BUAD309 exam 1
Cultural Intelligence
"a person's capability to adapt as s/he interacts with others from different cultural regions", and has behavioral, motivational, and metacognitive aspects Cultural intelligence or CQ is measured on a scale similar to that used to measure IQ. People with higher CQ's are regarded as better able to successfully blend into any environment, using more effective business practices, than those with a lower CQ.
The desire to reduce dissonance depends on these moderating factors:
-Importance of behavior or attitude -Degree of influence we have over the dissonance -Rewards of dissonance Individuals will be more motivated to reduce dissonance when the behavior or attitude are more important (core value), they believe that they have a high degree of control over the dissonance, and/or there is a high level of reward associated with high dissonance
Emotional Intelligence is a person's ability to:
-Perceive emotions in the self and others -Understand the meaning of these emotions and -Regulate one's emotions **People who know their own emotions and are good at picking up emotional cues and able to express them without violating norms are most likely to be effective.
EEO Laws
-Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 -The Age Discrimination in Employment act of 1967 (ADEA) -Title 1 of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) -The Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA) -The Pregnancy Discrimination Act
3 Major Job Attitudes
1. Job Satisfaction 2. Job Involvement 3. Organizational Commitment
Two approaches for measuring Job Satisfaction are popular:
1. The single global rating: a response to one question, e.g., all things considered, how satisfied are you with your job from 1= highly dissatisfied to 5 = highly satisfied 2. Summation Job Facets: facets focuses on key elements of a job including: Nature of the work Supervision Pay Promotion Opportunities Relationships with co-workers While research suggests that the global measure works just as well as the summation of job facets, the latter approach allows organizations to identify specific areas of concern and develop interventions to address the issues.
Job Satisfaction
A positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics Job satisfaction is a multifaceted concept
Job Satisfaction (major job attitude)
A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics
Hypothesis
A proposed relationship between two or more variables e.g., employees who are more satisfied with work will be better performers
Dependent Variable
A response that is effected by an independent variable. It is the variable that the researcher is interested in explaining. Ex: Who learns more (students who participate in class discussion or students who do not)
Job Satisfaction and Job Performance
A review of research indicates a positive relationship between job satisfaction and job performance at both the individual and organizational level
Theory
A set of interrelated concepts that purports to explain or predict phenomena Researchers formulate hypotheses based on established theories Often, researchers are trying to extend support for an existing theory by studying the impact of new variables or new levels of variables When the research can be replicated in the lab and the field, the theory is considered to be more robust and lend itself to real-life application
Moderating Variable
Abates the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. If X (independent variable), then Y (dependent variable) will occur, but only under conditions Z (moderating variable) e.g., Again with job satisfaction, we might find that employee satisfaction predicts job performance, but only for women. In this case gender moderates the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance
Dimensions of Organizational Commitment (major job attitude)
Affective - emotional attachment to organization and a belief in its values Continuance Commitment - economic value of staying Normative - moral or ethical obligations - to leave would cause harm to the employer
Tests of Affective Events Theory suggest:
An emotional episode is actually the result of a series of emotional experiences triggered by a single event. Current and past emotions affect job satisfaction. Emotions fluctuate over time creating variations in job performance. Both negative and positive emotions can distract workers and reduce job performance - they take away the focus from the job.
Emotional Labor
An employee's expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work. Employers expect employees to be "emotionally appropriate" at work.
Variable
Any general characteristic that can be measured e.g., personality, job satisfaction
Cognitive Dissonance Example: You see a good friend at work steal a computer
Attitudes: You value your friendships but also believe that theft is wrong. Behavior: You report the theft to your boss. Your beliefs regarding theft and the control you have over reducing any dissonance associated with reporting the theft are high enough to justify your behavior.
Why are organizations concerned with attitudes?
Because of their behavioral component
Do attitudes predict behavior or do attitudes follow behavior?
Both!
Components of CQ
CQ Drive CQ Knowledge CQ Strategy CQ Action
Improving CQ
CQ provides us with ways to improve our cultural perception so that we can distinguish behaviors driven by culture from those specific to an individual business practice can be improved by allowing knowledge and appreciation of the difference to guide responses.
3 components of an Attitude
Cognitive component Affective component Behavioral component
Identify 4 employee reactions to dissatisfaction
Constructive Destructive Active Voice Exit Passive Loyalty Neglect
Example: laboratory experiment examining the effect of specific, difficult goals (independent variable) on task performance (dependent variable) What 3 groups are subjects divided into?
Control Group - No goals Easy Goal Group - Assigned Easy goals Difficult Goal Group - Assigned Difficult goals
Job Involvement (major job attitude)
Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth Psychological Empowerment Belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy
Perceived Organizational Support
Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in decision making, and supervisors are seen as supportive. High perceived organizational support is related to higher level of organizational citizenship behavior, lower levels of tardiness and better customer service.
Implications of Affective Events Theory
Emotions provide valuable insights about how workplace events influence behavior Emotions, and the events that cause them, should not be ignored at work
Emotional Dissonance
Employees have to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling another (I'm angry with a customer, but cannot show it). Bottled up feelings of anger and frustration can be very damaging and lead to emotional exhaustion and burnout.
Affective Events Theory (AET)
Employees react emotionally to things that happen at work and this reaction influences their job performance and satisfaction. -Emotions are a response to an event in the work environment (job demands, job characteristics, emotional labor demands). -This environment creates both positive and negative work events (hassles versus receiving recognition) -These work events trigger emotional reactions (positive and negative) -Personality and mood moderate the intensity of response to work events -Emotions impact a job performance and job satisfaction
The increasing importance of emotional labor as a key indicator in job performance has raised the interest in emotion in the field of OB
Example: working with an abrasive co-worker can require you to suppress your emotions to remain appropriate at work. You need to separate your felt emotions (actual emotions) from your displayed emotions (those required in the workplace).
Job Satisfaction and Workplace Deviance
Examples include tardiness, theft, excessive socializing, surfing the web, substance abuse. Employees who don't like their job find ways to take out their frustration on the company.
What are the potential consequences of job dissatisfaction?
Exit - looking for a new position/resigning Voice - actively and constructively trying to improve conditions Loyalty - passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve Neglect - passively allows conditions to worsen and includes chronic absenteeism or lateness, reduced effort, and increased error rate **You might see people passing through multiple phases culminating with exit when external conditions make leaving the company an option.
Types of Emotions
Felt: the individual's actual emotions Displayed: required or appropriate emotions **Research shows that surface acting is more stressful and may result in higher levels of burnout.
External Validity
Field Studies are more generalizable
How would you measure the dependent variable?
Grade in the class, test scores
Workplace Harassment
Harassment on the basis of gender, religion, national origin, race and/or color violates Title VII.
Surface Acting (Displayed Emotions)
Hiding one's inner feelings and forgoing emotional expressions in response to display rules (smiling when you don't feel like it).
Organizational Commitment (major job attitude)
Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, while wishing to maintain membership in the organization. Has some relation to performance, especially for new employees. Research shows a negative relationship between commitment and both absenteeism and turnover. Theoretical models propose that employees who are committed will be less likely to engage in work withdrawal even if they are dissatisfied, because they have a sense of organizational loyalty.
Causality
In a causal relationship, changes in the independent variable are assumed to result in changes to the dependent variable -In order to make causal inferences, you have to be able to manipulate the independent variable
Correlation
In a correlational relationship, we know that two variables are related, but we can't say that one causes the other.
Intellectual Abilities
Intellectual abilities are abilities needed to perform mental activities—thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. Most societies place a high value on intelligence, and for good reason. The more complex a job, in terms of information processing demands, the more general intelligence and verbal abilities will be important for success Matching the right people to the right jobs/tasks is one role of the manager in leveraging intellectual diversity.
Emotional Intelligence is controversial and not wholly accepted Case for Emotional Intelligence:
Intuitive appeal Predicts criteria that matter (performance) Is biologically-based - studies of brain damage indicates that EI is neurologically based and unrelated to standard measures of intelligence
What does managing Diversity do?
It effectively enables an organization to increase their access to a wider array of skills, abilities, and ideas. It also requires skill in conflict management, as individual differences of any kind can result in misunderstandings.
What is the importance of Ability at work?
It increases difficulty in formulating workplace policies that recognize disabilities. Recognizing that individuals have different abilities that can be taken into account when making hiring decisions is not problematic. E.g., -- firefighters It is also possible to make accommodations for some disabilities, depending on the job requirements.
It is important for employers to create a fair and safe workplace for all employees because:
It's the right thing to do! Distractions caused by unfair treatment can impact organizational effectiveness. Legal issues are typically costly to employers in terms of both financial costs and reputation. e.g., Cracker Barrel -- sued by the EEOC in 2004 for sexual harassment of employees and racial discrimination of customers.
Internal Validity
Lab experiments allow more precision in how you control the environment so you can have greater confidence that the results were due to the changes in the independent variable **While you can conduct experiments in the field, there is still less control than in the lab
Title 1 of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA)
Makes it illegal to discriminate against a qualified person with a disability in the private sector and in state and local governments The law also requires that employers reasonably accommodate the known physical or mental limitations of an otherwise qualified individual with a disability who is an applicant or employee, unless doing so would impose an undue hardship on the operation of the employer's business
Use of Deception
Milgram's studies; Zimbardo's prison study
Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (helpful behaviors at work)
Moderate correlation between Job Satisfaction and OCB
Inverse Correlation
Negative relationship between 2 variables e.g., higher levels of money spent on safety training associated with fewer accidents
Pay influence on Job Satisfaction
Pay influences job satisfaction only to a point. After a certain amount of financial compensation is achieved, (in the U.S.), there is no relationship between amount of pay and job satisfaction. Money may bring happiness, but not necessarily job satisfaction.
Role of personality in Job Satisfaction
People who have positive core self-evaluations, who believe in their inner worth and basic competence are more satisfied with their jobs than those with negative core self-evaluations. Those with negative core self-evaluations set less ambitious goals and are more likely to give up when confronting difficulties.
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA)
Protects people who are 40 or older from discrimination because of age
Summary and Implications for Managers
Satisfied and committed employees have lower rates of turnover, absenteeism, and withdrawal behaviors. Managers will also want to measure job attitudes effectively so they can tell how employees are reacting to their work. The most important thing managers can do to raise employee satisfaction is focus on the intrinsic parts of the job, such as making the work challenging and interesting. Although paying employees poorly will likely not attract high-quality employees to the organization or keep high performers, managers should realize that high pay alone is unlikely to create a satisfying work environment.
Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction
Satisfied employees increase both customer satisfaction and loyalty.
Many managers overestimate the level of job satisfaction in their companies
Since dissatisfaction can cause major disruptions and even financial loss, companies would be wise to try to find the cause of dissatisfaction rather than try to control all deviant behaviors.
2 Forms of Workforce Diversity
Surface-Level Diversity Deep-Level Diversity
Why were emotions ignored in OB?
The "Myth of Rationality" -Emotions were seen as irrational -Managers worked to make emotion-free environments View of Emotionality -Emotions were believed to be disruptive -Emotions interfered with productivity -Only negative emotions were observed; the idea that positive emotions could enhance performance wasn't considered *Now we know emotions can't be separated from the workplace
Control versus generalizability
The basic tradeoff between field studies and lab studies are the issues of control and generalizability
Physical Ability
The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics. The three main categories of physical ability are... Strength Flexibility And Other characteristics
Employee Engagement
The degree of involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job. Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company. Disengaged employees are often described as being "checked-out." Research has shown that employees having a high-average level of engagement had higher levels of customer satisfaction, were more productive, had high profits, lower levels of turnover, and few accidents.
Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism/Turnover
The relationship between job satisfaction and turnover is stronger than that between job satisfaction and absenteeism. The relationship with turnover is better predicted when two factors are present - plentiful employment opportunities and highly capable employees
Are Moods and Emotions Related?
The two are distinct, but related in that an emotional event can result in a change in mood Example: a poor performance evaluation may make you angry (emotion) but you then become generally discouraged and "down" which may then make you more likely to overreact to other events (e.g., a minor slight by a co-worker).
What happens if they find discrimination has occurred?
They will try to settle the charge with the employer. If they cannot successfully settle the charge, they have the authority to file a lawsuit to protect the rights of individuals and the interests of the public.
Pregnancy Discrimination Act
This law amended Title VII to make it illegal to discriminate against a woman because of pregnancy, childbirth, or a medical condition related to pregnancy or childbirth. The law also makes it illegal to retaliate against a person because the person complained about discrimination, filed a charge of discrimination, or participated in an employment discrimination investigation or lawsuit. Women who are pregnant or affected by pregnancy-related conditions must be treated in the same manner as other applicants or employees with similar abilities or limitations.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
This law makes it illegal to discriminate against someone on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex The law also requires that employers reasonably accommodate applicants' and employees' sincerely held religious practices, unless doing so would impose an undue hardship on the operation of the employer's business.
Equal Pay Act of 1963
This law makes it illegal to pay different wages to men and women if they perform equal work in the same workplace People doing substantially the same work must be paid the same. The law applies to all aspects of compensation (e.g., benefits, bonuses) not just salary. **E.g., male and female prison guards in Oregon - County of Washington vs. Gunther. The job titles don't have to be exactly the same - judgment is made based on the work performed
Deep Acting (Felt Emotions)
Trying to modify one's true inner feelings based on display rules (trying to feel empathy for a customer who is experiencing difficulties with your product or service).
Cognitive Component (of an Attitude)
a belief about the way things are (my pay is low).
CQ Action
a person's capability to adapt verbal and nonverbal behavior to make it appropriate to diverse cultures. It involves having a flexible repertoire of behavioral responses that suit a variety of situations Non-Verbal - modifying non-verbal behaviors (e.g., gestures, facial expressions) Verbal - modifying verbal behaviors (e.g., accent, tone)
CQ Drive
a person's interest and confidence in functioning effectively in culturally diverse settings. Intrinsic Interest - deriving enjoyment from culturally diverse experiences Extrinsic Interest - gaining benefits from culturally diverse experiences Self-efficacy - having the confidence to be effective in culturally diverse situations
CQ Knowledge
a person's knowledge about how cultures are similar and how cultures are different. Business - knowledge about economic and legal systems Interpersonal - knowledge about values, social interaction norms, and religious beliefs Socio-linguistics - knowledge about rules of languages and rules for expressing non-verbal behaviors
Emotions
a reaction to a stimulus (person or event), specific, and brief.
Behavioral Component (of an Attitude)
an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something (I am going to look for a job that pays better).
Deep-Level Abilities
closely related to job performance. Ability is an individual's current capacity to perform various tasks in a job Two types 1. Intellectual abilities 2. Physical abilities
CQ is developed through:
cognitive means physical means motivational means
Privacy Issues
confidentiality/anonymity
Data Integrity
e.g., removing data from your analysis to "improve" your results
Attitudes
evaluative statements (favorable or unfavorable) about objects, people or events composed of three components
CQ Strategy
how a person makes sense of culturally diverse experiences. It occurs when people make judgments about their own thought processes and those of others. Awareness - knowing about one's existing cultural knowledge Planning - strategizing before a culturally diverse encounter Checking - checking assumptions and adjusting mental maps when actual experiences differ from expectations
Cognitive Dissonance
incompatibility an individual might perceive between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes. **Festinger proposed that cases of attitude following behavior illustrate the effects of cognitive dissonance. Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior. **
Correlation Coefficient
indicates the strength and direction of a relationship Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
Two major types of design study
laboratory studies and field studies
Cognitive Means (CQ development)
learning about your own and other cultures, and cultural diversity - acquiring knowledge through reading, experiences, ask/listen to others.
Field studies are often conducted without..?
manipulating variables, but rather by using naturally occurring differences Example: Two sites of an organization are using different performance appraisal processes Site A is using a new Management By Objectives (MBO) approach that includes information on how individual goals are linked to higher level organizational goals Site B is using the older MBO process where individuals are only allowed to see their own goals
Moods
more general without a specific causal event, and last longer than emotions.
Illegal Discrimination
occurs when unfair treatment of a specific group of people possessing the same characteristics can be shown to be based on those characteristics. Examples: No persons of color in police detective positions. No women firefighters. No women hired for coal mining position. Hiring decisions should be based on BFOQs (bona fide occupational qualifications).
Direct Correlation
positive relationship between 2 variables e.g., increase in advertising dollars spent associated with higher sales revenue
Independent Variable
presumed cause of some change in the dependent variable. e.g., in the previous example involving job satisfaction and performance, performance would be the dependent variable and job satisfaction would be the independent variable
Surface-Level Diversity
refers to characteristics that are easily observed such as race, gender, age.
Deep-Level Diversity
represents the aspects that are more difficult to see at first glance such as values, personality, and work preferences.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
responsible for enforcing federal laws that make it illegal to discriminate against a job applicant or an employee because of the person's race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy), national origin, age (40 or older), disability or genetic information. Most employers with at least 15 employees are covered by EEOC laws. Most labor unions and employment agencies are also covered. The laws apply to all types of work situations, including hiring, firing, promotions, harassment, training, wages, and benefits.
Physical Means
the body (using your senses and adapting your movements and body language to blend in); watch what others do - be observant; eliminate behaviors and non-verbals that are taboo in other countries
Cultural Diversity
the different values, preferences, and approaches of people from different cultures can create challenges. E.g., International Ceiling company project
Affective Component (of an Attitude)
the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude (I am angry about my salary).
Motivational means
the emotions (gaining rewards and confidence from acceptance and success). Connect your interests with the culture (art, cooking, sports); think of positive outcomes (better job, more money); travel more
Defining Diversity
there are many dimensions on which people differ. Differences can provide a diversity of ideas and perspectives resulting in better team and organizational performance. E.g., Proctor & Gamble Differences can also contribute to conflict, but when properly managed, conflict can actually improve decisions, innovation, creativity and performance.
What is the EEOC's role in an investigation?
to fairly and accurately assess the allegations in the charge and then make a finding.
What does the EEOC have Authority to do?
to investigate charges of discrimination against employers who are covered by the law.
