ch. 17

Job Versus Process-Costing

*Job-costing* -Distinct, identifiable units of a product or service -Ex: custom-made machines, houses *Process-costing* -Masses of identical or similar units of a product or service -Ex: food, chemical processing

Operation Costing System

-An operation is a standardized method or technique often performed repetitively on different material resulting in different finished goods. -An operation-costing system is a hybrid-costing system applied to batches of similar, but not identical, products. -Within each operation, all product units are treated exactly alike, using identical amounts of the operation's resources. -Managers find operation costing useful in cost management because operation costing focuses on control of physical processes or operations of a given production system.

First-In, First-Out (FIFO) Process-Costing Method

-Assigns the cost of the previous accounting period's equivalent units in beginning work-in-process inventory to the first units completed and transferred out of the process. -Assigns the cost of equivalent units worked on during the current period first to complete beginning inventory, next to started and completed new units, and finally to units in ending work-in-process inventory. -A distinctive feature of FIFO process-costing method is that work done on the beginning inventory before the current period is kept separate from work done in the current period. -The costs incurred and units produced in the current period are used to calculate the cost per equivalent unit of work done in the current period. -In contrast, the equivalent-unit and cost per equivalent unit calculations under the weighted-average method MERGE the units and costs in beginning inventory with the units and costs of work done in the current period.

Weighted-Average Process-Costing Method

-Calculates cost per equivalent unit of all work done to date (regardless of the accounting period in which it was done). -Assigns this cost to equivalent units completed and transferred out of the process, and to equivalent units in ending work-in-process inventory. -The Weighted-average cost is the total of all costs entering the work-in-process account divided by the total equivalent units of work done to date. -The beginning balance of the work-in-process account (work done in a prior period) is blended in with current period costs.

Comparing Weighted-Average and FIFO Methods

-FIFO assumes that all the units from the previous period (higher-cost units in our example) in beginning WIP are the first to be completed and transferred out and that ending WIP consists of only the lower-cost current-period units. -The weighted-average method smooths out the cost per equivalent unit by assuming that more lower-cost units are transferred out and some higher-cost remain in ending WIP. -Managers use information from process-costing systems to make pricing and product-mix decisions and understand how well a firm's processes are performing. -FIFO provides managers with information about changes in the costs per unit from one period to the next. -In a period of rising prices, the weighted-average method will decrease taxes because cost of goods sold will be higher and operating income lower.

More on Job- Versus Process-Costing

-In a job-costing system, individual jobs use different quantities of resources, so it would be incorrect to cost each job at the same average production cost. -In contrast, when identical or similar units of products or services are mass-produced, process costing is used to calculate an average production cost for all units produced. -The main difference between process costing and job costing is the extent of averaging used to compute the unit costs of products or services.

Process-Costing Cost Categories

-Process-costing systems separate costs into cost categories according to when costs are introduced into the process. 1. Direct materials are usually added at the beginning of the production process, or at the start of work in a subsequent department down the assembly line. 2. Conversion costs are generally added equally along the production process.

Hybrid Costing Systems

-Product-costing systems do not always fall neatly into either job-costing or process-costing categories. -A Hybrid-costing system blends characteristics from both job-costing and process-costing systems. -Many actual production systems are in fact hybrids. -Examples include manufacturers of televisions, dishwashers, and washing machines, and shoes who tend to use hybrid-costing systems. -The hybrid-costing systems use process costing to account for the conversion costs and job costing for the material and customizable components. -One specific type of hybrid-costing system is known as the Operation Costing System.

Process-Costing: Case #1 No Beginning or Ending Work-in-Process Inventory

-When using process costing without any beginning or ending work-in-process inventory, all costs that were introduced to the process during the period will be assigned to the finished units leaving work-in-process inventory at the end of the period. -FIVE-STEP PROCESS-COSTING ALLOCATION: 1.) Summarize the flow of physical units of output. 2.) Compute output in terms of equivalent units. 3.) Summarize total costs to account for. 4.) Compute cost per equivalent unit. 5.) Assign total costs to units completed and to units in ending work-in-process. EQUIVALENT UNITS: -A derived amount of output units that: 1. Takes the quantity of each input in units completed and in unfinished units of work in process and 2. Converts the quantity of input into the amount of completed output units that could be produced with that quantity of input. -Are calculated separately for each input. (direct materials and conversion cost). -When calculating equivalent units in step 2, focus on quantities and disregard dollar amounts until after the equivalent units are computed

Process Costing

-a system where the unit cost of a product or service is obtained by assigning total costs to many identical or similar units of output. -Unit costs are calculated by dividing total costs incurred by the number of units of output from the production process. -Each unit receives the same or similar amounts of direct materials costs, direct manufacturing labor costs, and indirect manufacturing costs (manufacturing overhead).

Transferred-in Costs

-costs incurred in previous departments that are carried forward as the product's cost when it moves to a subsequent process in the production cycle. -Are also called previous department costs. -Journal entries are made to mirror the progress in production from department to department. -Transferred-in costs are treated as if they are a separate type of direct material added at the beginning of the process.

Process-Costing: Three Cases

1. No beginning or ending work-in-process inventories. 2. No beginning work-in-process inventory and some ending work-in-process inventory. 3. Both beginning and ending work-in-process inventories are present.

Points to Remember about Transferred-in Costs

1.) Be sure to include the transferred-in costs from previous departments in your calculations. 2.) When calculating the costs to be transferred using the FIFO method, do not overlook costs assigned in the previous period to units that were in process at the beginning of the current period but are now included in the units transferred. These unit costs will be transferred to the next department at ONE AVERAGE UNIT cost. 3.) Unit costs may fluctuate between periods so transferred units may contain batches accumulated at different costs (using FIFO). 4.) Units may be measured in different denominations in different departments (feet in one department and yards in another or kilos vs. liters). In this case, measurements must be converted to the correct measure.

Result of the Process

Two critical figures arise out of step 5 of the cost allocation process: 1.) The amount of the journal entry transferring the allocated cost of units completed and sent from work-in-process inventory to finished goods inventory. 2.) The ending balance of the work-in-process inventory account that will appear on the balance sheet.