BMS 300 Exam 1- Lectures 4 and 5

Aerobic metabolism generates (1) molecules of atp, when you add both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism together, you are generating close to (2)

(1) 25 (2) 30 molecules of ATP total

Whenever you have carbs being broken down, whether it is the polymer of glycogen (mini glucose linked together) or just glucose subunits being metabolized, we see that it can be broken down via both (1) pathways

(1) anaerobic and aerobic

Tertiary (3D) structure is a shape resulting from (1), which is determined by (2)

(1) folding of secondary structures (2) interactions between side chains of amino acids

Aerobic metabolism uses (1) oxygen ,this (2) the RQ value

(1) more (2) decreases

As you use more fats, RQ goes closer to

0.7

RQ value of fats

0.7

RQ value of proteins

0.8

after ten seconds of activity, what happens with RQ and what fuel are we using

After ten seconds, there is a depletion of creatinine and the body starts using carbs (which requires less oxygen bc breaking down carbs is anaerobic metabolism) This is why the RQ value keeps gradually increasing, we are now starting to use less oxygen (and less oxygen means a higher RQ value)

In the lipid mosaic model of the membrane, _____ normally form the ion channel

Alpha helices , because they are as straight as possible, they have the corkscrew form

How does the body extract energy from food? hint: what are the pathways/methods/processes and what fuel do they use

Anaerobic and aerobic pathways → uses carbs Beta-oxidation → uses fats Deamination → uses proteins

why is the RQ value is higher for carbs

Because carbs can be broken down via anaerobic pathways, they can use less oxygen This is why the RQ value is higher for carbs, it uses less oxygen

Which of the following metabolic pathways is unique to the catabolism of fats?

Beta oxidation 2 by 2 carbon atoms are moved to coenzyme a to form acetyl coa

How does body make atp from carbs fats and protein

Beta oxidation for Fats Deamination for proteins , followed by glycolysis or krebs cycle Glycolysis, pyruvate to acetyl coa, and krebs cycle are how we turn Carbs to atp

What is the connection between metabolism and respiration

Metabolism is connected to digestive system function Respiration is linked to the respiratory system we can see where oxygen is used and carbon dioxide is expelled in the different metabolic pathways

Glycolysis refers to the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate

Mostly breaks down carbs Can have a small part in metabolizing fats Can have a small part in breaking down proteins

when a given substrate only uses anaerobic pathways, it will use less

oxygen

Why can I jog for a long time, but only sprint for a short time?

Jogging is aerobic, sprinting is anaerobic Sprinting (anaerobic) requires us to convert pyruvate into lactate- it only produces 2 net atp so we get energy for our quick burst of energy but it doesn't last long, we become fatigued more quickly

photosynthesis and its process

process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches the process by which green plants use light energy from the sun to make carbs from carbon dioxide and water 1. Take co2 and water from air 2. Link carbon atoms and hydrogen and oxygen atoms using energy from sunlight 3. Result: we have carbs and oxygen (carbs go in plants, oxygen gets released into atmosphere)

Histones

protein molecules around which DNA is tightly coiled in chromatin

Deamination is unique for

proteins

Deamination can be used to break down

proteins Deamination is where the amino group is stripped off the amino acids because that amino group cannot be used by our bodies , so it will be stripped and excreted as urea

what is step 2 of breaking down glucose into ATP

pyruvate converted to acetyl coa or lactate - The pyruvate can be converted into lactic acid (which has 3 carbons) When the lactic acid is shuttled to the liver, it can be converted back into pyruvate, which can go back into glucose (although keep in mind that it takes a lot of ATP for this process, called gluconeogenesis, to occur) This is all anaerobic metabolism because no oxygen is sued in these steps, it occurs in the cytoplasm This just turns lactate back to glucose, does not advance further in the steps (does not advance to step 4) because those steps require oxygen and there is no oxygen in this situation OR - The pyruvate can be converted into Acetyl-CoA The acetyl coa has 2 carbons and 2 NADH 1 of the carbon atoms from the pyruvate is discarded as co2 This is aerobic metabolism, it occurs in the mitochondria This process will happen twice because i have 2 pyruvate molecules to put through the transformation process

0.8 is our RQ at what point in physical activity?

rest. In times of starvation, we will be using proteins at rest. But if we are not starving, we are burning carbs and fats at rest

what is step 3 of breaking down glucose into ATP

the citric acid cycle aka Krebs cycle The acetyl CoA goes to the krebs cycle The krebs cycle (aka citric acid cycle) produces 3 NADH and 1 FADH2, and 2 ATP and 2 CO2 The remaining two carbons that are in the acetyl coa will be released as carbon dioxide

what is step 4 of breaking down glucose into ATP

the electron transport chain The high energy electrons will be shuttled to the electron transport chain by the NADH and the FADH2 Once this happens the electrons will be depleted of their energy and they will combine with the protons and oxygen to form water

At rest, RQ is what? what fuels is the body using here?

0.8-0.85 → body uses carbs and fats at rest 0.8 would typically be using proteins , but remember we only use proteins at times of starvation. So if we are not starving, it is most efficient for the body to use a combination of carbs and fats at rest (when we are not starving) The average of 1.0 and 0.7 so it's going to be about 0.85

what are the steps of making ATP (energy) from glucose? give a brief description of each step

1. glycolysis - input: one 6 carbon glucose process: the glucose breaks down to create the output output: 4 ATP (although it used 2 for the process, so only 2 net ATP are created) 2 NADH 2 pyruvate (2 3-carbon pyruvates) 2. pyruvate converted to acetyl coa or lactate input: 2 3-carbon pyruvates process: pyruvates are converted into acetyl coa WITH 2 CARBON ATOMS (if oxygen if available) OR lactate WITH 3 CARBON ATOMS (if oxygen is not available). output: acetyl coa 1 carbon atom is released as carbon dioxide also releases high energy electrons, which are carried to the electron transport chain 3. the citric acid cycle input: 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 Oxaloacetate, 2 ADP + Pi, 6 NAD+, 2 FAD output: 1 ATP output: 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 Oxaloacetate, 2 ADP + Pi, 6 NAD+, 2 FAD 4. the electron transport chain

As you use more carbs, RQ goes closer to

1.0

RQ value of carbs

1.0

steps Carbohydrate metabolism (extracting energy from carbs)

Carb metabolism: Starts with 1 molecule of glucose, has 6 carbons (MUST KNOW # of carbon atoms THIS FOR THE TEST) Glucose has 6 carbons 1. - When glucose undergoes glycolysis it is going to make 2 molecules of pyruvate (each pyruvate has 3 carbons), it also makes 2 NADH, and 4 ATP (although 2 atp were used for glycolysis to happen, so only 2 net atp are produced) 2. - The pyruvate can be converted into lactic acid (which has 3 carbons) When the lactic acid is shuttled to the liver, it can be converted back into pyruvate, which can go back into glucose (although keep in mind that it takes a lot of ATP for this process, called gluconeogenesis, to occur) This is all anaerobic metabolism because no oxygen is sued in these steps, it occurs in the cytoplasm This just turns lactate back to glucose, does not advance further in the steps (does not advance to step 4) because those steps require oxygen and there is no oxygen in this situation OR - The pyruvate can be converted into Acetyl-CoA The acetyl coa has 2 carbons and 2 NADH 1 of the carbon atoms from the pyruvate is discarded as co2 This is aerobic metabolism, it occurs in the mitochondria This process will happen twice because i have 2 pyruvate molecules to put through the transformation process 3. The acetyl CoA goes to the krebs cycle The krebs cycle (aka citric acid cycle) produces 3 NADH and 1 FADH2, and 2 ATP and 2 CO2 The remaining two carbons that are in the acetyl coa will be released as carbon dioxide 4. The high energy electrons will be shuttled to the electron transport chain by the NADH and the FADH2 Once this happens the electrons will be depleted of their energy and they will combine with the protons and oxygen to form water The end products of the electron transport chain are around 25 ATP and h2O

Food we eat has 3 types of macronutrients, what are they

Carbs Fats Proteins

What fuels does the body use for different types of physical activities

Carbs and fats used at rest (when we aren't starving) During half marathon (1 hr of activity) body uses carbs initially and mostly fats toward the end Creatine phosphate used at 5 second sprint Sprint for three minutes you use creatine and glycogen stores

What is carnitine?

Carnitine carries long chain fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they can be used for energy. Some of it is synthesized but much of it is obtained from the diet. Carnitine transports fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane Carnitine is falsely presented as a fat burner, but it can cause muscle weakness

what are the 2 main categories of metabolism?

Catabolism: breakdown of molecules to extract energy Exercise breaks glycogen down in my body, makes ATP anabolism : metabolic reactions synthesize building blocks to produce new molecules I eat a meal after exercise, i get the glucose in my body , it is stored as glycogen in my muscles

Chromatin

Clusters of DNA, RNA, and proteins in the nucleus of a cell

Which of the following substrates would be used by the body to make ATP, if you reeled in a fish and the whole process took 5 seconds

Creatine phosphate (takes at least ten seconds to deplete)

DNA organization

DNA has a double helix DNA wraps around histones (which are proteins) Histones are made of 8 sub units Histones and DNA will wrap around to form nucleosomes Nucleosomes will be further coiled to form chromatin fiber chromatin fiber is then arranged to form chromatin Chromatin is arranged to form a chromosome

Extracting energy from proteins: what are the steps?

During starvation the body breaks down proteins and extracts energy from the amino acids The body prefers to use carbs and fats because when proteins are broken down (when we haven't had any food, muscles can be broken down into amino acids and that can be used to make atp) Amino acids are linked via peptide bonds Deamination strips down the amino acid to a carbon skeleton while producing a nitrogen byproduct that becomes urea Once the amine group has been stripped off as urea, the remaining Carbon skeleton will enter the catabolic pathway The carbon skeleton's r groups determine where the carbon skeleton enters the catabolic pathway End products of amino acid catabolism: the carbon skeletons point of entry to the breakdown pathways determines the amount of ATP it produces (ex: alanine will produce 12.5 ATP and methionine will only produce 5 atp) → all i need to know is if it enters the breakdown pathway first, it will make more atp than things that enter the breakdown pathway later The complete breakdown of an amino acid yields urea, carbon dioxide, water, and ATP Deamination is unique for proteins

Heterochromatin

Eukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed. Compact DNA is inaccessible This is silent - is not making things It is this compact in this way right before the cells divides and they leave each other

Based on the energy demands, the body will use different fuels to generate ATP what are the demands, what fuel do they use

For a short burst of activity (less than ten seconds), the body uses creatine phosphate If the activity is longer than ten seconds and the activity is high intensity, the body uses carbs If the activity is very long (like for half an hour), the body will start using fats

We are presented a graph that has RQ in the y axis (going from 1.0 to 0.7) and time on the x axis (this represents the time spent doing a physical activity what is the general pattern we will see

For the first ten seconds of activity, RQ value remains pretty steady at 0.8 (so proteins are being used to power activities) Ten seconds into the physical activity, the RQ value skyrockets In this state, we are engaging in anaerobic activity, so we are burning carbs At 60 seconds into physical activity, the RQ value drops off and eventually goes down to 0.7, where we are burning fats Value is initially at .8 and then it goes up to 1, then starts gradually decreasing

HOW DOES THE BODY MAKES ATP FROM GLUCOSE (carbs) I am essentially asking for the overview of cellular respiration - how do we go from glucose to ATP what are the steps?

Glucose is broken down into co2 and water During this process there are many high energy electrons and protons released The energy carried by high energy electrons will be transported via transporters NAD+ and FAD (these are important couriers that carry high energy electrons for the synthesis of ATP) When NAD+ and FAD carry these high energy electrons, they become NADH and FADH2 (NADH and FADH2 are both vitamin derivatives) High energy electrons are carried to the electron transport chain. This makes ATP and water as byproducts Water is made bc oxygen i breath in combines with high energy electrons and hydrogen atoms to form water here are the steps in order: 1. glycolysis 2. pyruvate converted to acetyl coa or lactate 3. the citric acid cycle 4. the electron transport chain

DNA has to be so tightly coiled because

it is 2 meters long and has to fit inside a nucleus which is only a few micrometers, DNA has to fit all two meters of itself inside this nucleus

What are the various metabolic pathways used by the body to make ATP

Glycolysis Krebs cycle Electrons transport chain Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl COa

Mike has an RQ of 0.8 and this may indicate?

Hes mainly metabolizing fats and carbs (0.8 is technically for proteins, but we only use proteins in times of starvation, when we arent starving we use carbs and fats at rest) Purely using fats - RQ= .07 Using just proteins RQ = 0.8 He may be using both fats and carbs because he's at rest He could also be using creatine phosphate because when you have a short burst of activity the RQ value won't change , it will stay at 0.8

finding these out will tell us what the RQ value is

How much oxygen was used? How much carbon dioxide was released?

In fat breakdown we use more oxygen, so the RQ value denominator (1) , which makes the RQ value (2)

In fat breakdown we use more oxygen, so the RQ value denominator increases , which makes the RQ value smaller I say denominator because rq value is co2 exhaled / oxygen inhaled If more oxygen is inhaled, the denominator increases, when the denominator increases, the RQ value as a whole gets smaller

Avery-MacLeod-McCarty Experiment (1944)

In this experiment, they were able to provide evidence that DNA, not proteins carry genetic information Tested 2 strains of streptococcus (which can cause anemia) Rough strain is harmless → if you inject mouse with this, the mouse will live Smooth strain causes phenomena → if you inject the mouse with this, the mouse will die They took the smooth strain and they gave it a heat treatment that essentially killed the virus, making the smooth strain harmless So if we inject mice with the smooth strain mixed with heat, the mouse will live Then, they took the smooth, heat killed strain (so the harmless strain), and they mixed it with the rough strain (which has always been harmless) When they mixed these two strains, the mouse died Because the mouse died, they realized there was some sort of transformation being made to this nonviolent strain by the heat killed strain How did this transformation happen? To answer this questions, they decided to do two types of treatment: Treat the heat killed smooth strain, which is mixed with the rough strain with either: DNAse Protease When they treated with DNAse, the mouse lived because the transformation could not happen to the nonviolent strain This made them realize that the transformation was happening through the DNA They they used the protease treatment, the mouse still died These findings revealed that the non violent strain was made violent through dna, NOT THROUGH PROTEINS

Nucleolus

Inside the nucleus is the is nucleolus, this is where we make RNA

The charge and orientation of r groups in amino acids are important in determining:

Its 3D shape Its tertiary structure The type of ligand or substrate it will bind The type of ion that will pass through its transmembrane channel Does NOT determine secondary structure because that is determined by hydrogen bonding between peptide bonds not r groups

why can I jog for longer than I can spring

Jogging is aerobic (this metabolism occurs in the mitochondria) 1 glucose molecule makes about 25 ATP, so our ATP stores do not deplete as fast and we can hold the jog for longer People can not sprint for long because the anaerobic metabolism process does not make many ATP, so this uses a lot of energy and doesnt make a lot to reimburse it. Thats why we get tired and stop faster People can job for long because the aerobic metabolic process creates many atp (around 25) , so this process makes much more energy to really over compensate and over reimburse the energy store

what happens in The electron transport chain (step 4 of making ATP from glucose)

NADH and FADH2 deliver their cargo of high energy electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC) As the electrons travel along the electron transport chain, they give up their energy to power the production of ATP (ADP + Pi) This takes part in the inner mitochondrial membrane (mitochondria) At the end of the ETC , an oxygen basket accepts the energy-depleted electrons and combines with hydrogen to form water Without oxygen, the ATP production would stop, halting the supply of power for our body's essential function Poisons work in this way, they block the electron transport chain As electrons are passed down the chain, they move from a higher to a lower energy level , releasing energy As this happening protons are being pumped across the concentration gradient Some of the energy is used to pump H+ ions out of the matrix and into the intermembrane space, establishing an electrochemical gradient H+ ions flow down the gradient powering ATP synthase

who first identified nucleic acids in 1869

Nucleic acids identified in 1869 by frederick Miescher Notes a presence of something in the cell that cannot be a protein We know it wasnt protein because it was unaffected by pepsin and there was no sulfur present (sulfur is found in amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins) The substance was derived from the nucleus of the cell - he called it nucleon This scientific finding did not make sense until the 1950s when the Avery-Macleod-McCarty experiment was conducted

Structure of the nucleus

Nucleus - center of the cell Contains DNA Nuclear membrane is a double membrane structure that surrounds nucleus Inside the nucleus is the is nucleolus, this is where we make RNA There are multiple nuclear pores all over the nucleus The double membrane around the nucleus connects with the endoplasmic reticulum - the nuclear pores open to the cytoplasm → if RNA is produced, it can exit the nucleus via the nuclear pores and go out into the cytoplasm, or it can even go back into the nucleus from the cytoplasm Nuclear pores allow selective transport Not everything can get through these pores Nuclear pores are a complex of proteins that span the nuclear membrane Ions and small molecule can pass through the prores freely Large Proteins and nucleic acid transport will be regulated via nuclear localization signals Only specific things can go through the nuclear pores

How can potassium ions pass through a biological membrane? hint: how do things move through a membrane? hint part 2: IONS

Potassium ions can pass through a biological membrane by moving through the transmembrane protein channels that are lined with hydrophilic amino acids This is because there are large areas of the lipid bilayer that are hydrophobic (aka not charged) → ions are charged (aka hydrophilic) so it needs protein channels that have hydrophilic amino heads so it can pass through answer to hints: things move through a membrane via a transmembrane protein channel - these channels allow things to move in an out of the cell hint part 2 answer: ions are charged, which is hydrophilic - this tells me what kind of transmembrane channel I need, I need one that has hydrophilic heads so this charged ion can pass through

What fuels does the body use for different types of activities

Proteins - used during starvation Fats - how much used depends on the activity im doing (if i sprint for a few minutes ill use carbs, if its less intense ill use both carbs and fats) Carbs- if i sprint for a few minutes ill use carbs

what happens in step 2 of turning glucose into ATP? hint: pyruvate transformation- what's happening

Pyruvate can be converted to acetyl coA (with 2 carbon atoms) or lactate (which has 3 carbon atoms) Can either be converted to acetyl coA or lactate When oxygen supply is short (anaerobic metabolism) pyruvate converted into lactate Lactate is an alternative fuel that muscle cells can use or that liver cells can convert into glucose Lactate an move from the muscle to the liver , then Liver cells can convert lactate to pyruvate and then to glucose , and that glucose will be sent back into the muscles → this process is called gluconeogenesis A lot of ATP is used by the liver to convert lactate to glucose , it does not produce very much ATP though We only do this if we need ATP quickly Its like paying my uber driver double to get to the airport on time (the payment is ATP- the body uses more ATP to generate glucose when we really need it) If oxygen is available , it will convert to acetyl coA 2 pyruvate molecules from 1 molecule of glucose produce 2 acetyl coA molecules This is an irreversible process- acetyl coA cannot exit the mitochondrial membrane, it must go to the citric acid cycle in the mitochondria Once pyruvate becomes acetyl coa there is no turning back Pyruvate has 3 carbon atoms - 2 of these atoms will be linked to coenzyme A , 1 carbon atom is released as carbon dioxide Releases high energy electrons, which are carried by NAD to the electron transport chain You have 2 pyruvate and 2 acetyl coalines formed

what does it mean in terms of activity and fuel when our RQ is at 0.8

RQ value at rest is 0.8, so if this person has an RQ of 0.8 they may be at rest. If he is not starving, he is using both carbs and fats During times of starvation, we use proteins (this is RQ = 0.8) so he may be using proteins Creatine phosphate is used in the first few seconds of activity, and during the first few seconds of activity the RQ value does not change from its resting state (which is 0.8) So he could be using carbs and fats (if he is at rest and not starving), protein (if he is at rest but is starving), or creatine phosphate (if he is in the first ten seconds of an activity, because the RQ does not change from 0.8 in the first ten seconds of activity and creatine phosphate is what we use in the first ten seconds)

Why does RQ value indicate the type of activity and the substrate used to make atp

RQ value tells me if the body is going to use aerobic or anaerobic pathways (anaerobic is only carbs) aerobic is proteins and fats (although carbs can be broken down via anaerobic pathways) The RQ value tells me what fuel i am using , the fuel (substrate) i am using determines the type of activity i am doing

Hydrogen bonding between the carbonyl oxygen of one amino acid and the hydrogen on the amine of a nearby amino acid is responsible for the _____ structure in proteins.

Secondary structure Alpha helices structure and the beta sheet structure which are secondary structure secondary structure is determined via hydrogen bonding

why cant I sprint for long

Sprinting is anaerobic (this metabolism occurs in the cytoplasm) 1 glucose molecule only makes about 4 ATP molecules this way So we deplete the glucose stores in the body faster, this is why we can't sustain a sprint for long People can not sprint for long because the anaerobic metabolism process does not make many ATP, so this uses a lot of energy and doesnt make a lot to reimburse it. Thats why we get tired and stop faster People can job for long because the aerobic metabolic process creates many atp (around 25) , so this process makes much more energy to really over compensate and over reimburse the energy store

General pattern of RQ during activity (on the graph)

Starts steady at 0.8 until 10 seconds in Skyrockets to 1.0 At 60 seconds in it drops back down As time goes on, the type of fuel being used influences RQ value

Extracting energy from fat - what are the steps?

Starts with lipid digestion into glycerol and free fatty acids (FFA) There are three fatty acid chains linked to the glycerol backbone A Lipase enzyme breaks lipids apart into glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains What happens to Glycerol? - glycerol is a 3 carbon alcohol - has 3 carbons - Glycerol can be modified into glucose via glycolysis → from here it can be used to make ATP Now what happens to fatty acids? - The fatty acids have a long chain of carbon that can be converted to acetyl COA 2 by 2 via beta oxidation. - Beta oxidation removes carbons from fatty acid chains 2 by 2 - CoA will be linked to the last two carbon atoms in the fatty acid chain, then the acetyl coa will be sent to the citric acid cycle - Once CoA goes to the citric acid cycle, the acetyl coa can make more NADH and FADH2, which carry high energy electrons to the electron transport chain, which is how ATP synthesis is fueled - Beta oxidation all takes place in the mitochondria - Beta oxidation is unique for fats

What is the connection between metabolism and respiration??

The amount we respirate (so the amount of oxygen we use) influences what fuels we metabolize Oxygen is used at end of ETC Carbon dioxide is produced during conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coa and during citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) Metabolism allows us to break down substances to create atp (this is catabolism) , and we see how respiration is linked to that because we know where in the metabolism cycle that oxygen is being used and how the carbon dioxide is being produced

the breakdown of glucose takes how many steps and created how many ATP?

The complete breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide (co2 AND WATER) takes like 30 steps and creates approx 30 ATP

Where is co2 being produced in the metabolic pathway?

The conversion of pyruvate The citric acid cycle

Euchromatin

The less condensed form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription. Loose DNA is accessible This is found in an active cell , one where the sequences must be easily accessed and proteins need to be made

Energy is extracted from macronutrients by multiple pathways, here are those pathways:

To breaks down carbs, we use: Glycolysis Krebs cycle Electron transport chain To break down fats, we use: Beta oxidation must take place before acetyl coa can enter the krebs cycle To break down proteins we use: Deamination must take place before it can enter any of the breakdown steps

what is RQ and what does it show us

We can determine what fuels the body is using by looking the respiratory coefficient (rq) Rq value is the ratio of carbon dioxide exhaled to the amount of oxygen inhaled

when do we use oxygen in metabolism?

We use oxygen at the end of the electron transport chain Oxygen combines with high energy protons, hydrogen ions, and the energy depleted electrons These all combine and form water

How do our bodies extract chemical energy from food and convert it to a form that our cells can use?

We use the energy from carbon-carbon bonds to create energy --> anabolism The energy you invest by bringing phosphates together can be used to fuel various cellular activities --> catabolism

When theres oxygen available, the pyruvate turns into

acetyl COA instead of lactate

Metabolism:

all chemical reactions within organisms that enable them to maintain life

Respiratory coefficient:

an index of which nutrient is being used by the body to generate ATP RQ= the volume of co2 exhaled divided by the volume of oxygen used

beta oxidation is unique to

burning fats

When completely oxidized, each glucose molecule yields what?

carbon dioxide, water, and ATP

Anaerobic and aerobic pathways can be used to break down

carbs

Metabolizing glucose is the same as metabolizing _____

carbs

Citric acid cycle can break down

carbs proteins and fats

Nucleosomes are

complexes of DNA wrapped around histone proteins

where does anaerobic metabolism occur

cytoplasm aka cytosol

As oxygen utilization increases, the RQ value starts

depleting

When you engage in quick burst of activity (sprint for less than ten seconds) - RQ value...

does not change because the amount of oxygen we are using does not change , in this state we use creatine phosphate (which adds the phosphate group to ADP to create ATP) Creatine and creatine phosphate Made from amino acids (glycine) Creatine phosphate is produced in the liver, then moved to and stored in the muscles Storage - muscle (94%) 2% of the creatine is going to be converted into creatinine → which gets excreted through the kidney and taken out via urine So for the initial burst of activity, creatine phosphate will give up its phosphates to make ATP

Chemical energy:

energy contained in the bonds between atoms of a molecule

Beta oxidation can be used to break down

fats

Aerobic metabolism can break down

fats carbs and protein

Aerobic metabolism can break down

fats carbs and proteins

You can make more atp from fat than from glucose because

fats have more carbon

Anaerobic metabolism can only use

glucose and glycogen → aka carbs

what is step 1 of breaking down glucose into ATP

glycolysis - When glucose undergoes glycolysis it is going to make 2 molecules of pyruvate (each pyruvate has 3 carbons), it also makes 2 NADH, and 4 ATP (although 2 atp were used for glycolysis to happen, so only 2 net atp are produced)

Nuclear membrane

is a double membrane structure that surrounds nucleus

what happens in the citric acid cycle (aka the Krebs cycle)

it Takes place in the mitochondria product that is formed in the first step is citric acid )citric acid has 6 carbon atoms, the glucose will be released as carbon dioxide) steps: Acetyl coA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate and release coenzyme A The two carbon atoms from acetyl coA combine with oxygen to form co2 (glucose is released as co2) Reactions of the citric acid cycle produce: - 1 GTP (guanosine triphosphate) → can be made into ATP very easily, so we can just say that 1 molecule of ATP is produced - Transfers pairs of high energy electrons to 3 molecules of NAD+ and 1 molecule of FAD - 3 NADH molecule carries high energy electrons, 1 molecule of FAD carries high energy electrons - At the end of the citric acid cycle oxaloacetate is regenerated One glucose molecule produces 2 acetyl molecules, the citric acid cycle will occur twice for every glucose molecule

Anaerobic metabolism can break down

only use glucose and glycogen (carbs)

nucelar pores

there are multiple nuclear pores all over the nucleus The double membrane around the nucleus connects with the endoplasmic reticulum - the nuclear pores open to the cytoplasm → if RNA is produced, it can exit the nucleus via the nuclear pores and go out into the cytoplasm, or it can even go back into the nucleus from the cytoplasm Nuclear pores allow selective transport Not everything can get through these pores Nuclear pores are a complex of proteins that span the nuclear membrane Ions and small molecule can pass through the prores freely Large Proteins and nucleic acid transport will be regulated via nuclear localization signals Only specific things can go through the nuclear pores

The RQ for fats and amino acids is <1.0 because

they require more o2 to produce co2 and water

The RQ for fats and amino acids (aka proteins) is less than 1.0 because

they require more oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water Anaerobic metabolism can only use glucose and glycogen

what happens in glycolysis? (what goes in and what goes out)

this is step 1 Glucose is the input 1. Glucose splits - one six carbon glucose molecule splits into two three carbon pyruvate molecules Uses 2 ATP and produces 4 ATP Net end result of 2 ATP Using several reactions and transfers high energy electrons to NAD+ shuttle molecules High energy electrons are carried by NADH to the electron transport chain ATP is the output (2 atp) The output involved in glycolysis is four ATP, two NADH and two pyruvate molecules. this process Does not require oxygen and occurs in the cytosol

The complete breakdown of an amino acid yields

urea, carbon dioxide, water, and ATP

A minute into the sprint, the RQ value starts to decrease for 2 reasons:

we are depleting glucose reserves and the body starts using fats When the body uses more fats, the oxygen use will increase, and as the oxygen used increases, the RQ value will decrease There could be a lot of lactic acid produced when we are using anaerobic metabolism and that lactic acid may not all be quickly converted back to glucose The buildup of lactic acid can also lead to muscle pain and fatigue , and as a result you aren't pushing yourself with the same intensity as you did 60 seconds ago, so my intensity starts decreasing and I am breathing in more oxygen, which will result in a smaller RQ value If there's more oxygen available, the pyruvate will be turned into acetyl coa instead of lactate, so you're getting more ATP produced for the given amount of glucose This is the point where you've used up all your glucose and you're just using fats (this is where the graph dips close to 0.7)

heterochromatin/euchromatin Analogy:

when you're about to move (aka cell is about to divide) you have everything packed tightly in boxes so you can fit it all (this is heterochromatin). It is hard to find things that are packed tightly away in boxes (just like how the dna is inaccessible when its packed tightly in heterochromatin) Once you move and unpack in your new place (aka the cell divides) you have your things loosely arranged in your new apartment, so it is easier to find household items (aka in euchromatin, the dna is accessible for use)