your answer

a) The basic driver is the global pattern of CO2 uptake from respiration and CO2 production through respiration. From ~May to ~September CO2 levels decline indicating that CO2 uptake from photosynthesis is greater than CO2 production by respiration. From ~September to ~May, the reverse is true -CO2 production is higher at this time of year, as evidenced by the increase in global atmospheric levels during this time. When we consider what ecosystem(s) could be driving this pattern, it must meet three criteria: 1) strong seasonality, 2) high productivity (at least compared to other seasonal biomes), and 3) uneven distribution between the hemispheres (because if it was evenly represented in both hemispheres, the opposite growing seasons in the North and South Hemispheres would cancel each other out). The biome that meets these criteria is the boreal forest. b) Barrow is in the middle of the biome that drives this patterns, so the oscillations there are very high. Mauna Loa and the South Pole both experience the 'ripple effects' of the boreal forests' productivity but at different distances and against different backdrops of local productivity. In both cases, however, the local productivity doesn't impact the oscillation very much. In Hawai'i, the tropical rainforests are equally productive year-round, and in the South Pole the plant community is extremely small and also not highly seasonal and so does not impact the oscillation very much. Consequently, we see the highest oscillations nearest to the biome that drives the pattern (Barrow), the smallest oscillations the furthest away (South Pole) and middling oscillations halfway between (Hawai'i). c) Since the peaks and troughs in each location are driven by the same thing (productivity in the boreal forest), we would expect the peaks and troughs to occur at mostly the same time. There might be a bit of a delay as the changes in CO2 uptake 'trickle down' to Hawai'i and the South Pole, however atmospheric mixing occurs pretty rapidly, so that shouldn't take very long.

Ecosystem A has primary production of 1000 g C /m2/yr and ecological efficiency of 10%. Ecosystem B has primary production of 300 g C /m2/yr and an ecological efficiency of 25%. a. Which ecosystem will have more production at the secondary consumer (carnivore) trophic level? b. Which ecosystem is more likely to support an endothermic primary consumer (herbivore)? c. If a trophic level requires at least 1 gC/m2/yr in order to exist, how many trophic levels can each of these ecosystems support? d. Given your answer to part c, which do you think has a larger impact on the energy available at upper trophic levels: primary productivity or efficiency of energy movement across trophic levels?

a)Ecosystem B b) Ecosystem A, because it has more energy available at the primary consumer level and endotherms generally require more energy than ectotherms c) 4 trophic levels for Ecosystem A, 5 for Ecosystem B d) Ecosystem A starts with >3x the primary productivity as Ecosystem B; however, Ecosystem B has 2.5x the efficiency of Ecosystem A, which means it has more energy available at the upper trophic levels, and indeed can support an entire additional trophic level than Ecosystem A. In this way, efficiency of energy transfer has a larger impact on the energy availability at higher trophic levels.

Use the diagram below of the global nitrogen cycle to answer the following questions. Note: for the nutrient cycle diagrams, I do NOT want you to memorize pools and fluxes, I DO want you to be able to read and interpret a cycle diagram a. Which of the fluxes are anthropogenic (caused by humans)? How do these fluxes compare in magnitude to the natural fluxes? b. Describe a pathway by which a molecule of nitrogen in the atmosphere could move through both terrestrial and aquatic pools and then return to the atmosphere.

a. Livestock/agriculture, biomass burning, fossil fuel burning, industrial N fixation, and agricultural N fixation. Together, these contribute 81 units into the atmospheric pool (compared to 268 from the natural denitrification fluxes), and 130 into the plant biomass pool (compared to 128 from natural N fixation), so human inputs into the plant biomass pool exceed natural inputs. b. One possible pathway: Starting in the atmosphere, it could move through atmospheric deposition onto the landscape, then move through runoff into the pool of dissolved nitrogen in the ocean, then through denitrification back to the atmosphere.

for each of the type of speciation describe the general pattern oh how speciation occurs and provide and example of speciation that has followed this pattern a) allotropy through vicariance b) allopatry through the founder effect c) parapatry d) sympatry

a. Populations are separated by a vicariance event, then evolve differently and become reproductively isolated, even if their ranges overlap. Example: snapping shrimp across the Isthmus of Panama. b.A new population is founded by a small number of individuals. This founder effect may lead to some phenotypes that are rare in the original population, and the new population will evolve independently and become reproductively isolated. Example: chestnut-tailed antbirds in forest islands. c.There is a strong selective pressure (a very different environment) at one edge of a population's range.This environment causes strong selection for traits that may have a tradeoff with success elsewhere in the population. If there is postzygotic isolation between individuals near that edge and the rest of the population, then gene flow may be limited and the edge population may diverge and evolve independently to become a new species. Example: grasses around zinc mine. d.A novel genetic variant may be partially or totally reproductive isolated from the parent population. This prevents gene flow, even though the mutate individual (and population of its descendants) is not geographically isolated. Example: flower direction and pollinator specialization in columbine flowers in California.

Assign each of the climatographs below to a biome and to a hemisphere (northern, southern, or equatorial). Possible biomes include deserts, grasslands, tropical rainforests, temperate forests, boreal forests, tundra, and Mediterranean climes. Be prepared to explain your decision.

a.Grassland; Southern Hemisphere b.Tropical rainforest; equatorial c.Desert, Northern Hemisphere d. Temperate deciduous forest, Northern Hemisphere e.Desert, Southern Hemisphere f.Mediterranean, Northern Hemisphere g.Grassland; Northen Hemisphere h. Mediteranean, Northern Hemisphere i.Tundra; Northern Hemisphere j.Boreal Forest; Northern Hemisphere k.Tropical rainforest; Equatorial l. Mediteranean; Southern Hemisphere

The figure below shows the population size of hares in orange and lynx in blue in northern Canada from 1840-1940. a.What drives the oscillations in population size in these two species? b.Why do the high and low points of the lynx population generally fall shortly after the high and low points of the hare population?

a.In both species, the population size is driven primarily by the size of the other species. When lynx are numerous, hare population size will decline which will then drive reductions in lynx populations. When lynx are not numerous, hare population size will increase, which will then drive increases in the lynx population. b.There is a bit of a lag between the change in one population and the resulting change in the other. The easiest way to think about why this lag occurs is that when prey populations are high, it takes some time for the predators to consume those additional prey and convert them into new offspring. This time delay produces the lag in the max and min population sizes.

Describe how each of the factors below threatens biodiversity a. Habitat loss and alteration b. Climate change c. Over-exploitation d. Invasive species e. Pollution

a.Reduces the overall habitat available to species, which can directly reduce population size, can also increase fragmentation of remaining habitat exacerbating the population decline. b.Can reduce overall habitat available to species and can shift the geographic location of suitable habitat to areas that species may or may not be able to access. c.Directly reduces population size and can cause unintentional selection pressures that reduce success of individuals in the wild d.Can reduce diversity in ecosystems by outcompeting or preying upon/parasitizing native species. e.Some compounds are directly toxic to organisms, others can cause trophic cascades (such as algal blooms), etc

Write out the Lotka-Volterra equations for population growth in predators and prey. a.What term(s) in these equations represent reciprocal density dependence in population sizes of predators and prey? b.What term represents the growth rate of the predator population? c.Why are these equations formulated from the exponential growth equation and not from the logistic growth equation?

a.The equation for prey includes the variable P (pop size of predators) and the equation for predators includes the variable V(pop size of victims/prey). b. cpV is equivalent to r for the predator population. The victim population size, predation rate, and conversion efficiency all contribute to how quickly the predator population can increase. c. Lotka and Volterra used the exponential equation instead of the logistic equation because they believed that the primary driving factor of population sizes in predators and prey was the other's population size and that neither would ever reach the carrying capacity of the ecosystem, making K irrelevant in these equations.

The figure below shows rarefaction curves for species diversity in three different habitats. If you were studying Habitat A, what is the minimum number of individuals would need to sample in order to fully represent the diversity of this habitat? A.About 20 B.About 200 C.About 300 D.About 400 E.About 500

about 300

Anadromous fish such as salmon spend the majority of their lives in the ocean (which is saltwater), but migrate to rivers (which are freshwater) to mate and reproduce. During this migration, salmon spend a period of time at the mouth of the river to allow their salt regulatory mechanisms to adjust to the change in salinity between the ocean and the river. This is an example of....

acclimation

Bison populations were extremely hunted. What impact(s) might this history have on the population genetics of Bison bison existing today? A.Severe genetic bottleneck B.High genetic drift in surviving populations C.Low gene flow between surviving populations D.Increased inbreeding E.All of the above

all of the above

Different phenotypes (variants of a trait) can be caused by differences in: A) a protein-coding gene(s) B) the environment C) the regulation of a gene(s) D) none of these scenarios

all of the above

Two bird species, A and B live in the same habitat at the same time and are competing for the same prey. Which of the following is/are a possible outcome of competition? Select all that apply A) Species B is better at obtaining prey than Species A and drives Species A to extinction in this habitat B) Species A and Species B begin to forage in different areas of the habitat C) Over time, Species A develops a beak shape adapted for a particular type of prey and Species B develops a beak shape adapted to a different type of prey D)Species A is better at obtaining prey than Species B and drives Species B to extinction in this habitat

all of the above

Which of the following could cause a new phenotype to appear in an offspring? A) A change in a gene that codes for a protein B) A change in a gene that affects the transcription of other genes C) A change in a gene that affects translation of RNA into proteins D) None of the above

all of the above

You are interested in estimating the size of the population of squirrels on the UC Davis campus, using mark-recapture methods. You capture 25 squirrels, tag them, and release them back where you caught them. Two weeks later, you return and capture another 25 squirrels, none of which are tagged. What might have happened? (check all that apply) A) The tags made the squirrels more susceptible to predators or accidents and they have all died B) The population of squirrels on campus is so large that your 25 tagged squirrels were too small of a sample to show up in the second capture C) The tagged squirrels migrated to new habitats off campus D)The tags fell off the squirrels

all of the above are possible

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation -more relevant when tracking multiple traits or when tracking a trait that is influenced by several genes -you cant predict ahead of time exactly what the trait/genes will be fore different chromosomes based on the gametes at first

insertion frameshift mutation

an extra base is inserted into a base sequence and can alter a protein so much that it cannot perform its normal functions.

Autopolyploidy

an individual that has more than two chromosome sets that are all derived from a single species

Symbiosis

an interaction between two species living in close association with each other. (does not necessarily have to be a positive interaction)

The similar structure of butterfly wings and hawk wings is an example of _______ traits, which are the result of __________.

analogous, convergent evolution -one is an insect and one is a bird. -evolutionary processes that lead to wings in birds and wings in butterflies

Are wings analogous or homologous? A.Analogous B.Homologous C.One of the two, I guess?

analogous, wings are structured very differently

The figure below shows the annual trend in atmospheric CO2 concentrations from 1965 to 2012 with an inset showing the annual oscillation. What process drives the overall increase in CO2 from 1965 to 2012 A) Nutrient runoff from cities and agricultural lands B)Anthropogenic CO2 emissions (burning of fossil fuels) C)The greenhouse effect D) Release of CO2 from the ocean due to ocean acidification E)The global balance between CO2 uptake by photosynthesis and CO2 release by respiration

anthropogenic CO2 emissions (burning of fossil fuels)

fecundity (mx)

average number of offspring produced by individual of age x (Nx off of age class x)/(Nx of age class x)

one half rule

average offspring or liter size is about half the mammaries

The histogram below shows the distribution of beak depth among medium ground finches on the Galapagos Islands. (Beak depth = beak size from top to bottom.) Beak depth varies continuously within the population. What might explain this distribution of beak depths? (select all that apply)

beak depth is a polygenic trait beak depth is influenced by the environment

In the diagrams below, primary producers are shown in green bars (bottom), primary consumers (herbivores) in orange bars (middle), and secondary consumers (carnivores) in red bars (top). Which of the diagrams shows the relative amounts of energy across trophic levels in a forest or a grassland?

because energy movement has to be an actual pyramid shape. The only place where you have energy entering the ecosystem is through the primary producers. Because we have loss of energy through respiration and other inefficiencies throughout that movement, every trophic level will have less energy available to it than the previous trophic level. So you cannot have a situation where you have some quantity of energy available at one trophic level and a larger quantity available at a higher trophic level from a lower trophic level.

why is the biomass difference between producers and consumers so large in forests compared to grasslands?

because in forests most of the biomass is in the bark or the wood of the trees and most primary consumers can not eat the wood. where as in grasslands the bulk of the biomass is in a form that the primary consumers can eat (all of the leaves and grasses and sometimes even the roots)

Beetle pollinators of a particular plant are attracted to its flowers' bright orange color. The beetles not only pollinate the flowers, but they mate while inside of the flowers. A mutant version of the plant with red flowers becomes more common with the passage of time. A particular variant of the beetle prefers the red flowers to the orange flowers. Over time, these two beetle variants diverge from each other to such an extent that interbreeding is no longer possible. What kind of speciation has occurred in this example, and what has driven it?

because the mating takes place in the flowers these two populations are now isolated by habitat (different flower types)- a prezygotic isolation mechanism

on the Bahamian island of andros mosquitofish populations live in various, now isolated, freshwater ponds that were once united. currently, some predator rich ponds have mosquitofish that can swim in short, fast burtsts, other predator-poor ponds have mosquitofish that can swim continuously for a long time. when placed together in the same body of water the two kinds of female mosquitofish exhibit exclusively breed with males that have the same swimming phenotype as the female

behavioral isolation, a prezygotic isolation mechanism

Three populations of crickets look very similar, but the males have courtship songs that sound different. What function would this difference in song likely serve if the populations came in contact?

behavioral isolation-prezygotic isolation mechanism

Which of the following statements is/are true of mycorrhizae but NOT of Rhizobia (check all that apply)? -Provides nutrients to the plant -Belongs to Kingdom Fungi -Benefits by receiving sugar from the 'host' plant -Associates only with legumes -Forms associations with roots of plants

belongs to the kingdom of fungi

what ecosystem is... highly productive? highly seasonal? unevenly represented in the two hemispheres?

boreal forest in the northern hemisphere

facultative mutualism

can exist without just don't do as well

Complete the bar graphs with data that represent the following species interactions: Competition, Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism, and Conditional Interactions

commensalism/facilitation: one species is positively impacted by the presence of the other species in both habitats (though the magnitude of impact may differ between habitats) the other species is not significantly impacted.

The graphs below show growth of Species 1 in Habitats A and B when Species 2 is present and absent (left graph) and the growth of Species 2 in Habitats A and B when Species 1 is present and absent (right graph). Complete the bar graphs with data that represent the following species interactions: Competition, Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism, and Conditional Interactions

competition: both species are negatively impacted by the presence of the other species in both habitats (though the magnitude of the impact may not be identical both species or in both habitats)

Complete the bar graphs with data that represent the following species interactions: Competition, Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism, and Conditional Interactions

conditional: the direction of the impact (positive or negative) of the the presence one species on the other is different in habitat A than in habitat B. the impact on the other species may or may not vary by habitat. the example represents the relationship between plants (species 1) and mycorrhizae (species 2) in low nutrient (A) and high nutrient (B) ecosystems

Analagous traits

convergent evolution produces analogous traits (similar in different organisms because of similar selective pressures

Many human disease alleles recessive and rare. Why aren't these alleles eliminated from the population by selection?

delayed onset: disease condition arises after reproduction is over (Huntington's disease) heterozygote advantage: being heterozygous for disease allele confers some other fitness benefit (sickle cell anemia and malaria)

Alcohol is produced as a byproduct of fermentation of sugar by yeast. The maximum ABV% that a solution can achieve is ~15% because yeast cannot survive in higher concentrations of waste products. This is an example of.... A.Density independent control B.Density dependent control C....?

density dependent (more waste will be generated if there are more individuals in the ecosystem)

Which of the following describes a density dependent and a density independent control on a butterfly population? (check all that apply) A)A contagious disease sweeps through the population, killing 80% of the butterflies B)The nursery plant species on which the butterflies lay their eggs is entirely removed from the habitat C)When butterflies are not abundant, predators switch to eating moths, which reduces the mortality rate of butterflies D)The females lay many eggs on each plant, such that the caterpillars eat nearly all the leaves and 80% of the caterpillars starve before becoming adults E)A late spring cold snap reduces temperatures to outside the butterflies' tolerance and 80% of them die in their cocoons F)A severe rainstorm drowns 80% of the butterflies

density dependent: D,C, A density independent: B,E, F (single butterfly would have been equally negatively impacted)

predation is an example of a _________ control on the population growth of prey?

density depenedent

homologous traits

descent with modification produces homologous traits (similar in different organisms because inherited from common ancestor

continuous traits

determined by multiple genes (polygenic), such as height or hair color

Human hunting of bighorn sheep has focused on 'trophy' sheep which are the largest male sheep with the longest horns. Consequently, over the last 30 years of hunting pressure, average weight of male sheep has declined by ~20 kilograms and average horn length has declined by ~25 centimeters. These changes are evidence of _________ selection.

directional

What type of selection occurred in the Galápagos finches in response to the 1977 drought? A.Stabilizing B.Directional C.Disruptive/Diversifying D.Frequency-Dependent

directional

The red regions of the map below represent the ________ biome. The location of this biome is primarily driven by ________.

dsert; the hadley cell

obligate mutualism

each species requires the other one in order to reproduce

zero-sum game

energy allocated to one function cannot be applied to another function (aka tradeoffs)

benzophenone chemical

in most sunscreens and lead to coral bleaching and bad for coral reef health

how could the fossil record provide evidence for catastrophism?

evidence of major catastrophic events themselves and the species on different sides of geologic layers

what organisms can migrate without individuals migrating?

ex: pollen from pine trees winward/wind borne pollination

the gametes perspective allele and genotype frequencies

f(A1A1)= p^2 f(A1A2)=2pq f(A2A2)=q^2 p^2+ 2pq+ q^2=1 p+q=1 this is what we would EXPECT if there was totally random mating, with totally equal fertility and survival with a random chance of any allele meeting up with any other allele during the reproductive stage

density independent controls

factors affecting population size that DO NOT depend on the number of organisms in the population, usually abiotic factors (floods, hurricanes, fires)

kin selection

favors behaviors that increase the reproductive success of relatives

The figure below shows the relative abundance (y axis) of shrubs in an ecosystem in the years following a fire (x axis). The shrubs in this ecosystem fall into two functional groups: fire recruiters and fire persisters. If fire frequency increased significantly in this ecosystem, which group would be benefited?

fire recruiter species

fire recruiters vs fire persisters (Chaparral shrub syndrome )

fire recruiters: seeds dormant until fire germinate immediately after event fire persisters: can re-sprout from below-ground tissue, no seed dormancy, and no adaptations for surviving fire events

pine fire syndrome

fire tolerators: tall with no branches near ground, thick bark, long needles fire embracers: short, thin bark, flammable needles, keep low branches, closed cones

Which of the groups listed below is NOT monophyletic?A.Vertebrates B.Reptiles C.Organisms that produce amniotic eggs D.Fish E.Huh?

fish

what may have driven CAM photosynthesis in the aquatic environment?

for CO2 in the water is very different and can actually be the limiting resource in water because it diffuses so slowly, so taking up CO2 at night means you are competing less with other aquatic plants that are active during the day

Certain biting flies produce a protein called maxidilan that keeps blood flowing in the host animals that the flies bite. There are several different fly genotypes, and each genotype produces a different variant of the protein. The more common the fly genotype, the more likely that the host animal has antibodies that confer resistance to that genotype's maxidilan variant. Fly genotypes that are more common collect less blood and produce fewer offspring. This is an example of:

frequency dependent selection

Calculating Allele Frequencies

frequency of allele A= 2(NAA)+(NAa)/(2N) frequency of allele a= 2(Naa)+(NAa)/(2N)

rocky mountain juniper and one seeded juniper have overlapping ranges. pollen grains (which contain sperm cells) from one species are unable to germinate and make pollen tubes on female ovules (which contain egg cells) of the other species

gametic isolation, where the signaling between pollen and ovule has been disrupted. the prezygotic isolation mechanism

Why are there fewer producers than consumers in forests, but not grasslands?

given the difference in size between the different organisms we will need a much larger population size of grasses to support the herbivore community, where as one individual tree could support numerous individuals but one grass plant could not support numerous individuals

why do O2 levels drop so significantly 250 mya? why do we not see similar drops at 444, 359, 201, or 65mya?

greatest extinction. over 90% of life on earth dies out. forests now going extinct and not contributing photosynthesis. the others do not show similar drops because 1. the permian is largest extinction. 2. the community of organisms on earth that go extinct at this time. plant community was not as prolific and not as negatively impacted as the largest extinction.

In the phylogenetic tree below, which group(s) are monophyletic? (select all that apply)

group 3 and group 1

monophyletic group (clade)

group that consists of a single ancestral species and all its descendants and excludes any organisms that are not descended from that common ancestor -only takes a single cut

Many songbirds breed in North America in the spring and summer and then migrate to Central and South America in the fall. They spend the winter in these warmer areas, where they feed and prepare for the spring migration north and another breeding season. Two hypothetical species of sparrow, A and B, overwinter together in mixed flocks in Costa Rica. In spring, species A goes to the east coast of North America, and species B goes to the west coast. What can you say about the isolating mechanisms of these two species?

habitat isolation (different locations during breeding season)-a prezygotic isolation mechanism

Alexander von Humboldt

he is considered one of the founders of modern geography work on botanical geography was foundational to the field of biogeography; set about the task of collecting and analyzing data about the relationships between the spatial distribution of rocks, plants, and animals. -isoclimates: maps similar climates across diff landscape

crown fire

high intensity, trees themselves burn, triggers secondary succession

gross primary production

overall rate of photosynthesis that occurs in an ecosystem

Are flowers analogous or homologous? A.Analogous B.Homologous C.One of the two, I guess?

homologous

The similar structure of hummingbird wings and owl wings is an example of _______ traits, which are the result of __________.

homologous, descent with modification -both are birds. they share the evolutionary origin of all birds have wings. trait shared across the whole group of similar organisms

biotic interactions

how organisms interact with other living organisms (ex: symbiosis, decomposers such as bacteria and fungi)

functional diversity

how organisms vary in their adaptations for..... -acquiring nutrients -dealing with stressful environmental conditions -defending against predators and pathogens -life history traits (reproduction, development, etc)

why would people of African ancestry have less neanderthal DNA than non-African populations?

humans first evolved in Africa and migrated out and interbreeding with Neanderthals occurred in Europe. you would expect more non-African populations would carry more Neanderthal DNA because they descended from populations that interbred with neanderthals

how is hybrid breakdown different than hybrid infertility?

hybrid breakdown the F1 population is not infertile they can still produce offspring F2 but that F2 offspring is not viable

when discussing rana frogs in lecture we noticed that the timing of reproduction for some species was different for populations in allopatry than for populations in sympatry with closely related species. using this example or others from lecture explain in 2-3 sentences why post-zygotic reproductive barriers might lead to the evolution of additional prezygotic reproductive barriers.

if there is a postzygotic reproductive barrier such as reduced hybrid viability, then interbreeding is highly negative for both parents (they are not successful at passing on their genes to the next generation). In this case, if there is a novel genetic variant that leads to reduced interbreeding prezygotically (e.g. by changing breeding timing or location), that should be a beneficial allele which may increase in frequency due to natural selection. For the Rana frogs, we observed that populations in sympatry had breeding timings that overlapped little, even though the breeding timings of different species were similar in allopatric populations. This may have been caused by natural selection for prezygotic isolation in the sympatric populations.

UC Davis Plant Sciences professor Dr. Kassim Al-Khatib studies gene flow between herbicide-resistant agricultural weeds and susceptible (non-resistant) wild populations. In one study, Dr. Al-Khatib hypothesized that herbicide resistance might lead to growth or performance tradeoffs for resistant populations compared to susceptible populations. The graphs below show the results of his study for photosynthetic rate, leaf area, plant height, and plant dry weight for susceptible (open circles) and resistant (closed circle) populations through time (x axis). Lines represent the best-fit line for each population. Do the data support Dr. Al-Khatib's hypothesis? Select all that apply

if there was a tradeoff we would expect the resistance lines to be doing much worse than the susceptible lines No, there are no trade-offs in these traits.

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

in a non evolving population genotype and allele frequencies reach equilibrium after one generation and remain constant in subsequent generations ASSUMING: 1. no mutations 2. no natural selection 3. no gene flow (migration) 4. no genetic drift (which requires an infinitely large population size) 5. random mating

The figure below shows genotype frequency of Avenafatua(wild oats), for two genes. Purple bars show the genotype frequencies expected if the population is in H-W equilibrium and green bars show the observed genotype frequencies in a wild population. Which of the following is a possible explanation for the differences between expected and observed genotype frequencies? A.Stabilizing selection B.Outbreeding C.Inbreeding D.Genetic drift E.I don't know what these words mean

inbreeding and genetic drift

Inbreeding vs Outbreeding

inbreeding: mating between relatives (assortative mating= mating between individuals w/in similar genotypes) LOSS OF HETEROZYGOSITY outbreeding: mating between unrelated individuals w/ dissimilar genotypes see more heterozygotes than expected

why does increased dispersal ability lead to lower speciation rates?

increased dispersal means that individuals can move greater distances, so populations can be well-mixed across greater areas (more gene flow), and only very large-scale vicariance events could actually fully separate a population into two.

particulate inheritance

individual traits from each parent are passed on to the offspring but you can still see distinct contribution from each parent, can identify each contribution from each parent

abiotic interactions

interactions between organisms and their nonliving environment (ex: light, temperature, water)

Taxa that show evidence of intersexual selection seem to have higher rates of speciation than taxa where intersexual selection is not occurring. Using concepts from natural selection and speciation, explain why intersexual selection might lead to higher rates of speciation.

intersexual selection refers to natural selection related to mate choice and reproductive interactions between males and females of a species("inter" = "between", so it's "between the sexes"). When there is selective mate choice, a new phenotypic variant could be immediately behaviorally reproductively isolated from other types, if there are females that prefer that type. So this ecological trait (mate choice and showiness) influences the evolution and potential for reproductive isolation.

intraspecific competition vs interspecific competition

intraspecific competition: occurs when an organism competes for resources with members of its own species. interspecific competition: occurs when an organism competes for resources with members of another species.

The Sargasso Sea in the Atlantic Ocean has some of the clearest water in the world because of its low phytoplankton density. Nutrient enrichment experiments were carried out to see which nutrient most limits productivity in phytoplankton. The results of the experiment are shown in the table below. In this ecosystem, which nutrient(s) is/are limiting? A.Nitrogen B.Phosphorus C.Metals D.Iron E.None of these nutrients are limiting in this environment.

iron

nitrogen in wood

isotopes: diff version of same atoms, only difference is in the # of neutrons in the nucleus -generally speaking when there is more nitrogen available in an ecosystem it goes with nitrogen 15 -overall in most US forests there was a decrease in nitrogen availability. -decline in nitrogen supports increases in demand

The map below shows the distribution of precipitation across the globe for a particular month. what month is depicted?

june

what month is shown in this diagram?

june?

Which of the following correctly pairs the successional event with the type of succession it represents? Select all that apply A) Glacier retreat; secondary (primary) B) Forest fire; primary (secondary) C) Lava flow; primary D) Dune accretion; primary E) Land-use change (ex. abandoned agricultural land); primary (secondary)

lava flow, primary dun accretion, primary

optimal foraging theory

maximize energy benefit to cost ratio for feeding decisions costs: energy spent pursuing, capturing, consuming, and digesting food items, injury from physical and chemical benefits: energy contained from prey

which of the following does NOT contribute to sea level rise? A.Warming of ocean water (thermal expansion) B.Melting of glaciers C.Melting of ice sheets (Greenland, Antarctica) D.Melting of sea ice (Arctic) E.All of these contribute to sea-level rise

melting of sea ice

Meiosis 1 vs Meiosis 2

meosis 1: ends with 2 cells containing duplicates of 1 chromosome meosis 2: ends with 4 cells containing 1 chromosome each

minimum viable population and effective population size

minimum viable population: how small be a population be while still be self maintaining and not in the extinction vortex effective population size: 1. number of reproductive individuals (rhino example is 2 for population size but 0 for effective population size.) 2. genetic diversity in the case of the rhinos is essentially 1

Complete the bar graphs with data that represent the following species interactions: Competition, Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism, and Conditional Interactions

mutualism: both species are positively impacted by the presence of the other species in both habitats (though the magnitude if the impact may differ between species or habitat)

sexual selection

natural selection on traits that affect the liklihood of obtaining a mate

Herbicide resistance develops in weed species through the repeated human application of herbicides onto agricultural lands. This is an example of... natural or artificial selection

natural: the process of selection that is choosing the beneficial phenotype is the same process no matter what. human driven selection operates in the same way as natural driven selection

A given ecosystem has the following amounts of energy available at each trophic level: Primary producers: 3,000 gC/m2/day; Primary consumers: 600 gC/m2/day; Secondary consumers: 90 gC/m2/day; Tertiary consumers: 22.5 gC/m2/day. Does this ecosystem follow Lindeman's Law for ecological efficiency?

no the average is 20%

specialization by angiosperms

specialization on the part of the plant attracting a particular pollinator can also drive speciation.

polymorphism

number of genes that have multiple alleles

lindemans law of 10%

on average about 10% of energy available at on trophic level is transferred to the next trophic level

The graphs below show the population growth curves of P. aureliaand P. caudatumwhen grown alone in test tubes A and B. What will their final population sizes be when they are grown together in vial C?

one will go extinct

the first evidence of aerobic respiration occurred 2 billion years ago why did aerobic respiration arise after photosynthesis and if the first organisms weren't aerobic then how were they performing respiration?

organisms prior to this time were doing anaerobic respiration or fermentation. those times they didn't require oxygen.

Complete the bar graphs with data that represent the following species interactions: Competition, Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism, and Conditional Interactions

parasitism/predation/herbivores: one species is positively impacted by the presence of the other species in both habitats. the other species is negatively impacted by the presence of the other species. the magnitude of impacts may differ across habitats. in this example, Species 1 is the predator/herbivore/parasite and Species 2 is the prey/plant/host

The figures below show how the relationship between mycorrhizal fungus and plants change as soil resource availability changes. In soil that has very high levels of carbon, water, and other nutrients, what is the relationship between mycorrhizae and plants?

paratism

some sources claim that vegetarian diet is more energy efficient than meat-based diet, from your knowledge of tropic energy transfer and efficiency is this statement true?

plant foods tend to be more energy efficient than animal based foods, especially high protein animal foods.

speciation by polyploidy is particular common in plants. why?

plants can self fertilize/pollinate so we only need one new organism to found a new population. they dont need someone else to mate with (which wouldnt work since they are polyploidy)

In this population, body weight has a continuous distribution in the adult population. This pattern may be driven by: A.Polygenic effects B.Pleiotropy C.Environmental effects D.None of the above explain this phenotypic distribution

polygenic effects and environmental effects

Of the five populations shown in the graph at right, which has the highest K?A.Population 1 B.Population 2 C.Population 3 D.Population 4 E.Population 5

population 5

prezygotic barriers vs postzygotic barriers

prezygotic: prevent mating or prevent the fertilization if mating occurs postzygotic: prevent hybrid zygote from developing into a viable fertile adult

how does the open ocean support more primary consumers than producers?

primary producer community is phytoplankton and algal communities which generally have high intrinsic rates of increase and are able to reproduce very quickly so that they can maintain a consumer community larger than they are because on individual has such a high reproductive output

descent with modification

principle that each living species has descended, with changes, from other species over time

Imagine a plant that uses only phycoerythrinand phycocyaninfor photosynthesis. What color would this plant be? A.Red B.Yellow C.Green D.Blue E.Purple

purple

r-selected species vs k-selected species

r-species: 1. small body size 2. short life expectancy 3. rapid growth 4. early reproduction 5. produce many small offspring 6. little/no parental care 7. unpredictable or variable environments 8. boom/bust population growth 9. type 3 survivorship curve 10. pop size controlled by growth rate (r) k-species: 1. large body size 2. long life expectancy 3. slowed growth 4. delayed reproduction 5. produce few large offspring 6. high parental investment 7. predictable/stable environment 8. population size steady 9. type 1 survivorship curve 10. population size controlled by carrying capacity (K)

The pedigree below tracks the inheritance of a particular trait that is not X-linked. Males are shown as squares, females as circles. Shaded shapes indicate that the person DOES have the trait, white shapes indicate that the person DOES NOT have the trait. Assuming there is no mutation, this trait is ____, and the genotype of person 1 is __.

recessive, heterozygous

The common edible frog of Europe is a hybrid between two species, Rana lessonae and Rana ridibunda. The hybrids were first described in 1758 and have a wide distribution, from France across central Europe to Russia. Both male and female hybrids exist, but when they mate among themselves, they are rarely successful in producing offspring. What can you infer from this information?

reduced hybrid fertility-a postzygotic isolation mechanism

what kind of isolation? A.Reduced Hybrid Viability B. Reduced Hybrid Fertility C. Hybrid Breakdown D. None of these E. I don't understand the difference between these three

reduced hybrid viability (survival and development)

Two species of frogs belonging to the same genus occasionally mate, but the offspring fail to develop and hatch. What is the mechanism for keeping the two frog species separate?

reduced hybrid viability, a postzygotic isolation mechanism

Ground/surface fire

relatively low intensity and burn off understory but trees are usually fine

sympatric speciation

speciation that occurs when two groups of the same species live in the same geographic location, but they evolve differently until they can no longer interbreed and are considered different species.

The figure below shows the beak size of three pairs of bird species that occur both allopatrically and sympatrically. Which species pair(s) show(s) evidence of character displacement when the two species come into contact with one another? Select all that apply.

species C and D

species-area curve vs rarefaction plots

species-area curve: quantifies the idea that, all other factors being equal, a larger geographic area has more species rarefaction plots: how the number of species found changes with the number of individuals sampled (how many individuals we count not the area)

Thomas Hunt Morgan

studied fruit flies and proposed that genes could be linked which rejects independent assortment

Within a population of sunflowers, a new individual has a novel dominant mutation that causes it to flower 4 months earlier than the rest of the population. That sunflower survives and successfully self-fertilizes, leading over time to a novel population that evolves larger leaves and smaller flowers. This new population does not interbreed with the original population, although they are found in the same areas. This is an example of _______.

sympatric speciation

Vicariance

the geographic seperation of a species into separate populations through some form of physical barrier

incomplete dominance

the heterozygote phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes (lactose intolerance)

Codominance

the heterozygote shows both the homozygous phenotypes

reproductively isolated

the inability of a species to breed successfully with related species due to geographical, behavioral, physiological, or genetic barriers or differences.

Which region would you expect to be the DRIEST? A.The windward side of the Coast Ranges B.The leeward side of the Coast Ranges C.The windward side of the Sierra Nevadas D.The leeward side of the Sierra Nevadas E.The... what? side of... what?

the leeward side of the sierra nevadas

The graph below shows the observed heterozygosity and overall genetic polymorphism for both Northern and Southern elephant seal populations. These two species have large and relatively similar population sizes now, but Northern elephant seal populations have historically been as small as 20 individuals. 1. Using concepts from population genetics, what might explain the differing patterns of genetic diversity between these two species? (2-3 sentences.)

this graph (which was discussed in the genetic drift lecture), shows that the northern elephant seal populations have generally lower heterozygosity (i.e. more homozygotes than expected and fewer heterozygotes) and very low polymorphism (i.e. low genetic diversity). The historically low population sizes of northern elephant seals was a genetic bottleneck event in which the small population experienced very high genetic drift. Because drift leads to the chance loss of diversity over generations, this strong genetic drift led to very low genetic diversity in the northern elephant seal population, even though their population size is now increasing.

Describe when, where, and/or how each of the following major biological events occurred. Note: the relative order of events is more important than their exact dates a. The origin of life on Earth b. The evolution of C3 photosynthesis c. The evolution of C4 photosynthesis d. The colonization of land by early tetrapods e. The development of fossil fuels (oil, etc) f.Mass extinction g. Migration of humans into the Americas h. Interbreeding of humans and Neanderthals

the order of events is A, B, D, E, C, H, G, F (happens several times throughout history) a.~3.8 billion years ago, chemosynthesizers arose probably in deep ocean vents b.~2.5 billion years ago in cyanobacteria; contributed our first fossil evidence of life (stromatolites) c.The Oligocene (34-23 million years ago) in grasses d.The Devonian (419-359 million years ago), represented by Tiktaalik e.The organisms that produced these deposits lived during the Carboniferous (359-304 million years ago) and went extinct in the Permian Extinction (252 million years ago) f.End Ordovician (444 mya), End Devonian (359 mya), End Permian (252 mya), End Triassic (201 mya), End Cretaceous (65 mya),and the Holocene (the present) g.15-20,000 years ago either across the Bering Strait (either land or coastal/ocean travel) from northern Asia, across the South Pacific from Australia or Pacific Islands, or across the Atlantic from Europe. h.I didn't mention when exactly this occurred in lecture, current estimates say ~40-60,000 years ago, but possibly further back. Occurred in Europe.

Earth's radiation budget

the process by which earth's climate system constantly tries to maintain a balance between the energy that reaches earth from the sun and the energy that is emitted to space

allele frequencies

the proportion of a particular allele across all individuals, or in the gametes produced by those individuals •Dominant allele •Recessive allele

genotype frequencies

the proportion of individuals with a particular genotype in a population •Homozygous dominant •Homozygous recessive •Heterozygous •Hemizygous

Evolution

the study of changes in heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations

George Cuvier: Catastrophism

the theory that changes in the earth's crust during geological history have resulted chiefly from sudden violent and unusual events.

life history

the way in which individuals within and among a species allocate resources to growth, reproduction, and survival based on genetic and environmental factors

what is similar between meiosis and mitosis?

they both lead to the creation of new cells and lead to the replication of DNA

thermal regulation (plants)

to retain heat: -low growth form -dark leaves -horizontal leaves to lose heat: -taller growth form -reflective leaves -vertical leaves

the earth is round

toward the poles: the sun rays hit earth at an oblique angle and are spread over a larger area diffusing their energy at or near the equator: sunlight hits earth directly delivering more heat and light at any given spot

gene flow

transfer of alleles through movement of fertile individuals or their gametes -immigration: movement into a population emmigration: movement out of a population

which tree is more susceptible to fire?

trend shows in ungrazed plots mortality was high. in areas where there is low fire frequency and herbivores tree encroachment was the highest

What biome does this climatograph represent? A.Desert B.Grassland C.Tropical Rainforest D.Tundra E....?

tropical rainforest

competitive exclusion principle

two species competing for the same limiting resources cannot coexist. eventually the stronger competitor will drive the weaker competitor extinct

Below are data from a study following different grassland habitats that experience fire at different frequencies. In each graph, the x axis is the number of plant species found in the habitat and the y axis is the percent of grassland habitats sampled. The habitats are split into those experiencing fire approximately every year (left), every 5 years (middle), and every 10 years (right). Do these data support the intermediate disturbance hypothesis?

yes

are these phylogenetic trees all the same?

yes

do these trees show the same evolutionary relationships? A.Yes B.No, Tree 1 is different than the other two C.No, Tree 2 is different than the other two D.No, Tree 3 is different than the other two E.What is happening?

yes

A young man is close to drowning and his sister risks her life to swim out and pull him to safety. Assume the sister has a 25% chance of also drowning. Is this behavior supported by natural selection?

yes (.5)(2)>(.5) relatedness of full siblings: .5 benefit to the brother: 2 on average cost to sister: (2)(.25)=.5

natural selection as Darwin wrote about in in origin of species

•Observation 1: If all offspring survive to reproduce, then populations should increase exponentially• Observation 2: Most populations do NOT increase exponentially. •Observation 3: Many offspring do NOT survive to reproduce due to predation, disease, resource limitations, etc. Inference 1: There is a struggle for existence. •Observation 4: The individual members of a species always differ phenotypically• Observation 5: Offspring tend to resemble their parents •Some resemblance is inherited •Some resemblance is due to shared environment Inference 2: Some individuals will be better competitors and 'win' the struggle for existence. Observation 6: New 'varieties' with desirable qualities can be created by artificial selection (breeding) Inference 3: Over time, traits that enhance survival in nature will increase in frequency in the population relative to other traits

things to look for in the climatographs for each biome;

•Tropical rainforest: high precip with little/no seasonality, high temp with no seasonality •Desert: extremely low precip with little/no seasonality, generally high temp with high seasonality •Temperate deciduous forest: medium precip (higher than grassland but not as high as rainforest) with no seasonality; medium temp with seasonality •Grassland: high seasonality in temp and precip; wet season occurs during the warm season •Boreal forest: low precip (but not as low as a desert) with some seasonality; generally low temperatures (~6 months below 0 C) and high seasonality in temp •Tundra: low precip (but not as low as a desert) with some seasonality; very low temperatures (~9 months below 0 C) and high seasonality in temp •Mediterranean: high seasonality in temp and precip; wet season occurs during cold season.

reciprocal altruism

•When the altruist has a reasonable expectation that the sacrifice will be reciprocated in the future •General rule: need repeated interactions for these behaviors to arise