CDAE Exam 2
Adaptation examples
Adopting new varieties or new crops Efficient irrigation/Harvesting water Shift planting dates Improve drainage Build flood barriers Plan for alternative power supply Rainwater harvesting Relocate from vulnerable areas
Bartolemé de las Casas
An alternative to Columbus: Native peoples were "thinking beings" Started out as a plantation owner, freed his captive Tainos and became a priest. Opposed slavery
heirloom
Are open pollinated (not all open pollinated are heirloom tho) and has a history of being passed down within a family or community seeds remain true through protection from unwanted cross-pollination
Key Features of Neoliberalism
Austerity Deregulation Free Trade Privatization
Footprint of the Imperial Boot
Changed Indigenous Systems: Education Legal and Political Social Language Culture and Values Ecosystems Historical legacy=part of reason certain regions (ex./ Africa) are still struggling Wasn't an investment, was an extraction
Additional Impacts of Climate Change
Changes in suitability of land for crop and livestock production Changes in natural habitats of pests and diseases Leaching of soil nutrients from more intense rain events Loss of biodiversity
Early Colonialism Period
China was the world's most advanced nation: Largest Population High levels of literacy Sophisticated Agriculture -Wet rice farming -Development of soybean
Climate Change
Climate change = seasonal changes over a long period of time. Many events make up the trend Global climate change more than just "global warming"
CGIAR Consortium
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Promoted Green Revolution technologies and trained scientists
Benefits of domesticated livestock
Conversion of non-edible biomass into: Meat Wool & Hides Milk products Fertilizer Transport Security Military assault vehicles Plow traction
Failures of Green Rev
Crop monocultures: loss of biodiversity, more susceptible to disease and pests Reliance on irrigation Promotion of pesticide and fertilizer use: enviro impacts Varieties bred for yield, not other characteristics Ecological, health, and social effects Hasn't proven adaptable to all world regions Increased uncertainty in price (inputs, commodities) Labor displacement (men's cash crops, mechanization, loss of viability) **intensification of inequality: wealthy get to take advantage, poorer (farmers and countries) left behind
Jared Diamond's 5 factors that gave rise to settled agriculture
Decline in the availability of wild foods Increased availability of certain wild foods that were amenable to domestication Cumulative development of technologies Link between rising population densities and increasing food production Higher population densities enabled food producers to defeat gatherer-hunter communities
3 ways to increase diversity on farm level
Diff crop rotations: Spacially Temperally Modifying
Classical economics morphs into neoclassical economics
Economics becoming an academic discipline complete with mathematical formulas Consumers base decisions purely based on rational choice (most efficient means to maximize benefits) Consumers perception of value affects price Competition leads to most efficient allocation of resources within an economy and leads to an equilibrium of supply and demand **These principles continue to underlie current economic systems
Green Capitalism
Embedding an ethic into capitalism to correct for social and environmental externalities
Benefits of Conservation Ag
Enhanced environmental management: -Reduced erosion -Improved soil health -Increased crop yields in the long term -Reduced incidences of pests Enhanced efficiency: -Reduced dependency on inputs -Reduced greenhouse gas emissions
Why Crop Diversity Matters
Ensuring Food Security Adapting to Climate Change Safeguarding Biodiversity Protecting Nutritional Security Reducing Poverty Ensuring Sustainable Agriculture
Conservation Agriculture: Approach
Environmental restoration: Rebuilding the soil through: -Minimal soil disturbance -Organic soil amendments (mulch) -Plant diversity: Agroforestry, crop rotations
Neoliberalism good or bad?
Evidence to suggest it worked, but also evidence that it made problems worse and created new ones
3 Levels of why to care abt biodiversity
Field-level: Promote higher functioning agroecosystems. more organic matter, nutrient cycling Societal-level: Promote ecosystem services, preserve cultural heritage, and provides public goods Household-level: Buffer against risk, enhance food security, and provides market opportunity
Adam Smith publishes the wealth of Nations
First ideas on capitalism People are motivated by self-interest (but greed is not inherent) The invisible hand promotes general prosperity Economic growth is rooted in division of labor Free trade is good (as opposed to mercantilism) Governments should not interfere in market activity but for the case of market failures This economic structure is the moral thing to do
Three Tendencies of the European Colonial Period
Grab for Land: By end of WW1, British Empire controlled ~25% of the world's population and area Movement of People: Brought many slaves to the new world Transfer of Wealth: Natural Resources: Gold & Silver from the Americas Obtained through the defeat and enslavement of indigenous societies Economic Transformation: Use of land for Dutch companies-->plantation ag
Following World War II...
Hunger becomes international issue Hunger seen as a production issue Concerns about famine in Asia and Africa Bleak prospects for food production to match population growth (remember Malthus)
What can be done to protect soil?
Improved crop management: -Conservation Agriculture -Cover crops -Diverse crop rotations -Agroforestry -Composting Structural practices (terraces, stone bunds, etc) Reforestation Managed grazing Improved irrigation and drainage Reduce compaction Pollution control
The Mexico Agricultural Program (MAP)
In Mexico, land reform taking place but still widespread hunger and poverty Henry Wallace Secretary of Agriculture & Vice President Advocate of scientific agriculture 1926 founded Hi-Bred (Pioneer) Launched MAP with Rockefeller Foundation
Climate Change Economic Costs
In U.S: estimated that for each +1°, GDP will decrease by 1.2% By late 21st century, poorest third of counties in the United State can expect economic damage between 2 and 20% in county income under business as usual scenarios
Bottom up, Participatory
Including the supposed beneficiaries of development in the design, implementation, and evaluation of projects and programs
Colonialism, science and classical economics combine to inspire the
Industrial Revolution
Dangers of lack of agrobiodiversity
Inherent risk: ex./ potato famine in Ireland, has failed before, could do the same again Production hubs for each crop: something happens in area of production leads to decreased production and increase in prices Threat of Social Collapse
Paris Climate Agreement
International agreement agreed to in 2015 with goal to limit temperature rise to 2°C Voluntary targets set by each country
Why was Africa in particular left behind in the Green Rev?
Lack of rainfall/inconsistent rainfall Little irrigated land Dispersed rural population Labor is scarce Lack of mechanization Costs of inputs are high Corruption War and civil unrest Lack of African government commitment Lack of infrastructure (Roads, irrigation, markets) Highly diverse environments Seeds not bred for African conditions Diverse cultural practices
Plantation Agriculture
Large Acreage Reliance on a single (or very small number) of export crops: Sugar Tobacco Tea Sisal Jute Cotton Rubber Cropping system dependent on abundant, cheap labor Absentee Landlord
Biodiversity Hotspots
Locations with high levels of biodiversity under high threats of habitat loss Typ tropical places, islands: only a few coincide with where ag began
Chemical soil degregation
Loss of nutrients and organic matter Salinization Acidification Soil pollution
Governance in Keynesianism
Market embedded in the gov (state)
What was the Green Revolution?
More than just plant breeding for high yielding varieties (HYVs), also about inputs and infrastructure too Complementarity: Packages that included: Plant breeding to produce dwarf varieties of cereals Irrigation Pesticides Fertilizers Hybrid seeds Required extension services
How to Promote Agrobiodiversity Conservation
Non-Market Methods: -Seed Fairs -Participatory Plant Breeding Market Methods: -developing markets -payment for agrobiodiversity conservation services -labeling and certification
Columbus
Overall, discovery of new world considered a net positive Killed off many of the natives and enslaved them
What is different about recent and expected climate change?
Past climate change due to natural variability Recent and expected climate change more complicated: -Much more rapid -Human involvement (proved by type of carbon found in atmosphere)
Food Sovereignty
People who produce, distribute, and consume food should control the mechanisms and policies of food production and distribution, rather than the corporations and market institutions they believe have come to dominate the global food system.
Categories of H20 Scarcity
Physical: Lack of presence of freshwater Economic: can't afford it, geopolitics (ex./ Egypt controls Nile River) Quality: Is the water safe?
Norman Borlaug
Plant Breeder and father of the Green Revolution Hybrid Seeds from conventional plant breeding
Neoliberalism: Austerity
Policies that aim to reduce government budget deficits, often through spending cuts, raising taxes, or a combination of both Conservative approach Rich benefit
Washington Consensus and Structural Adjustment Programs
Policy proscriptions implemented by global financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank that countries must implement to qualify for loans.
Challenges to global water resources
Rising population Depletion of groundwater reserves Climate change - e.g. drought, extreme events Water pollution Salinity Access Hydropolitics: management of H20 between countries leads to conflict
Sugar Trade Triangle
Rum and sugar from West Indies to Britain Firearms, Cloth, salt... from Britain to Africa Slaves from Africa to West Indies
GMO seeds
Seeds from genetically modified plants Produced in labs patented
economic populism
Skeptical of economic globalization, economic nationalism emphasizes domestic control of the economy which includes tariffs to reduce imports
Physical soil degregation
Soil compaction Waterlogging Subsidence of organic soils
Paradigm under which Green Revolution Under Modernization Theory and Keynesianism
Spread of Green Revolution required more than scientific innovation Bretton Woods conference: Creation of World Bank (called International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) -Provide long-term loans for development projects Food Security considered a production problem
Ex Situ (off site) Conservation
Strategy to protect biodiversity Gene banks, seed banks help maintain interactions that shape diversity, preserve them, helps us better understand the seeds: become better at preserving them Risks: not protecting all diversities: only a subset that doesn't represent all. How do we decide which to save? Challenges: underfunded, wild relatives are under represented: most diverse, provide resistance to pests
Agrobiodiversity
Subset of biodiversity Includes: -mixed-agro ecosystems -crop species/varieties -livestock and fish species -plant/animal germination -soil organisms in cultivated areas -biocontrol agents for crops/livestock pests -cultural and local knowledge of diversity
Postdevelopmentalism
The development project reflects the hegemony of the Global North. Development, regardless of practice, is a form of neo-imperialism.
Responses to climate change are...
Two Fold 1.)Adaptation -deliberate adjustments in natural or human systems and behaviors to reduce the risks to people's lives livelihoods 2.)Mitigation -actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or store carbon and development choices that lead to low emissions
Mitigation Examples
Use soil to store carbon (cover crops, mulching, no till) Shifting consumption behaviors Methane digesters Reforestation Implement renewable energy sources Public transportation, cycling, walking Compost organic materials Waste minimization
Sea Level Rises
Warming oceans and melting glaciers Sea level rise between 7 and 23 inches by the year 2100 Will not be geographically uniform
Of the plants that exist in the world...
We utilize a tiny fraction 30 make up 95% of human cals and PRO 4 species make up 50% of the human diet
Stagflation
a period of slow economic growth and high unemployment (stagnation) while prices rise (inflation) 1970s: resulted in rising debt around the world with no means to pay back
Washington Consensus and Structural Adjustment Programs Policies
a shift from growing diverse food crops for domestic consumption to specializing in the production of cash crops or other commodities (like rubber, cotton, coffee, copper, tin etc.) for export abolishing food and agricultural subsidies to reduce government expenditures deep cuts to social programs usually in the areas of health, education and housing and layoffs in the civil service currency devaluation measures which increase import costs while reducing the value of domestically produced goods liberalization of trade and investment and high interest rates to attract foreign investment privatization of government-held enterprises
Domesticated
an animal selectively bred in captivity and thereby modified from its wild ancestors, for use by humans who control the animal's breeding and food supply
While hybrids have their benefits....
choosing open-pollinated varieties conserves the genetic diversity of garden vegetables and prevents the loss of unique varieties in the face of dwindling agricultural biodiversity
Majority of CO2 emissions....
come from U.S: produces most per capita fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) create the majority
Merchantilism
control natural resources for own benefit, not for trade/advantage. want access to raw goods
Hybridization
controlled method of pollination in which the pollen of two different species or varieties is crossed by human intervention
focusing on heirloom varieties...
creates a historical connection to gardening and food production, building a more sustainable future by carrying on our garden heritage.
What was domesticated first?
dogs (animals) then plants
Keynesianism promotes
government intervention to spur economic growth
Governance
how society or groups within it, organize to make decisions how power is wielded and in practical terms, who establishes the rules of the game and how those rules are implemented On diff scales: Nationally State In the classroom With your friends
Neoliberalism: Deregulation
idea that we should get gov out because they slow the economy usually enacted to create more competition within the industry fosters corporate greed: want to maximize profit
Green Rev Successes
increase in world grain production Increased farm income Reduced consumer prices Hundreds of millions saved from starvation and lifted out of poverty Great strides forward in agricultural scientific discovery
Neoliberalism: Free Trade
international trade left to its natural course without tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions Encourages countries to produce what they're strongest in, specialize in certain sectors
Modernization Theory
is used to explain the process of modernization within societies Open to new experiences Changes Orientation Interest in the outside world acknowledgement of opinions eager for new info values technical skills optimistic
open pollination
is when pollination occurs by insect, bird, wind, humans, or other natural mechanisms. No restrictions More genetically diverse
Hybrid Seeds
new plant varieties from cross-pollination of related parent plants. randomly occur in nature and seed producers breed intentionally Patented
Neoliberalism: Privatization
process of transferring an enterprise or industry from the public sector to the private sector What should/shouldn't be privatized: Transportation? Energy? Water? Prisons? Military? Schools? Fire Departments? Space Exploration? Highway System? Medicare?
Colonialism
the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples or areas
Neoliberalism
the resurgence of ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism beginning in the 1970s and 1980s advocates support extensive economic liberalization, free trade, and reductions in government spending in order to enhance the role of the private sector
Biodiversity
the variability among living organisms from all sources and the ecological complexes of which they are part includes: diversity within species between species of ecosystems
Climate Change and Ag
~14% of GHG emissions globally come from farms Of those emissions, 40% from enteric fermentation 16% from manure left on pasture 13% from synthetic fertilizers 10% from paddy rice
Projections of Climate Change
-4.5C increase in temp by 2100 (going to be positive gain no matter what, just a Q of how much) -increase in droughts -changes in precipitation (some regions will increase, others will decrease) -increased water stress and scarcity -diff changes in ag productivity: some places will suffer, others will become more viable
Deforestation
-Agriculture -Logging -Roads -Urbanization all results of basic human needs
Green Wall of China
-Gov led initiative to prevent growth of Gobi Desert -Plant trees to prevent sandstorms: windbreak, artificial ecosystem -is working: decreased occurrence of sandstorms
Water Erosion
-Loss of topsoil -Rill and gully erosion -due to inappropriate watering and irrigation
Wind erosion
-Loss of topsoil -Terrain deformation (deforrestation) -Overblowing
Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (Farmer-led)
-Manage natural regrowth of trees -Provide fruit rich in nutrients -Provide fire wood -Provide fodder -Fix atmospheric nitrogen -Increase organic matter -Provide erosion protection
Keynes: Free market is...
-Prone to instability -Exploitative -Leads to monopoly -Ignore externalities, thereby distorting investments Therefore, government intervention and regulation are needed. Global institutions emerge to help monitor trade including the World Bank and International Monetary Fund
Water Conservation methods
-Reduce conveyance losses -Reduce evaporation losses (improved application methods, mulching) -Reduce runoff losses (but watch for salinization) -Reduce competition from weeds -More precise application methods
Hydropolitics ex./
-Turkey completing the construction of the Ilisu Dam to improve electrical power capacity, but will damage marshes in Iraq -
Emergence of Agriculture
-emerged as civilization emerged -relatively short history of ag in relation to age of planet -unsure of what led to development of ag, but probably several factors
Why are soil and water important to sustainable development?
-impact/relate to many of the SDGs: Hunger Clean Water and Sanitation Responsible consumption and production ...etc
Green Revolution Yields
-increased production of wheat, rice, maize -decreased prices of food -decreased food insecurity: EXCEPT in subsaharan africa...stayed consistent
Great Green Wall of Sahara Challenges
-spans across multiple countries -already other existing internal problems
Human Induced Soil Degregation
-water erosion -wind erosion -chemical -physical
Causes of Soil Degregation
1.) Deforestation 2.) Overgrazing 3.)Poor Agricultural Practices 4.)Overexploitation for domestic use 5.)Industrial pollution
Dependency Theory
1.) Economic growth in 1st World caused poverty in 3rd World 2.) Focus on important substitution (domestic industrialization) 3.) Government investment the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former
3 Spheres of Governance
1.) State: Governments/Intergovernmental Organizations [IGOs] 2.) Market: Private Sector 3.) Civil Society: Nongovernmental Organizations [NGOs]/ Community Groups/Philanthropists
Rostow's Stages of Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto
1.) traditional society: subsistent, agricultural based economy, with intensive labor and low levels of trading, and a population that does not have a scientific perspective on the world and technology 2.) pre-take off stage: society begins to develop manufacturing, and a more national/international outlook 3.) take off stage: short period of intensive growth, in which industrialization begins to occur, and workers and institutions become concentrated around a new industry 4.) drive to maturity: takes place over a long period of time, as standards of living rise, use of technology increases, and the national economy grows and diversifies 5.) high mass consumption: "developed" stage. Here, a country's economy flourishes in a capitalist system, characterized by mass production and consumerism.
Europe became the colonial powers, not China...
1400s-1500s: China retreats and Europe's economic power grows Mercantilism reigned (economic nationalism) -->colonies provided raw goods (agricultural, minerals)
European Colonial Expansion
1st Phase (~1500s-~1600s): Spain and Portugal 2nd Phase (~1700s-~20th century): British and French Expand conquest based on economic motivations; eventually shifted
Crop Diversity Erosion
A decrease in the genetic diversity of crops due to: -Modern breeding practices -Mechanized ag: all uniform practices -decrease in farmers -what we choose as consumers: creates narrow range -climate change