Ch. 4 Learning and Memory

9) Which theory listed below assumes that learning take place as the result of responses to external events? A) Behavioral learning B) Episodic learning C) Incidental learning D) Gestalt learning

A) Behavioral learning

13) Which of the following was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov? A) Classical conditioning B) Instrumental conditioning C) Behavioral conditioning D) Psychological conditioning

A) Classical conditioning

73) Within a knowledge structure, which of the following is the LEAST complex knowledge unit? A) Meaning B) Proposition C) Schema D) Script

A) Meaning

55) ________ learning occurs when an individual watches the actions of others and notes the reinforcements they receive for their behaviors. A) Observational B) Reinforced C) Halo effect D) Classical

A) Observational

42) A sales manager pays a bonus to new trainees when they develop a good sales prospectus. Later, after the trainees have completed two months of training, the manager pays a bonus only for an actual sale. Which of the following is the manager using to improve the productivity of sales trainees? A) Shaping B) Modeling C) Negative reinforcement D) Variable-ratio reinforcement

A) Shaping

77) As May-Lee considers her purchase of shoes, she shifts back and forth between thinking about claims made by different brands, remembering what she has seen, and considering her emotional responses to various brands. Which term describes what May-Lee is doing? A) Spreading activation B) Advertising decay C) Chunking D) Scalar processing

A) Spreading activation

16) Scott thought of himself as a very successful marketer. He created a campaign with a product logo that was very popular and that customers associated with a quality product. It was so popular that in a few months, the logo began to appear almost everywhere. Instead of increasing sales of the product, the customer demand began to decrease as competitors' products became more successful. What characteristic of learning was most likely ruining Scott's apparent success? A) Too much repetition was decreasing the strength of the conditioning effect, thus leading to extinction of the learned relationship between the logo, the quality of the product, and the association with Scott's company. B) Customers confused Scott's logo with the logo of Scott's competitors, making cognitive learning incomplete. C) The logo produced only a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement that did not sustain sales, while Scott's competitor used a variable-ratio schedule. D) Over time, the logo became boring, and customers punished Scott's company by buying competitors' products as a type of revenge for their boredom.

A) Too much repetition was decreasing the strength of the conditioning effect, thus leading to extinction of the learned relationship between the logo, the quality of the product, and the association with Scott's company.

65) The process of acquiring information and storing it over time is called ________. A) memory B) retrieval C) storage D) encoding

A) memory

78) Melissa knows that when she goes to the dentist she must make an appointment, show up on time, bring proof of insurance, and have her teeth cleaned before any other dental services will be performed. With respect to her visit to the dentist, Melissa has learned a schema known as a(n) ________. A) service script B) evoked set C) proposition D) elaborative rehearsal

A) service script

34) When a consumer learns a desired behavior over a period of time, it is called ________. A) shaping B) conditioning C) repetition D) extinction

A) shaping

14) Family branding, licensing, and look-alike packaging are all marketing strategies based on ________. A) stimulus generalization B) the spacing effect C) stimulus discrimination D) extinction

A) stimulus generalization

86) Why do people have a tendency to remember unusual ads more effectively than ads that are less interesting? What is this phenomenon called?

An unusual ad has greater salience. Stimuli that stand out in contrast to their environment are more likely to command attention, which in turn increases the likelihood they will be recalled. This phenomenon is called the von Restorff effect.

26) Licensing occurs when a company ________. A) uses family branding B) "rents" a well-known name C) extends a product line D) uses look-alike packagin

B) "rents" a well-known name

43) According to the definition of learning, how could a researcher ever show that cognitive learning had taken place in a subject? A) By removing the conditioned stimulus B) By measuring a behavioral change that could directly be tied to a previous experience C) By measuring the brainwave pattern of the subject D) By relying upon intuitive feel for the amount of leaning the subject had experienced

B) By measuring a behavioral change that could directly be tied to a previous experience

40) Which theory stresses the importance of internal mental processes? A) Stimulus-response theory B) Cognitive learning theory C) Fixed-interval reinforcement theory D) Variable interval reinforcement theory

B) Cognitive learning theory

63) ________ memories relate to events that are personally relevant; therefore, a person's motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong. A) Sensory B) Episodic C) Primary D) Elaborative

B) Episodic

35) A woman no longer receives compliments on the perfume she wears. In learning terms, the stimulus-response connection has weakened. Which of the following terms best describes the situation? A) Negative reinforcement B) Extinction C) Discrimination D) Generalization

B) Extinction

27) Herbal companies traditionally sold their products in cylinder-shaped plastic containers that were very characteristic of the herbal supplement market. One company broke with tradition and began to sell its herbal products in bottles that appeared to be straight from the pharmacy's shelf. They were rectangular with white labels that looked very professional. Sales went through the roof. What form of stimulus generalization most likely worked for the herbal company? A) Masked branding B) Halo effect C) Continual reinforcement D) Shaping

B) Halo effect

3) When Sophie hums a McDonald's jingle, it is an example of ________. A) brain worm B) incidental learning C) behavior D) consumer attention

B) Incidental Learning

66) Which term refers to the bittersweet emotions that arise when a consumer views the past with happiness and sadness? A) Chunking B) Nostalgia C) Spontaneous recovery D) A schema

B) Nostalgia

32) If a woman receives compliments after wearing Obsession perfume, she is more likely to keep buying the product and wearing it. What type of instrumental conditioning has occurred in the situation? A) Neutral reinforcement B) Positive reinforcement C) Negative reinforcement D) Symbolic reinforcement

B) Positive reinforcement

64) ________ memory permits the temporary storage of information we receive from our senses. A) Elaborative B) Sensory C) Cognitive D) Working

B) Sensory

8) Behavioral learning theorists do not focus on internal thought processes; rather, they look to external evidence to study learning. What aspects of the environment are of most concern to behaviorists in studying learning? A) Energy and work B) Stimulus and response C) Thought and memory D) Sensation and perception

B) Stimulus and response

44) Which type of reinforcement best characterizes what an individual would typically experience while fishing? A) Fixed-interval reinforcement B) Variable-interval reinforcement C) Fixed-ratio reinforcement D) Mixed-ratio reinforcement

B) Variable-interval reinforcement

74) Memories of products are often replaced (forgotten) as we learn additional information. This displacement of information is called ________. A) the highlighting effect B) interference C) decay D) generalization

B) interference

88) In a typical ________ test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before. AACSB: Analytical thinking 88) In a typical ________ test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before. A) recall B) recognition C) chunking D) salience

B) recognition

75) A cognitive framework we develop through experience is called ________. A) scripting B) schema C) beliefs D) meaning

B) schema

85) Gradually changing the package of a product that depends heavily on brand loyalty can be successful if each change is minor. Over the course of a year or more the package may change totally in appearance without offending or confusing brand loyal customers. What factors contribute to forgetting to allow this marketing strategy?

Because of stimulus generalization, the customer learns to associate the benefits and feelings of the old product with the new package. At the same time, retroactive interference is causing memory of the original package to weaken.

30) Define brand equity

Brand equity has a strong positive association in a consumer's memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result.

39) What type of learning theory emphasizes that people are problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master the environment? A) Instrumental conditioning B) Classical conditioning C) Cognitive learning theory D) Operant conditioning

C) Cognitive learning theory

2) Much learning takes effort and time, but some learning is so casual as to be unintentional. This type of learning is referred to as ________ learning. A) stage one B) subliminal C) incidental D) evoked

C) Incidental

4) Sam Bolton hums the Purina Cat Chow jingle as he drives down the expressway. A thought suddenly occurs to Sam: "Why am I humming this stupid jingle? I don't buy this stuff; in fact, I don't even have a cat." Sam knows this jingle is ________. A) stimulus generalization B) reinforcement modeling C) incidental learning D) operant conditioning

C) Incidental learning

1) A relative permanent change of behavior is called ________. A) lifestyles B) personality C) learning D) all of the above

C) Learning

33) In instrumental conditioning, what is the distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment? A) There is no difference. They are two words for the same concept. B) Negative reinforcement can occur when a stimulus is positive, and punishment only occurs when a stimulus is painful. C) Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative outcome is avoided, while punishment occurs when an action causes a negative outcome. D) Negative reinforcement creates a preference for negative results, while punishment teaches people to avoid negative results.

C) Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative outcome is avoided, while punishment occurs when an action causes a negative outcome.

90) Susan selects and runs her focus groups carefully. She wants to make sure that each focus group member provides meaningful information for her research purpose. As she is examining potential focus group candidates, she notices that three men and two women seem to provide "yes" answers regardless of what she asks them. They seem to want to be on the focus group very badly and appear eager to be "good subjects." If Susan follows prudent testing methodology, she should reject these test subjects in order to avoid the possibility of which of the following? A) Stimulus generalization B) Order bias C) Response D) Spontaneous recovery

C) Response

91) Erika, an analyst for a marketing research firm, has been tasked with observing and probing patient behaviors at a small Midwestern clinic. In her study, Erika noticed that many patients tended to underestimate the time since their last doctor visit. What type of memory lapse did Erika most likely observe? A) Omitting B) Averaging C) Telescoping D) Normalizing

C) Telescoping

10) Classical conditioning takes place when a(n) ________ is continuously matched with a(n) ________. A) conditioned stimulus; conditioned response B) unconditioned response; conditioned stimulus C) conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus D) unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response

C) conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus

62) According to the information process-approach to studying the memory process, in the ________ stage, information enters in a way the system will recognize it. A) storage B) retrieval C) encoding D) decoding

C) encoding

57) On her first visit to China, Jane did not know how to pay for the produce she had selected at a market. She watched several Chinese women pay for their selections, and then Jane copied their behavior. In this example, Jane used ________. A) shaping B) stimulus discrimination C) modeling D) stimulus generalization

C) modeling

31) Instrumental conditioning is also called ________. A) learning B) classical conditioning C) operant conditioning D) shaping

C) operant conditioning

89) When a consumer has a powerful emotional reaction to a song or photos, this is called ________. A) measured recall B) memory recall C) spontaneous recall D) all of the above

C) spontaneous recall

12) Stimulus generalization refers to ________. A) the tendency for stimuli to be similar in nature B) the fact that most conditioned stimuli are similar to unconditioned stimuli C) the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar, conditioned responses D) the tendency for extinction to occur when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus

C) the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar, conditioned responses

72) Explain the term "chunking."

Chunking is when a person combines small pieces of information into larger ones.

15) Frank is sitting in his Psychology 101 class listening to his professor attempt to explain the "black box" process and its connection with learning. He suddenly smells the aroma of fresh cinnamon rolls, and his mouth begins to water. He looks around the room and sees a student in the last row bite into a big, juicy roll. "I wish I were sitting next to him," Frank thinks, "because I know I could steal a bite." What Frank just went through in class was similar to the "black box" process being described by his professor. This process is more closely associated with which of the following learning methods? A) Incidental learning B) Gestalt learning C) Cognitive learning D) Behavioral learning

D) Behavioral learning

11) If a conditioned stimulus is only occasionally matched with an unconditioned stimulus, the association between the two will become weakened. This is called ________. A) interface B) repetition C) the spacing effect D) extinction

D) Extinction

41) Claudia Norman, a marketing consultant, recommended that brand equity for a new environmentally-friendly product could be established by giving initial customers free memberships in the Sierra Club organization. Claudia used which of the following in her recommendation? A) Promotional consideration B) Emotional learning C) Classical conditioning D) Instrumental conditioning

D) Instrumental conditioning

79) Samantha is passing down the cereal aisle when she spots a box of Frosted Flakes cereal featuring Tony the Tiger on the box front. She remembers the taste of the cereal and how much fun she had talking to Tony while she ate her cereal as a kid. She buys a box and leaves the cereal aisle without examining any other cereal products. What aspect of the retrieval process did Samantha use in her product search process? A) Salience B) The von Restorff effect C) The spacing effect D) State-dependent retrieval

D) State-dependent retrieval

24) ________ refers to the tendency people have to react to stimuli similar to an original stimulus in a classical conditioning situation in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus. A) Extinction B) Repetition C) The cueing effect D) The halo effect

D) The halo effect

37) A department store decides to use "secret shoppers" at unannounced times to test for service quality among its personnel. Store personnel are rewarded for providing excellent customer service. Which reinforcement schedule has been used in this situation? A) Fixed-ratio reinforcement B) Fixed-interval reinforcement C) Variable-frequency reinforcement D) Variable-interval reinforcement

D) Variable-interval reinforcement

36) Instrumental conditioning occurs with ________. A) positive reinforcement B) negative reinforcement C) punishment D) all of the above

D) all of the above

56) A stage in the cognitive development process is ________. A) cued B) limited C) strategic D) all of the above

D) all of the above

76) "It's time for the Christmas shopping list," thought Martha's mother, so she asked Martha for a quick list of her favorite perfumes. Martha gave her mother six names that were all her "favorite." This group constitutes Martha's ________ for perfume. A) position set B) activation set C) rational set D) evoked set

D) evoked set

38) The popular marketing technique known as ________ marketing applies the principles of instrumental conditioning by reinforcing regular purchases, with value. A) rebate B) discount C) social marketing D) frequency

D) frequency

25) When a professor reviews a certain topic many times, he is practicing ________. A) psychological conditioning B) stimulus-response conditioning C) subliminal conditioning D) repetition conditioning

D) repetition conditioning

22) Explain the term "extinction."

Extinction occurs when the effects of prior conditioning diminish and finally disappear.

18) Behavioral theorists rely on internal mental states to explain learning.

False

29) John Deere established a reputation for building dependable farm tractors. When the company began to build small yard tractors, it insisted on using the same logo on its small mowers as on its large tractors. John Deere was applying stimulus generalization through look-alike packaging.

False

45) Instrumental conditioning is also called classical conditioning.

False

50) When Shira was a young girl, her teacher gave her a sticker every time she earned above 90% on a test. Shira's teacher was using classical conditioning.

False

51) Fixed-interval reinforcement explains why airlines' frequent flier programs are so successful.

False

58) The observational learning process begins with a person being motivated to perform an action.

False

80) The spacing effect describes the tendency for consumers to recall printed material more effectively when the advertiser repeats the target item in a short time period rather than periodically over a longer time span

False

81) The salience of a brand refers to its degree of pricing flexibility.

False

83) Encoding is when consumers access desired information from their memory.

False

92) During a free recall test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they had seen them before.

False

54) Explain how frequency marketing works.

Frequency marketing rewards regular purchases with prices that get better as they spend more.

52) Explain how instrumental conditioning works.

Instrumental conditioning occurs when we learn to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that yield negative outcomes.

69) Discuss the capacity of short-term memory.

It was originally believed that short-term memory had an upper limit of five to nine chunks of information. People combine small pieces of information into a large whole in a process called chunking. Based on more current research, the optimal capacity of STM appears to be about three to four chunks of information.

5) Differentiate between the terms "learning" and "incidental learning."

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. The learner need not have the experience directly. We can also learn by observing events that affect others. We learn even when we are not trying. This causal, unintentional acquisition of knowledge is known as incidental learning.

6) Define learning.

Learning is a relatively permanent change of behavior caused by experience.

87) What does salience of a brand refer to?

Salience of a brand refers to its prominence or level of activation in memory.

23) Discuss stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination. Provide an example of each that is relevant to the field of marketing.

Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar, conditioned responses. The idea is that people react to other stimuli (similar stimuli) in much the same way they respond to original stimuli. For example, a drug store's bottle of private brand mouthwash might be deliberately packaged so as to resemble a name brand (such as Listerine). The consumer would assume this "me-too" product has the same characteristics as the name brand and but it because of its lower price. Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus is not followed by an unconditioned stimulus. In this case, reactions are weakened and will soon disappear. National manufactures remind consumers that if they buy cheaper brands they will not get the same results as they when they buy the national brand.

61) For modeling behavior to occur during observational learning, four conditions must be met. What are those conditions? Be specific in your description.

The four conditions are: • The consumer's attention must be directed to the appropriate model, which, for reasons of attractiveness, competence, status, or similarity, he must want to emulate. • The consumer must remember what the model says or does. • The consumer must convert this information into actions. • The consumer must be motivated to perform these actions.

71) List and explain the three stages of memory.

The memory process involves the following three stages: a. encoding—information enters in a way the system will recognize. b. storage—integrates knowledge with what is already in memory. c. retrieval—when desired information is accessed.

7) List and explain the three stages of cognitive development.

The three stages of cognitive development are 1. Limited—children younger than age 6 who do not employ storage and retrieval skills. 2. Cued—children between the ages of 6 and 12 employ storage and retrieval skills only when prompted. 3. Strategic—children 12 and older who spontaneously employ storage and retrieval skills.

17) Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its ow

True

19) Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli have been paired a number of times.

True

20) When Pavlov's famous dog responded to a bell signaling feeding time, Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning.

True

21) Shari Gomez sees the big red heart on the front of a Cheerios box and immediately thinks of an ad she has seen that discusses the heart-healthy benefits of Cheerios. This is an illustration of a stimulus-response connection.

True

28) When Campbell's markets many products under the same brand name it is called family branding.

True

46) Punishment is one way that instrumental conditioning occurs.

True

47) Secret shoppers are used by marketers to test the effectiveness of the customer service skills quality among employees. This is a form of variable-interval reinforcement.

True

48) Consumers' attraction to slot machines can be explained by the variable-ratio reinforcement schedule the machines use.

True

49) Cognitive learning theory approaches tend to stress the importance of internal mental processes.

True

59) Modeling is the process of imitating the behavior of others.

True

60) A mother observes her daughter stirring batter in a bowl just the way she does when she bakes. The daughter has modeled her mother's behavior.

True

67) Retrieval is the process whereby we recover information from long-term memory.

True

68) Episodic memories are likely to become part of a person's long-term memory.

True

82) The success of hybrid ads supports the idea that the viewing content of a marketing message affects recall.

True

84) Spreading activation allows consumers to shift back and forth among levels of meanings.

True

70) Why would short-term memory be greatly impaired, or perhaps made impossible, without sensory memory?

Visual stimuli literally arrive at the speed of light. It takes time for the brain to recognize and process information. Without a means of storing sensory information for a short period of time, new stimuli would override old stimuli before it could be processed. The attention process would have to shut out new incoming sensations while it worked on what it had. This would reduce the person's interaction with the world and decrease the probability of recognizing danger or opportunity in an ever-changing environment.

53) Why do variable reinforcements result in behavior that is more difficult to extinguish than fixed schedules?

When animals or people learn with a fixed schedule, they learn that reinforcement comes after a certain number of repetitions or in a certain time interval. If the reinforcement is not forthcoming, extinction begins to take place. When animals or people learn with a variable schedule, they also learn that reinforcement is not always forthcoming. However, they continue to work, expecting to eventually be rewarded.