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Simple personal preferences

In general, ethical dilemmas for managers may center on direct personal gain, indirect personal gain, or simple personal preferences.

Images and coalitions

Rather than discussing the issues the goal becomes winning. You try to mobilize your colleagues to support your position. -focus shifts from the issues to conflict personalization. The goal becomes winning. You try to form a coalition against your opponent and attack his or her core identity.

Satisficing

Satisficing is examining alternatives only until a solution that meets minimal requirements is found and then ceasing to look for a better one.

alternative dispute resolution

Sometimes two parties are unable to reach an acceptable settlement through direct negotiations with each other. In such cases, the parties may involve a third party to overcome the stalemate and avoid a trial.

Suboptimizing

Suboptimizing is knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on other aspects of the organization.

Hardening

You and your opponent calmly discuss the objective issues involved in the conflict.

Programmed decision

You need to create the work schedule for your employees for the next two weeks.

Nonprogrammed decision

You need to identify which performance-based rewards (including money, days off, trips, and TVs) for employees to choose from to make sure that the rewards they receive are those most valuable to them.

Condition of risk

You need to place an order for the weekly supplies for your restaurant. You don't want to order too much of the most expensive ingredients, but you can't be certain how many people will want to order those dishes in the next week.

The accommodating style of conflict management reflects

a low concern for your own interests and a high concern for the interests of the other party.

Friedrich Glasl developed

a nine-stage model that illustrates how conflict escal

An intranet is

a type of centralized information clearinghouse. At its simplest, an intranet is a website stored on a computer that is connected to other company computers by an internal network intranets give employees controlled access to the information stored on a company's network, which can reduce the need for paper versions of documents such as manuals and company forms. Intranets are not useful if many employees do not use or have access to computers, or if no one has the expertise to set up and manage the intranet.

Convergent thinking

allows people to see similarities between situations, phenomena, or events.

Collaboration software

allows team members to easily share information and work together on projects. People can easily interface with their team members in real time using various digital devices.

A coalition is

an informal alliance of individuals or groups formed to achieve a common goal.

intuition is

an innate belief about something without conscious consideration. Managers sometimes decide to do something because it "feels right" or they have a hunch.

Satellite offices

are offices situated to be more convenient for employees and/or customers. These offices are located away from what would normally be the main office location.

Constructive conflicts, also called functional conflicts,

balance the interests of both parties to maximize mutual gains and the attainment of mutual goals.

email has evolved from an informal communication channel to

become a primary and formal means of business correspondence.*

dysfunctional conflict

becomes separated from the initial issue and continues even after the original conflict becomes irrelevant or is forgotten.

the leader who engages in employee-centered leader behavior attempts to

build effective work groups with high performance goals. The leader's main concern is with high performance, but that is to be achieved by paying attention to the human aspects of the group

Structural intervention:

changing the shape of the team. Social interaction and working can be structured to engage everyone on the team.

Portals can make project status

continually visible to managers through real-time reports and visual cues such as red-yellow-green traffic signals or digital dashboards

Structural conflict

is the result of structural or process features of the organization. Structural conflict can be horizontal or vertical.

One of the most important things a virtual team leader can do

is to establish a communication climate that is characterized by openness, trust, support, mutual respect, and risk taking.

Two basic forms of leader behavior identified from michigan leadership studies

job-centered and employee-centered

a group scheduling system

lets group members input their daily schedules into a common scheduling database. This makes it faster and easier to identify the best times for meetings and to schedule them quickly.

Webcasts are

live or prerecorded video segments that are broadcast over a company's intranet and archived for employees to view later.

Portals are

similar to intranets but tend to be more project-focused. Portals strongly resemble Internet sites like Yahoo.com and AOL.com.

The Ohio State studies found what two kinds of leadership behavior

"consideration" and "initiating-structure." These behaviors are somewhat parallel to those found in the Michigan studies but this research suggested that these two types of behavior were actually independent dimensions.

One expert identified five categories of important leadership skills in virtual project team or distance management situations:

- Communicating effectively and matching technology to the situation: -Building community among team members based on mutual trust, respect, affiliation, and fairness: -Establishing a clear and motivating shared vision, team purpose, goals, and expectations: -Leading by example and focusing on measurable results: -Coordinating and collaborating across organizational boundaries:

Effective project teams tend to have

- low but increasing levels of process conflict - moderate levels of task conflict in the middle of the project - low levels of relationship conflict that increase toward the end of the project.

The four fundamental principles of integrative negotiation are

1) separate the people from the problem. Separate relationship issues (or "people problems" such as emotions, misperceptions, and communication issues) from substantive issues, and deal with them independently. 2) Focus on interests, not positions. Negotiate about things that people really want and need, and not what they say they want or need. 3)Invent options for mutual gain. Look for new solutions to the problem that will allow both sides to win, rather than just fighting over the original positions that assume that for one side to win, the other side must lose. 4)Insist on objective fairness criteria. Outside, objective fairness criteria for the negotiated agreement are ideal if they exist (like the terms of another company's union-management contract).

the richness of a medium depends on four things:

1)Interactivity, or the availability of feedback. Immediate feedback allows senders to adjust their messages. Richer media provide faster feedback. 2)The ability to transmit multiple cues, such as physical presence, voice inflection, nonverbal cues, and pictures. Richer media allow the communication of multiple cues. 3)Language variety for conveying a broad set of concepts and ideas. For example, ideas about a new advertising campaign cannot be expressed in as many ways in a letter as they can in a face-to-face conversation. Richer media allow for greater language variety. 4)The personal focus of the medium, or the degree to which it allows the expression of emotions and other social cues. Richer media allow for more personal focus.

Conciliation :

A third party builds a positive relationship between the parties, improves their communication, and facilitates their discussion. - get the parties to better communicate and resolve the problem on their ow Conciliation facilitates a discussion and directs the parties toward a satisfactory settlement and may issue a binding opinion if both parties agreed to that ahead of time.

arbitration :

A third party is involved and usually has the authority to impose a settlement on the parties. legally binding

Four strategies for dealing with the challenges of multicultural teams are

Adaptation Structural intervention: Managerial intervention: Exit:

Mediation :

An impartial third party (the mediator) facilitates a discussion using persuasion and logic, suggesting alternatives, and establishing each side's priorities. The mediator suggests a settlement that does not have to be accepted. voluntary and nonbinding process

Fragmentation of the enemy

Communication with your opponent is ended as winning is no longer possible. The goal becomes outlasting your opponent and destroying her power base. In the fragmentation of the enemy stage you stop communicating with your opponent as winning is no longer possible. The goal becomes outlasting your opponent and destroying his or her power base.

three types of alternative dispute resolution:

Conciliation Mediation Arbitration

escalation of commitment to a chosen course of action (sometimes called the sunk cost fallacy).

In particular, decision makers sometimes make decisions and then become so committed to the course of action suggested by that decision that they stay with it or even increase their investment in it, even when it appears to have been wrong

nine stage model of escalating conflict

In the first stage of conflict escalation, hardening, each side's opinion hardens and the two opponents adopt a collision course. In the second stage, debate, each side's opinion becomes polarized and emotions rise. Each side begins thinking in terms of black and white and adopts a viewpoint of self-superiority and opponent-inferiority. Constructive conflicts are generally resolved by the second stage. The third stage, action over words, sees a decrease in empathy for the opponent, and the idea that "talking no longer helps" emerges. The conflict becomes increasingly destructive in this stage. In the fourth stage, images/coalitions, negative rumors are spread and stereotypes are formed as each side prepares for a fight and conducts a search for supporters. The fifth stage, loss of face, marks the beginning of open and direct aggression intended to cause the opponent's loss of public face. In the sixth stage, threat as a strategy, threats and counter-threats increase. As ultimatums are made, conflict escalation accelerates. In the seventh stage, limited attempts to overthrow, the opponent is no longer viewed as a person. Slight personal damage is considered acceptable as a consequence of limited attempts to overthrow the opponent. In the eighth stage, fragmentation of the enemy, the goal becomes the destruction and dissolution of the system. This goal is pursued aggressively. The ninth and final stage, together into the abyss, sees the descent into total confrontation with no way back. Extermination of the opponent at the price of self-extermination is seen and accepted.*

satisficing.

Making a(n) satisfactory rather than optimal

Differing task goals

Marketing employees and production employees have differing task goals in this situation. When groups have disagreements about tasks or goals, task conflict often arises.

Conflicts of interest can occur over:

Substantive issues including time, money, and physical resources Procedural issues involving the way the conflict will be handled Psychological issues including perceptions of fairness, trust, or interest in participating

Resource constraints

The availability and allocation of scarce resources is a major source of conflict in organizations. Incompatible needs and competition over perceived or actual resource constraints can create conflicts of interest.

satisficing

The final feature of the behavioral approach is - examining alternatives only until a solution that meets minimal requirements is found and then ceasing to look for a better one.*

The Michigan leadership studies were a program of research conducted at the University of Michigan.*

The goal of this work was to determine the pattern of leadership behaviors that result in effective group performance. From interviews with supervisors and subordinates of high- and low-productivity groups in several organizations, the researchers collected and analyzed descriptions of supervisory behavior to determine how effective supervisors differed from ineffective ones

compromising

This entails sacrificing something to end the conflict.

information pull

This occurs when someone receives information she requested

Herbert A. Simon was one of the first experts to recognize that

decisions are not always made with rationality and logic.* - Rather than prescribing how decisions should be made, his view of decision making, now called the administrative model , describes how decisions often actually are made. (Note that Simon was not advocating that managers use the administrative model but was instead describing how managers actually make decisions.)

The goal of the so-called behavioral approach was to

determine what behaviors are associated with effective leadership. The behavioral approach to the study of leadership included the Michigan studies, the Ohio State studies, and the leadership grid.

Asynchronous technologies

e-mail, wikis, and some electronic meetings delay the communication of the message.

Instant messaging

enables users to see who is logged on and to chat with them in real time rather than emailing and waiting for a response.

richest medium

face to face - telephone is second

Dysfunctional conflicts

focus on emotions and differences between the two parties and can degenerate to the extent that the parties forget the substantive issues and focus on getting even, retaliating, or even hurting the other party.

prospect theory

focuses on decisions under a condition of risk. - The theory argues that such decisions are influenced more by the potential value of gains or losses than the final outcome itself. - The theory further argues that, all else being equal, people are more motivated to avoid losses than they are to seek gains. Stated another way, people may be more motivated by the threat of losing something they have than they are by the prospect of gaining something they do not have.

the acronym BATNA stands

for "best alternative to a negotiated agreement." It is what you could have done had no negotiation taken place, or what you will do if you cannot reach an agreement with the other party

Decisions made in organizations can be classified according to______

frequency and to information conditions.

The fourth step in the rational decision making process is to ________________

generate alternatives

Early researchers believed that leaders such as Lincoln, Napoleon, Joan of Arc, Hitler, and Gandhi

had some unique set of qualities or traits that distinguished them from their peers. Moreover, these traits were presumed to be relatively stable and enduring.

Informational diversity, or diversity in knowledge and experience

has a positive impact on team performance. Because team members' unique knowledge enlarges the team's knowledge resources and can enhance the options it is able to consider, it can enhance creativity and problem solving

When online shoe retailer Zappos had to reduce its staff by 8 percent, CEO Tony Hsieh used his online chronicle of personal thoughts and interests to reassure employees and outline the steps the company would take.

his blog

The earliest writers believed that

important leadership traits included intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, energy, activity, and task-relevant knowledge

Home-based telecommuting

includes people who work at home for some period on a regular basis, but not necessarily every day.

The "action over words" stage of conflict escalation sees

increased frustration, decreased verbal communication, and increased nonverbal communication.

Decision support systems are

interactive, computer-based systems that help decision-making teams find solutions to unstructured problems that require judgment, evaluation, and insights.

Interpersonal differences

interpersonal differences are a common trigger of relationship conflict, which is the result of incompatibility or differences between individuals or groups. Relationship conflict can also be triggered by personality, particularly the personality traits of dogmatism and power motivation. Relationship problems often fuel disputes and lead to an unnecessary escalating spiral of dysfunctional conflict.

Loss of face

involves attacking the opponent's public face, which would happen if you were accused of lying ex- Your opponent tells your coworkers that you lied to her about how much money was left in the budget that you both have been discussing how to manage.

Task conflict

is a disagreement about the task or goals. A moderate amount of task conflict is beneficial in the early stages of a project because it increases innovation and generates more alternatives from which to choose. However, task conflict is more likely to be detrimental over time when tasks are complex

The Leadership Grid

is a method of evaluating leadership styles. The overall objective of an organization using the Grid is to train its managers using organizational development techniques so that they are simultaneously more concerned for both people and production (9,9 style on the Grid).

Integrative negotiation

is a win-win negotiation in which the agreement involves no loss to either party.* In general, integrative bargaining is better than distributive bargaining because when it is over neither party feels that they have lost.

Job-centered leader behavior

is associated with directing and monitoring the performance of subordinates. This manager is exhibiting job-centered leader behavior by explaining a work procedure to one of her subordinates. The leader's primary concern is efficient completion of the task

Frequency and information conditions

is how often a particular decision situation recurs, and describe how much information is available about the likelihood of various outcomes.

Suboptimizing

is knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome.

risk propensity

is the extent to which a decision maker is willing to gamble when making a decision

Bounded rationality

is the idea that although individuals may seek the best solution to a problem, the demands of processing all the information bearing on the problem, generating all possible solutions, and choosing the single best solution are beyond the capabilities of most decision makers.

Bounded rationality

is the idea that although individuals may seek the best solution to a problem, the demands of processing all the information bearing on the problem, generating all possible solutions, and choosing the single best solution are beyond the capabilities of most decision makers. Thus, they accept less-than-ideal solutions based on a process that is neither exhaustive nor entirely rational. Escalation of commitment occurs when a decision maker stays with a decision even when it appears to be wrong. A coalition is an informal alliance of individuals or groups formed to achieve a common goal. Ethical dilemmas for managers may center on direct personal gain, indirect personal gain, or simple personal preferences.

To be perceived as competent communicators

managers must share and respond to information in a timely manner, actively listen to other points of view, communicate clearly and succinctly, and utilize a variety of communication channels.*

hat term refers to work completed by traveling employees who use technology to communicate with the office as necessary from places such as client offices, airports, cars, and hotels?

mobile work

Distributive negotiation

occurs under zero-sum conditions, where any gain to one party is offset by an equivalent loss to the other party.* Distributive negotiation essentially distributes resources among the parties involved

Demographic diversity,

often has a negative impact on performance. Team conflict tends to increase and teams tend to perform lower as they become more demographically diverse.

conflict can often be de-escalated by

open communication and discussion. These two colleagues, for example, have resolved a dispute and are shaking hands to symbolize that they are now in agreement.

Information conflict occurs when

people lack important information, are misinformed, interpret information differently, or disagree about which information is relevant.

Neighborhood work centers

provide office space for the employees of more than one company in order to save commutes to central locations.

conflict

refers to a disagreement through which two or more parties perceive a threat to their interests, needs, or concerns?

cohesiveness

refers to the degree to which members are attracted to the team and to its members and how loyal team members are to the team and to each other.

Mobile work

refers to work completed by traveling employees who use technology to communicate with the office as necessary from places such as client offices, airports, cars, and hotels.

process conflict

reflects conflict about how to accomplish a task, who is responsible for what, or how things should be delegated.* Role ambiguity increases process conflict.

Exit:

removing a team member when other options have failed. If emotions get too high and too much face has been lost, it can be almost impossible to get a team to work together effectively again.*

Wikis are

searchable, archivable websites that allow people to comment on and edit one another's work in real time.

Adaptation:

seeing a problem as a cultural difference, and not a personality issue. This works when team members are willing and able to identify and acknowledge their cultural differences and to assume responsibility for figuring out how to live with them.

Managerial intervention:

setting norms early or bringing in a higher-level manager. This usually works best early in a team's life. In one case, a manager set norms of respect by telling his new team that no one had been chosen for English skills; each member was chosen because he or she was technically the best person for the job, so get over the accents.*

An ombudsman is

someone who investigates complaints and mediates fair settlements between aggrieved parties.

the trait approach to leadership focuses on

stable and identifiable traits that differentiate effective leaders from nonleaders. Gandhi was seen as an outstanding leader, in part because of his integrity and humility.

what type of technologies allow real time communication and interaction?

synchronous technology.

To leverage the potential benefits of diversity, many managers and companies

take steps to proactively staff their teams with informational diversity and with people who are comfortable with diversity and with teamwork.

Portals are similar to intranets but

tend to be more project-focused. Portals strongly resemble Internet sites like Yahoo.com and AOL.com. Users interact with them with a standard computer browser like Internet Explorer or Netscape, but instead of containing links to news and weather, the links lead you to sites on the company's private intranet.

The fundamental point of bounded rationality is

that there are limits to a manager's ability to generate alternatives and process information.

ehen using initiating-structure behavior

the leader clearly defines the leader-subordinate roles so that subordinates know what is expected of them. The leader also establishes channels of communication and determines the methods for accomplishing the group's task.

When engaging in consideration behavior

the leader is concerned with the subordinates' feelings and respects subordinates' ideas. The leader-subordinate relationship is characterized by mutual trust, respect, and two-way communication.

A decision support system can reduce

the likelihood that one member will dominate the discussion, and helps groups avoid many of the barriers that face-to-face groups encounter.

Formal written correspondence ranks

the lowest in terms of richness, feedback availability, personal focus, and the number of cues it provides.

Media Richness

the media's ability to carry nonverbal cues, provide rapid feedback, convey personality traits, and support the use of natural language

Early studies focused on Later research shifted

the traits, or personal characteristics, of leaders.* to examine actual leader behaviors.

Communicating in person is important

to building credibility and trust

Workflow automation systems

use technology to facilitate and speed up work processes. These systems send documents, information, or tasks to the right people or places based on the established procedure

Synchronous technologies

videoconferencing, instant messaging, electronic meetings, and even conference calls allow real-time communication and interaction.

The Ohio State leadership studies

were conducted at about the same time as the Michigan studies, in the late 1940s and early 1950s.* During this program of research, behavioral scientists at Ohio State University developed a questionnaire, which they administered in both military and industrial settings, to assess subordinates' perceptions of their leaders' behavior. The Ohio State studies identified several forms of leader behavior but tended to focus on the two most common ones: consideration and initiating-structure. NOT ON SAME CONTINUIM

a condition of risk

when there is no known information regarding the outcome of a decision, but enough information exists to estimate the probabilities of several outcomes

relationship conflict

which is the result of incompatibility or differences between individuals or groups. Relationship conflict can also be triggered by personality, particularly the personality traits of dogmatism and power motivation. Relationship problems often fuel disputes and lead to an unnecessary escalating spiral of dysfunctional conflict.

Telework is

work conducted in a location other than a central office or production facility with communications between coworkers and supervisors occurring via electronic communication systems. There are four major types of telework: home-based telecommuting, satellite offices, neighborhood work centers, and mobile work.

There is an important distinction between perceiving conflict and feeling conflict

—conflict is often not recognized until it is felt