Business Writing
Organizational patterns: Division
Divide the subject into manageable parts and then discuss each part separately.
My primary Instructor
Dr. Davidson
2 business resources
IBIS World Marketline
Organizational Learning Process: IN THIS ORDER
Individual learning or experience Group Learning Organizational Learning and knowledge
What are 3 genre systems?
Meeting Collaborative Authoring Collaborative Repository
Checklist for writing/working in a collaborative group
o Know the people on your team and establish a good working rapport with them o Put the interests of your team ahead of your own o Think collectively but respect the views of members with subject-area expertise o Participate constructively in group meetings o Be an effective listener o Be receptive to constructive criticism o Provide constructive feedback to your team members o Meet your established deadlines
Tendencies of Affectation
Impression Insecurity Imitation Initiation
3 Transitions to an Info Economy
Movement from static to dynamic info reporting (analytics) Technology increases the speed of innovation Most communication is handled remotely and electronically
LexisNexis Academic
News, business, legal and corporate and financial info, as well as congressional statistical and governmental resources
What are the two elements of coherence?
Paragraph Unity Transitions
4 types of cases
Problem Decision Evaluation Rule
4 Globalization of Markets and Industries
Production, transportation, and distribution follow long multinational chains Consolidation of industries creates global corporations Web based applications mean that local merchants and providers compete in global markets Capital is more mobile than labor
3 weaknesses of new interns from OU
Professionalism Oral Communication Written Communication
Large lecture professor
Professor Emery
6 types of informal reports
Progress Periodic Investigative Incident Trip Test
4 Group barriers to Organizational Learning
Responsibility Bias Hierarchical Mum Effect Groupthink Identification Ego Defense
Hierarchical Mum Effect: def
Subordinates are reluctant to share negative info for fear of damaging a relationship
Quotation: list
Summary Paraphrase Direct Indirect
The name of our business subject librarian
Susan Hann
Summary
a condensed version, in the researcher's own words, of an original passage
Padding
a padded phrase expresses in several words an idea that could easily be expressed in one
The purpose of the genre
a purpose socially constructed and recognized by the relevant organizational community for typical situations
Subordination
a technique in which a fact or an idea is shown to be secondary to another fact or idea in the same sentence
Cause and Effect
analyzes why something happened Evidence should be relevant to your topic Evidence should be adequate Evidence should be representative Evidence should be demonstrable
4 ways for Evaluating sources
authority accuracy bias currency
Redundancy
avoid modifiers used to emphasize a point but that merely repeat the idea contained in the word they modify
Context and Word choice
be alert of the effect that a word may hae on your audience
Organizational Patterns: Specific to General
begin with specific info and build to a general conclusion.
Organizational Patterns: General to specific
begin your writing with a general statement and then provide facts or examples to develop and support that statement.
Definition
clarifies the meanings of ideas crucial to your topic
Evaluating sources: Bias
consider how the context reveals the author's knowledge of the subject and his or her stance on the topic
Evaluating sources: Authority
consider the author's reputation
Evaluating sources: Accuracy
criteria for evaluating accuracy include the following: Other sources that the document relies on are reputable and cited or linked Background info can be verified Methodology is appropriate for the topic With a research project, data that were gathered include explanations of research methods and interpretations The graphs and visuals are free of distortion The site is modified or updated regularly
Progress Reports
describe in detail the status of activities at each stage in the sequence
Affectation
do not use language that is more formal, technical, or showy than it needs to be to communicate information to your reader. This can make it more difficult for the reader to decipher what your message was.
Instant messaging
efficient way to communicate in real time with coworkers, suppliers, and customers.
Text messaging
exchange of brief written messages sent using mobile phones over cellular networks.
Describing info
explains how something looks or is planned to look
Conciseness
focus on removing unnecessary words, phrases, clauses, and sentences from your writing
JSTOR
full-text, archival collection of journals in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences
functions as a primary medium to communicate and share with colleagues, clients, and customers.
Expanded Academic ASAP
general interest and scholarly journals, plus business, law and health-care publications
Emphasis: definition
highlights the facts and ideas that the writer considers most important and subordinates those of less importance
Typified Social Action: def
identifiable by common types, features, or functions used collaboratively by writers and readers beyond the intended audience not intended merely for expression, but to solicit an audience response
Passive voice
if the subject is acted on
Evaluating sources: Currency
if your topic involves data or ideas that change frequently or that depend on up-to-date info, look for whether the document has a publication or "last updated" date, includes the date of copyright, gives dates showing when info was gathered, or indicates when new material was updated, when appropriate
Incident Reports
incidents involving personal injuries, accidents, and work stoppages occur in many industrial and construction settings
Checklist for proofreading in stages
o 1st Stage Review Appropriate format, as for reports or correspondence Typographical consistency (headings, spacing, fonts) o 2nd Stage Review Specific grammar and usage problems Appropriate punctuation Correct abbreviations and capitalization Correct spelling (especially names and places) Accurate Web, e-mail, and other addresses Accurate figures and consistent units of measurement in tables and lists Cut-and-paste errors resulting from moved or deleted text and numbers o Final Stage Review Final check of your goals: readers' needs and purpose Appearance of the document Review by colleague for crucial documents
Reviewing other's drafts
o A good reviewer evaluates a document in terms of audience, purpose, coherence, emphasis, and accuracy. o Anticipate questions that might arise for a given reader
Conflict in collaborative writing
o Conflict is inevitable. o It must be worked through to a conclusion or compromise that all team members can accept, even though all might not entirely agree. o You have to be willing to challenge another team member's work while still being sensitive to that person's ego o Conflicts over valid issues almost always generate more innovative and creative work than does passive acceptance
Purpose of documentation
o It allows readers to locate and consult the sources used and to find further info on the subject o It enables writers to support and lend credibility to their assertions and arguments o It helps writers to give proper credit to others and thus avoid plagiarism by identifying the sources of facts, ideas, quotations, and paraphrases.
Writer's checklist: using lists
o List only comparable items o Use parallel grammatical structure throughout o Use only words, phrases, or short sentences o Provide context by introducing lists with complete sentences, followed by a colon. o Use numbers when rank or sequence is important o Use bullets when rank or sequence is not important o Do not overuse lists.
Physical Appearance
o Use good-quality, white paper o Check that your printer produces a clear, dark image o Use at least one-inch margins on all sides of the page o Number all appropriate pages o Leave ample white space around visuals and to indicate divisions between separate sections
Writer's Checklist: Achieving emphasis
o Use the active voice, as appropriate o Subordinate secondary ideas o Use parallel structure to focus attention on how ideas are related o Use lists to highlight ideas by setting them apart from surrounding text. o Arrange ideas in least important to most important order o Label key ideas as important o Selectively use typographical devices such as ALLCAPS, underlined text, italics, color, or boldface type.
Considering audience and purpose: Organizing Info
o Your audience and purpose define how you organize your information
Letters
often the most appropriate choice for formal communications with professional associates or customers outside an organization. Can also be used for: job applications, recommendations, and in other professional context.
Indirect quotation
paraphrased version of an original text
Trip Reports
provides a permanent record of a trip and its activities or accomplishments
EBSCOhost
provides full text for nearly 4,500 magazines and scholarly publications
Test Reports
record the results of tests and experiments
Paraphrase
restating or rewriting in your own words the essential ideas of another writer
Voice-mail messages
should be clear and brief. Give your name and contact information as well as the date and time of the call.
Point of View: Definition
shows the writer's relation to the info presented
Investigative Reports
systematic studies or research assessments of something or someone
Explaining a Process
tells how something works or how something happened
establishing scope: what is scope?
the degree of detail necessary to cover each item in your list based on your purpose and the needs of your audience.
Organizational Learning: Def
the process of inquiring through which members of an organization develop shared values and knowledge based on the past experience of themselves and others
Context: Definition
the setting in which the word appears. This will determine whether a word you choose is specific enough.
Active Voice
the subject of the sentence acts
Bias
these words and expressions offend because they make inappropriate assumptions or stereotypes about gender, ethnicity, physical or mental disability, age, or sexual orientation
Memos
used for communication among members of the same organization Sent on paper or more often, attached to e-mails. Can be used to: instruct employees, announce policies, report results, disseminate information, and delegate responsibilities.
Faxes
used when a drawing or signed contract must be viewed in its original form.
Video conferences
useful for meetings when travel is impractical
Selecting your medium: which electronic or paper medium is best depends on a wide range of factors:
Audience preferences and expectations The technological resources available How widely information needs to be distributed What kind of record you need to keep The urgency of the communication The sensitivity or confidentiality required The organizational practices or regulations
Establishing Voice
Authoritative or friendly? Formal or accessible? Provocative or reassuring? Determine the voice you adopt by considering what is appropriate to your specific purpose.
Secondary sources: list
Books and articles Reports Web documents Online discussion forums Audio and video recordings Podcasts Business letters Minutes of meetings Operating manuals brochures
Organizational patterns: Classification
Classification is the grouping of a number of units into related categories. • Divide the subject into its largest number of equal units • Put each into only one category so that items do not overlap categories
Writing a Closing
Concise and ends your writing emphatically. The way you close depends on the purpose of your writing and the needs of your audience Do not introduce a new topic in your closing
Organizational patterns: Order of Importance
Decreasing order of importance—you begin with the most important fact or point, then go the next most important. Increasing order of importance—when you want the most important of several ideas to be freshest in your readers' minds. • Begin with the least important info • This sequence is useful in argumentative or persuasive writing when you wish to save your strongest points until the end.
Checklist for evaluating Web site
Does a reputable group or organization sponsor or maintain the site? Are the purpose and scope of the site clearly stated? Check the "mission statement" or "about us" pages. Are there any disclaimers about the sources or accuracy of content? Is the site updated, thus current? Are the links functional and up to date? Is the documentation authoritative and credible? Check the links to other sources and cross-check facts at other reputable Web sites, such as academic ones. Is the site well designed? Is the material well written and error free?
Checklist for evaluating a Book
Does the preface or introduction indicate the author's or book's purpose? Does the table of contents relate to your topic? Does the index contain terms related to your topic? Are the chapters useful? Skim through one chapter that seems related to your topic—notice especially the introduction, headings and closing.
Checklist for evaluating an Article
Is the publisher of the magazine or other periodical well known? What is the article's purpose? For a journal article, read the abstract; for a newspaper article, read the headline and first paragraph. Does the article contain informative diagrams or other visuals that indicate its scope?
Checklist for evaluating all sources
Is the resource recent enough and relevant to your topic? Is it readily available? Who is the intended audience? Is it the mainstream public? A small group of professionals? Is the author an authority on the subject? Does the author provide enough supporting evidence and document sources so that you can verify the information's accuracy? Is the info presented in an objective, unbiased way? Are any biases made clear? Are opinions clearly labeled? Are viewpoints balanced, or are opposing opinions acknowledged? Are the language, tone and style appropriate and cogent?
Advantages to outlining
It forces you to reexamine the information you plan to include to be sure that you have sufficient facts and details to satisfy your audience's needs and achieve the purpose of your writing. It forces you to order the information in a sequence that your audience will understand as clearly as you do.
Advantages of collaboration
Many minds are better than one Team members provide immediate feedback Team members play devil's advocate for each other Team members help each other past the frustrations and stress of writing Team members write more confidently Team members develop a greater tolerance of and respect for the opinions of others
What team leaders should do for Collaborating across departments
Plan for the creation of graphs, charts, drawings, maps, or other visuals Plan for the document's cover Arrange for photographs to be taken or scanned Determine and date the file format for posting the document to the organization's Web site Inform the staff or the printer when to expect the manuscript Discuss any special printing requirements, such as color, special binding, document size, foldout pages, and so on Ensure that the publication date meets the project deadline
Responsibilities for leading a collaborative team: list
Scheduling meetings Writing and distributing minutes of meetings Selecting the tools the team will use Maintaining the master copy of the document during all stages of its development Prepare and distribute forms to track the project's status
To plan a collaborative writing project, the team must: list
Select the publication medium Agree on style standards Collaborate electronically
Disadvantages of collaboration
The demand it can place on your time, energy and ego as a writer Conflicts can arise when not all team members participate or share equally in the team's work Team members are not in the same physical location or even the same time zone
Web Communication
Web conferencing—Skype Professional networking—using Facebook as a networking site Web-site postings—posting announcements on a company website, policies, making available or exchanging documents and files with others • Can serve as a home base for resources, a place where ideas can be developed through discussion boards, blogs and forums, and wikis.
Assessing audience needs: what to consider
What you know about that company Your reader's position in the company or department And his/her responsibilities regarding the topic you are writing about o Even if you know your audience very well, a little reflection is necessary.
Paragraph Unity
When every sentence in a paragraph contributes to developing one central idea. The most effective way to unify paragraphs is to provide a topic sentence that clearly states the central idea of the paragraph and that directly relates to every other sentence in it.
Transitions
You can achieve effective transitions between sentences by repeating key words or key ideas from preceding sentences and by using pronouns that refer to antecedents in previous sentences.
Writing an opening
You do not need to begin your draft by writing an opening The opening statement of your writing should • Identify your subject • Provide any necessary context for the subject • Focus the audience's attention Know your audience's needs
Periodic Reports
"status reports" detail the status of an ongoing project at regular intervals
How much did companies spend to train employees in speaking and writing?
$3.1 billion
checklist for creating an outline
1. Break a large topic into its major divisions and type or write them down 2. Repeat the process for each major topic. Break each into logical subtopics and list them under each major topic. Then sequence the subtopics to fit your pattern of development and label them with capital letters 3. If necessary, repeat the process for each third-level topic and label the topics with Arabic numbers 4. Key each of your notes to the appropriate place in your outline 5. Merge your notes and your outline, placing every note under the appropriate head, subhead, or sub-subhead in your outline. Then organize the notes under each head in the most logical sequence. 6. To convert your detailed outline into your first draft, put the first head on your computer screen and expand the notes listed under it into sentences and paragraphs.
Section number
15
National Writing Commission
80% of salaried employees in service, finance, insurance, and real estate have significant writing responsibilities
What is a genre system?
A series of genres that comprise a wider social action, involving multiple participants in fulfilling an organizational purpose
2 Databases
ABI Inform Factiva
2 Voices of Emphasis
Active Passive
In what ways do genre systems influence professional communication?
Better structure of electronic interaction
What is a case analysis?
Business pedagogy based on principles of purpose, audience, and context
6 characteristics of effective teams
Clearly identified purpose Shared values Trust and understanding Shared vision Distributed leadership Distributed cognition
2 Individual barriers to Organizational Learning
Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias
6 features of organizational learning
Conscious Systematic Iterative Critical Reflective Pragmatic
3 strengths of new interns from OU
Dependability Attitude Technology
2 Psychological conditions for Organizational Learning
Doubt--acceptance that things are need not be this way Safety--faith that the organization will handle errors responsibly
Databases for business research
EBSCOhost Expanded Academic ASAP ERIC (Education Resources Info Center) JSTOR LexisNexis Academic
Development Strategies: list
Explaining a process Describing Info Definition Cause and Effect
Groupthink: def
Faulty decision making produced by a lack of critical assessments of alternatives, especially when created by the social desirability bias
2 Interpersonal Barriers to Organizational Learning
Fundamental Attribution Error Social Desirability Bias
What is a genre?
Genre isn't merely form, but instead is also a typified social action
7 collaboration technologies
Google Docs DropBox.com Basecamp Asana Cozi Team Box Microsoft Project
Identification Ego Defense
Highly identified group members begin to associate their identity with their group membership and will in turn refuse to see the group as wrong
3 New Organizational Hierarchies
Horizontal and distributed systems Growth of the business service industry (Consulting) Cross organizational collaboration
3 New Comm Technologies
Network and cloud based info systems Wireless integration and automation Knowledge architectures and management
4 factors that make business writing more important than ever
New Communication Technologies Transition to an Info Economy Globalization of Markets and Industries New Organizational Heirarchies
ERIC
Providing access to journals and reports in education
Conciseness faults: list
Redundancy Padding Bias Affectation
Essential organizational patterns
Sequence Chronology Spatial Division and Classification Order of Importance General to Specific Specific to General Comparison
4 Contextual conditions for Organizational Learning
Tolerance for admitting error Issue orientation Egalitarian culture Commitment to learn
4 Behavioral conditions for Organizational Learning
Transparency Inquiry Disconfirmability Accountability
Fundamental Attribution Error: def
We tend to attribute personal failures to external conditions and others' failures to bad character
Social Desirability Bias: def
We tend to go along to avoid the interpersonal consequences of dissent
Hindsight Bias: def
We tend to recall successful predictions and forget unsuccessful ones
Confirmation Bias: def
We tend to seek data to confirm ideas and dismiss data that doesn't
Telephone and Conference calls
best used for exchanges that require substantial interaction and allow participants to interpret each other's tone of voice. Useful for discussing sensitive issues and resolving misunderstandings. Less expensive alternative to face-to-face meetings requiring travel. When a decision is reached, it should be followed with written confirmation.
Secondary Research: definition
gathering information that has been previously analyzed, assessed, evaluated, compiled, or otherwise organized into accessible form.
Face-to-face meetings
most appropriate for initial or early contacts with associates and clients with whom you intend to develop an important, long-term relationship or need to establish rapport. Best for: • Brainstorming • Negotiating • Interviewing someone on a complex topic • Solving a technical problem • Handling a controversial issue
Checklist of revision strategies
o Allow for a cooling period—wait a day or two between writing a rough draft and revising it o Pretend that a stranger has written your draft o Revise your draft in multiple passes. Don't try to improve everything all at once. Concentrate first on large issues, such as content and organization; then turn to improving emphasis and polishing your language o Be alert for the errors you typically make and correct them as you revise o Print your draft and read it aloud. o Ask someone else to read and critique your draft.
Checklist for revising for clarity
o Check the soundness of your organization by outlining your draft and reorganize your content as necessary o Use effective transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and sections o Be consistent in your point of view toward your topic o Emphasize key ideas and subordinate ancillary ideas o Choose precise language to ensure accuracy and to eliminate vagueness and ambiguity o Strive for conciseness by eliminating words, phrases, and sentences that are not necessary to your subject, purpose, and audience.
• International audiences
o Consult with someone from your intended reader's culture before writing a draft or preparing a presentation for an international audience.
Checklist for planning documents
o Determine your purpose o Assess your audiences needs o Consider the context of your writing o Generate, gather and record ideas and facts o Establish the scope of coverage for your topic o Organize your ideas o Select the medium
Establishing scope
o Helps determine if you need more detail and/or omit some detail o Do not overwhelm your audience o Be guided by your purpose and your audience's needs in establishing your scope of coverage
• Writing from the audience's point of view
o Imagine yourself in your reader's position performing the tasks you are describing and put that together with what you know about the reader's background, this picture will help you predict your reader's needs and reactions.
Checklist of ethical considerations
o Is the communication honest and truthful? o Am I ethically consistent in my communications? o Am I acting in the best interest of my employer? The public? Myself? o What would happen if everybody acted or communicated in this way? o Does the action or communication violate anyone's rights? o Am I willing to take responsibility for the communication, publicly and privately?
Checklist for evaluating drafts
o Is the purpose of the document clear? o Have you tailored your content to the right medium? o Is the info organized in the most effective sequence? o Does each section follow logically from the one that precedes it? o Is the scope of coverage adequate? Is there too little or too much info? o Are all the facts, details and examples relevant to the stated purpose? o Is the language appropriate for the reader? o Are the main points obvious? Are subordinate points related to main points? o Are contradictory statements resolved or eliminated? o Do the descriptions and illustrations aid clearity? Are there enough illustrations o Are any recommendations adequately supported by the conclusion? o Are all topics mentioned in the introduction and text also addressed in the conclusions?
use of outlines by good and poor writers
o More than three times the number of good writers as compared with poor writers create a written outline. o 36% of the poor writers said they never use an outline or plan
Writing purpose statements
o My primary purpose is to _______________ so that my audience can ___________. o Consider how to send your message
• Developing confidence as a writer
o Nothing builds a writer's confidence more than adequate preparation o Remember past writing projects—you have completed something before, and you will this time o Don't wait for inspiration to write the rough draft—treat writing the draft as you would any on-the-job task. o Think of writing a rough draft as simply transcribing and expanding the notes from your outline into paragraphs o Concentrate on ideas without attempting to polish or revise o Keep writing quickly to achieve unity, coherence, and proportion o Don't criticize yourself for not being able to write a smooth, readable sentence the first time; it is natural for first drafts to be clumsy and long-winded. o Remind yourself that you are beginning a draft that no on eels will read.
• Multiple audiences
o Picture a typical representative of that group and write directly to that person.
Writing for your reader
o Select information that they needed to understand, to agree with, and to act on my proposal.
• Rough draft checklist
o Set up a quiet writing area with the necessary equipment and materials o Start with the section that seems easiest or most interesting to you o The first rule of good writing is to help your audience by communicating clearly. Write in a plain and direct style that is comfortable and natural for both you and your audience. o To make your writing more direct and conversational, imagine a typical reader sitting across the desk from you as you explain your topic. o If you are writing instructions or procedures, visualize your readers actually performing the actions you are describing. o If you are writing a sales letter, think of your arguments from the reader's point of view. Imagine how the features you describe can best be translated into benefits for a prospective customer. o Give yourself a 10 to 15 minute time limit in which you write continually, regardless of how good or bad your writing seems to you. o Stop writing when you've finished a section o Reread what you have written when you return to your writing.
relationship of audience and purpose to organization
o The kind of info and organization that shape your outline will vary according to your purposes for writing and your audience's specific needs.
Determining the purpose
o The more precisely you can state your primary purpose at the outset, the more successful your writing is likely to be.
Leading a collaborative team
o The person designated as the leader must share decision-making authority with the others while assuming the responsibility for coordinating the team's activities, organizing the project, and producing the final product.
Reasons for writing Collaboratively
o The project requires expertise or specialization in more than one subject area. o The project will benefit from merging different perspectives into a unified perspective. o The size of the project, time constraints, or importance of the project to your organization requires a team effort.
Planning a collaborative writing project
o The team collectively identifies the readers, purpose and scope of the project o Then the team creates a broad outline of the document, divides the work into sections, and assigns each section to individual team members.
• Checklist for writing effective paragraphs
o Unify the paragraph around a central idea in a topic sentence. o Ensure that every sentence relates to the topic sentence. o Arrange ideas in a logical order around the central idea. o Use transitions to help readers follow the sequence of ideas.
Search strategy checklist
o What is the scope of your project? Is it a 5-minute oral presentation? A 20-page research paper? A group presentation? o Is only the most current information relevant to your topic? o What kinds of sources best support your topic—existing workplace information? Web sites? Blogs? Journal and encyclopedia articles? Books? Something else? o What formats are needed? o Do you need a range of opinions or points of view? Fact-based research findings? Some combination of both? o What are your deadlines?
Checklist for assessing context
o What is your professional relationship with your readers, and how might that affect the tone, style, and scope of your writing? o What is "the story" behind the immediate reason you are writing; that is, what series of events or previous communications led to your need to write? o What specific factors or values, such as business competition, financing, and regulatory environment, are important to your readers' organization or department? o What is the corporate culture in which your readers work? o What recent or current events within or outside an organization or a department may influence how readers interpret your writing? o What national or cultural differences might affect your readers' expectations for or interpretations of a document? o What medium do your readers prefer—e-mail, memo, letter, report, or other?
Considering audience and purpose: planning and evaluating informal reports
o Who is the audience for your report? o What specifically have your readers requested? What legal or rule-based requirements are in place at your company or organization that determine the info needed in your report? o How knowledgeable are your readers about the topic? o Have you selected the right medium—e-mail, memo, company report templates, Web site, or letter—for your readers? o Does your intro frame the topic for your audience and provide necessary background info? o Do your graphics depict the findings accurately and clearly for your intended audience? o Is the report well organized and sufficient in scope so that your audience can understand and interpret your findings, conclusions, and recommendations?
Establishing Role
o You can assume the role of a teacher who guides the audience through the process of learning a new task Anticipate your audience's reactions and growing understanding of the subject Be alert for questions the reader might ask
Elements of Coherence: when is writing coherent?
when the relationship between ideas is clear to your audience.
Responsibility Bias: def
when work is divided, we tend to press responsibilities on to generic others
Direct quotation
word-for-word copy of the text of an original source Choose the carefully and sparingly
Organizational patterns: Spatial
you describe an object according to the physical arrangement of its features You may describe the object from top to bottom, side to side, from east to west, inside to outside, etc. These rely mainly on dimension, direction, shape, proportion, and other features, such as color building materials, fabric and the like
Organizational patterns: Sequence
you divide your subjects into steps and then present the steps in the order in which they occur Most effective way to explain a process
Organizational Patterns: Comparison
you evaluate the relative merits of the items you are considering. Works well in determining which of two or more items is most suitable for some specific purpose.
Organizational patterns: Chronology
you focus on the order in which the steps or events occur in time