Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins

Lipids as Long Term Energy Storage

- more energy is released from cell respiration from lipids compared to carbohydrates. Around twice the amount of energy is released. - lipids are hydrophobic so they are water resistant unlike carbohydrates which are associated with water. This is important because there is more amount of energy stored/body mass. This is important for animals like birds, bats, flies. - stored lipids are poor conductors of heat so they are used as heat insulators which is why they are located right beneath the skin. - they are fats which are liquid at room temp. so they act as shock absorbers.

Homopolyners

Consists of the same repetitive molecules linked together for form a larger polymer.

Covalent Bond

Covalent bonds are bonds between molecules or atoms that are both non-metal.

Fibrous Protein

Shape: long and narrow Role: structural (strength and support) Solubility: insoluble in water Sequence: repetitive amino acid sequence Stability: less sensitive to heat, pH ex. collagen

Quaternary Structure

This structure looks at multiple polypeptide joins together. It looks at the overall 3D shape of a protein composed of multiple polypeptides.

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides linked together through condensation.

Globular Protein

Shape: round or spherical Role: functional (catalytic - increase reaction, transport) Solubility: soluble in water Sequence: Irregular amino acid - shape weird Stability: more sensitive to heat, pH ex. hemoglobin

Starch Use

Starch is used in plants as long term energy storages. Plants do not need all the glucose energy it produces straight away so the glucose is converted to starch and is stored.

Functions of Lipids (Positive)

Used as energy storage Insulation and protection of organs Produce hormones needed Structural component of cell membranes Can reduce risks of heart disease May lower levels of LDL cholesterol

Amphipathic

When a molecule has a polar and non-polar segment so they are both hydrophobic and hydrophilic.

Alpha

When an OH on Carbon 1 in a carbohydrate is the opposite side of the plane Carbon 5

Polypeptide

When multiple amino acids are linked together through condensation to form peptide bonds within linked amino acids. You can tell one amino acid by looking at their structure N-C-C

Beta

When the OH on Carbon 1 is the same side of the plane Carbon 5

Dipeptide

When two amino acids are linked together through peptide bonds from condensation it is called a dipeptide. Di- 2.

Functions of Protein

transport protein storage protein structural protein defensive protein regulatory protein contractive protein

Condensation Amino Acids

2 amino acids joined together through the elimination of water. The OH in the carboxyl links with the H from the amino group and yields water. The bond is called the peptide linkage.

Sucrose

A -Glucose + A- Fructose = Sucrose and Water Sucrose is used in plants as a product from photosynthesis. It is also stored in plants, so when the plants require monosaccharides for energy use, it will hydrolyze sucrose back into glucose and fructose which will be used as transportable form of energy from the sap of the phloem.

Maltose

A -Glucose + A- Glucose = Maltose + Water Maltose is broken down into glucose which is then used for energy in the bloodstream by animals.

Polyunsaturated

A fatty acid that has more than 1 double bond in the hydrocarbon chain.

Monounsaturated

A fatty acid that has only 1 double bond in the hydrocarbon chain.

Carbonyl

A functional group that includes a C double bond O

Hydroxyl

A functional group that includes an OH

Hydrolysis Amino Acids

Amino acid chains can be broken apart into amino monomers through hydrolysis with the addition of water. An OH is given back to the carboxyl group and a H from the amino group.

Lactose

B-Galactose + A - Glucose = Lactose + Water Lactose is the primary carbohydrate in milk of mammals. They help provide energy for the body and are very important for suckling offspring.

Transport protein

Bind and Carry ligand molecule (hemoglobin)

Contractive protein

Can contract, change shape (actin and myosin) make up elements of your cytoskeleton and muscles.

Estrogen

Estrogen is found in females and control the ovulation cycle. Similar to testosterone but has 3 double bonds in the first ring and only CH3 bond in the between the 6 ring and 5 ring. Molecular formula: C18H24O2

Functional Group

Groups of atoms responsible for the characteristic behavior and class of the compound

Galactose

Hexose sugar - C6H12O6 Not usually found in nature but can be hydrolyzed from lactose which is found in milk. Once in the body, it goes under structural rearrangement so that in can be used in the glucose pathway for fuel or storage.

Glucose

Hexose sugar - C6H12O6 Primary source of energy for all body cells. The circulatory system moves glucose out of digestive system into body cells by carrying them through the bloodstream. When energy is needed, body cells chemically burn glucose for cellular functions. The glucose is usually converted to glycogen and storied in the liver.

Fructose

Hexose sugar in a 5 form ring - C6H12O6 Fructose is used in plants as a way to attract animals by the sweetness, which leads to seed dispersal.

Hydrophilic Amino Acids

Hydrophilic amino acids consist of OH or N, anything that as a charge to it.

Importance of Polar, Non-polar amino acids

Hydrophilic proteins have a polar R side chain and hydrophobic proteins have non-polar R side chains. The hydrophobic amino acids are found in the centre of the protein to stabilize structure. The hydrophilic amino acids are found on the surface to be capable of interacting with water molecules. In cell membranes, non polar amino acids line on the surface in contact with the membrane while hydrophilic line inside to create hydrophilic channels.

Functions of Lipids (Negative)

Increase risk of heard disease such as Coronary heart disease (CHD) which is when arteries become blocked by fatty deposits, leading to blood clot formation. It also will increase obesity when more fat is stored.

Polysaccharides

Multiple monosaccharides linked together through condensation.

Storage protein

Ovalbumin, ferretin, casein

Ribose

Pentose sugar -C5H10O5 Rise is used to facilitate ATP production which is an important energy unit that fuels the cell. It is also the backbone of RNA.

Structural protein

Provide support - collagen fibers or tendons (wounds), elastin of ligaments, keratin of hair, feathers, fibroin of silk and spider webs

Regulatory protein

Regulate metabolic processes, include hormones, transcription factors and enhancers

Monomers

The general term for anything that is the building block of something larger.

Triglyceride Head Tail

The glycerol is counted as the head and the fatty acid chains are the tail of the triglyceride. The glycerides have "tri" because there are 3 chains of fatty acids attached.

Monosaccharides

The smallest units of a carbohydrate. They are singular sugar units.

Glycosidic Bond

These are bonds that form between monosaccharide linkages with the loss of an OH from carbon 1 in one molecule and an H from carbon 4 in another molecule. These bonds form after condensation. In disaccharides there are 1 glycosidic bond. In polysaccharides there are multiple glycosidic bonds.

Starch- Amylopectin

These are branched glucose monomers that are linked together through alpha-1,4-glycosidic bonds which branches every 30 or so units through alpha-1,6-glycosidic bonds. The difference between amylopectin starch from glycogen is that the branches are less.

Isomers

These are compounds that have the same formula but different arrangement of atoms in the molecule and different properties. ex. Glucose, fructose and galactose. Their formula is C6H12O6 but they have a different arrangement.

Saturated Fatty Acid

These are fatty acids that consists of no double bond in the hydrocarbon chain and are saturated with hydrogen atoms. A single carbon chain with no double bonds will have 2 hydrogen atoms attached to 1 carbon.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

These are fatty acids that have 1 to 3 double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. This means that they are not saturated with hydrogen atoms. A carbon with a double bond with another carbon molecule will only have 1 hydrogen atom bonded.

Triglycerides

These are formed by condensation of a glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains and yield 3 water molecules. The linkage formed between fatty acid and glycerol are from the OH in both molecules, the hydroxyl in the glycerol and the carboxyl in the fatty acid chain. The bond between them are called "ester bonds" (COOC) To have a saturated triglyceride there must be no unsaturated fatty acid chain either cis or trans. To be an unsaturated fatty acid, you only need one unsaturated cis, trans fatty acid chain in the 3.

Cellulose

These are glucose monomers linked together through beta-1,4-glycosidic bonds. These form a linear structure and allow cellulose to form a long straight chain. Cellulose is the building block of cell walls plants that form the stem, leaves and branches. Because they are linear, they are able to stack upon each other and connect through hydrogen bonds which give cellulose a strong nature.

Steroids

These are grouped as lipids as they are organic compounds consisting mostly of C, H and O. They are also lipids because they are insoluble in water. The basic structure of steroids are different from other lipids as they have three 6-sided carbon rings and one 5-sided carbon ring. They are found in the body to control hormones, sexual development and vital functions. 3 main steroids are: Cholesterol, testosterone and estrogen.

Testosterone

These are primary sex hormones in males. They promote development of male genital organs and secondary male sexual characteristics such as a deep voice, body hair, body structure. Molecular formula: C19H28O2

Phospholipids

These are similar to triglycerides, however they consist of 2 fatty acid chains and a phosphate group. The phosphate group with the glycerol is part of the head, and the 2 fatty acid chain are part of the tail. The phosphate group has an R, which means it is a side chain and will attach to another base. The phospholipid head is hydrophilic as it is ionic or polar while the tail is strongly hydrophobic. This is why there are partially soluble in a unique way and are called "amphipathic" as they have a nonpolar and polar segment.

Fatty Acids

These are the components of some lipids. They consist of a carboxyl (COOH) functional group and a hydrocarbon chain (at least 4 carbon) joined together by single covalent bonds. The carboxyl group is polar however the hydrocarbon chain isn't and because it makes up more of the fatty acids, it makes them hydrophobic.

Amino Acids

These are the smallest unit (monomers) of proteins. They consist of a carboxyl (COOH) acid group and an animo group (NH2) and a variable side chain (R). The side chain determines the polarity (hydrophobic, hydrophilic) and the function of the amino acid, it is the only chain that changes.

Starch - Amylose

These are unbranched glucose monomers linked together through alpha-1,4-glycosidic bonds. The difference of amylose from amylopectin is that they do not have any branches.

Trans-fatty acid

These are unsaturated molecules of fatty acids with hydrogen atoms connected on the opposite side to the two double bonds atom adjacent to each other. These do not bend like cis-. Because they don't bend, they have a higher melting point and are solid at room temperature.

Cis-fatty acid

These are unsaturated molecules of fatty acids with hydrogen atoms connected on the same side to the two double bond carbon atoms that are adjacent. In a cis-unsaturated fatty acid, there is a bend in the hydrocarbon chain. Because of the bend, this makes triglycerides containing cis-unsaturated fatty acids less good and packing together in regular arrays. They also have a low melting point and usually liquid at room temperature. ex. oils.

Glycerol

These components (monomers) of some lipids. These have a functional group of hydroxyl (OH) and are polar molecules. They help from the backbone of glycerides.

Hydrophobic Amino Acids

These side chains consist pure hydrocarbons (only O and H) This means that if they have a lot of C and H bonds they do not mix with water.

Glycogen

They consist of only glucose monomers linked together through alpha-1,4- glycosidic bonds in a helical fashion. Every 10 or so units, the glucose monomer linkages from alpha-1,6-glycosidic bond that branches out. This makes glycogen a highly branched polysaccharide. Glycogen is a short term energy storage that are stored in the liver and muscle tissue. When the body needs more energy, glycogen is converted back to glucose.

Primary Structure

This is the linear sequence of the amino acid formed by condensation from peptide bonds in the polypeptide chain.

Cholesterol

This is the most important steroid in the body that is found in the bloodstream and cells to produce hormone, vitamin D and digest fat. It is a 27-carbon steroid. Molecular formula: C27H45OH

Tertiary Structure

This is the overall 3D structure emerges. This looks at the spatial arrangement of secondary structure elements. They are locked in place by other stronger bonds which are formed between the R side chain of a single polypeptide.

Hydrolysis in Carbohydrates

This is the process of breaking the bonds between molecules with the addition of water. One molecule will obtain an OH and the other will obtain a H which will separate the disaccharide or polysaccharide into monomers.

Condensation in Carbohydrates

This is the process of joining molecules together through the loss of an -OH in carbon 1 and a H in carbon 4 which forms a linkage between the two molecules and yield water (H2O). Monosac + Monosac = Dissac + Water

Secondary Structure

This looks at the repetitive 3D-structure of protein. There are 2 types, alpha helix and beta pleated sheets. The alpha helix is when the polypeptide coils to form hydrogen bond between between the amino group (N-H) and carbonyl group (C=O). This occurs every 4 residues. The beta helix is when the polypeptide is stretched with its backbone almost fully extended. They are held together through hydrogen bonding and form many flat surfaces.

Defensive protein

provide proteins; antibodies (igg), fibrinogen, thrombin and snake venoms