Ch.3 Enculturation

Smith conducted a study to see how the definition of bullying is different across cultures and it revealed that

across all countries there were few gender differences in what was considered bullying. In other words their definitions were defined in similar ways. another similarity was age difference (definition changed depending on age) (pg 75)

each culture has an understanding of the adult competencies needed for..

adequate functioning, but these competencies differ by culture and environment (pg.59)

cultural learning involves..

all aspects of the learning processes that psychologists have identified over the years including classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning (pg 59)

Some cultures encourage a didactic model of teaching in which..

an expert teacher gives info to students, who are expected to listen and learn. Other cultures view teachers as leaders through a lesson plan, providing the overall structure and framework by which students discover principles and concepts. More examples of different cultures are on this page (pg 76)

Global parenting styles

authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, uninvolved (pg 64)

cyberbullying

bullying through electronic means such as internet, social media or sending text messages (pg 75)

The vehicle by which education occurs reinforces..

certain types of cultural values in its recipients (pg 76)

research on American and European children indicates that..

children benefit from the authoritative parenting style, they show more positive mood, self-reliance, self-confidence, higher emotional and social skills and secure attachment to caregivers (pg 65)

Dweck found within his study of children's abilities found that

children who believe that ability rather than effort determines intelligence tend to give up faster when faced with a difficult or challenging problem (pg 77)

name the three domains of the domain specific approach

control, protection, and reciprocity (pg 68-69)

Six cultures study by Beatrice and John whiting

cross cultural data was collected in Mexico, India, Kenya, the U.S., Okinawa, and the Philipinnes. the major focus of the study was to systematically examine child rearing and child behavior in these varied cultural contexts (pg 61)

Research also shows that in addition to sleeping arrangements..

cross-cultural research has also shown differences in how parents structure their home environment (pg 67)

school institutionalizes..

cultural values and attitudes and is a significant contributor not only to the intellectual development of the child but, just as important to the child's emotional and social development (pg 77)

Bradley and Corwyn described three general areas in which..

cultures vary; warmth and responsiveness, discipline and stimulation/teaching (pg 67)

the definition of the word sibling is becoming redefined; in many cultures siblings are defined as biologically related however, others..

define siblings as both biologically and non-biologically related. Remember there are also higher rates for divorce, separation or re-marriage and this leads to whole, half, and step siblings (pg 69)

Researchers have found that differences in sleeping arrangements could be due to

differences in economic and other cultural reasons (pg 67)

peers are a large part of what setting

education system (pg 75)

Super and Harkness Developmental Niche

focuses on how the broader macrosystem structures the child's immediate microsystems (pg 61)

Super and Harkness performed a study on parental ethnotheories and it..

found that American parents hold an ethnotheory about the importance of spending special time with their children whereas Dutch parents hold an ethnotheory of spending family time with their children. The findings show how parent's cultural belief systems motivate and shape what parents think is the right way to parent their children (pg 63)

Olweus definition of bullying

1. intentional physical or psychological harm 2. that is based on power imbalance between the bully and the victim 3. which is repeated over time (pg 74)

Three major components of Super and Harkness developmental niche

1. the physical and social setting 2. the customs of child care and child rearing 3. psychology of caregivers (pg 61)

other important socialization/enculturation agents are listed on pg..

60

Other examples of how education system works in different cultures are on page

76

the comparison of how American and Japanese parenting styles impact their children's education is on page

77

post-figurative culture

A culture in which change is slow and socialization occurs primarily by elders transferring their knowledge to their children. Elders hold the knowledge necessary for becoming a successful and competent adult (pg 72)

Pre-figurative culture

A culture that is changing so rapidly that young people may be the ones to teach adults cultural knowledge. (pg 73)

permissive parent

A style of parenting in which parents allow children to regulate their own lives and provide few firm guidelines. (pg 64)

authoritarian parent

A style of parenting in which the parent expects unquestioned obedience and views the child as needing to be controlled. (pg 64)

authoritative parent

A style of parenting that is viewed as firm, fair, and reasonable. This style is seen as promoting psychologically healthy, competent, independent children who are cooperative and at ease in social situations. (pg 64)

Yan and Gier looked at casual attributions for college success and failure in Asian and American undergraduate and graduate students. They found that..

American students attributed academic achievement more often to ability than did Asian international students. American students also believed that effort was more important for success than lack of effort was for failure. Asian international students believed that effort was equally as important for success than lack of effort was for failure (pg 78)

Pang studied the relationships among test anxiety, self concept and student perceptions of parental support in Asian American and European American middle schoolers. The study found that

Asian American students exhibited a stronger desire to please parents, greater parental pressure, but also higher levels of parental support than European American students. (pg 78)

multigenerational families include

grandparents in addition to both parents and children or just children (pg 71)

Tomasello studied what..

he compared to types of great apes to two year old children, he reveled that in many ways they were similar such as their spacial awareness. (pg. 58)

Lijiembe described his role as a caretaker for his younger sister

his brotherly duties included playing, bathing her, feeding her, and toilet training. this is an example of how caretaking of siblings is common practice in some cultures (pg 70)

one major finding of the six cultures study was

how the natural environment shaped how households were structured, which in turn shaped how parents raised their children to fit into a particular society (pg 61)

Many industrialized societies have a formal education system that includes..

identifiable areas and structures (schools) and identifiable education agents (teachers) to "do" education (pg 76)

Scheper-Hughes described an..

impoverished community in northeast Brazil where if an infant was weak mothers would show little responsiveness and affection and sometimes even show neglect to the point of death to the infant. Some mothers think of infants as temporary visitors in the home. Her point was that a mothers love grows slowly in this community due to the harsh environment (pg 62)

Brofenbrenner's ecological theory

in his view human development is a dynamic, interactive process between individuals and various ecologies that range from the proximal, immediate environment to the more distal (pg 60)

an important thing to remember about peer influence is that

it is not just one way, your peers learn from you as well you learning from them (pg 75)

There is evidence that when children and adolescents of collectivistic as well as individualistic cultures perceive parents as..

lacking warmth and exerting unilateral control (aspects of authoritative parenting) this is seen as undesirable and hostile (pg 66)

cultural learning

learning not only from others but through others

one major difference of extended and multigenerational families in the U.S. and other cultures is that

living with extended and multigenerational families in the U.S. is often seen as a consequence of poor economics rather than a desirable state of affairs (pg 71)

Chaos cross cultural study examined

maternal beliefs regarding school success between Chinese and European American mothers of preschoolers. She found that Chinese mothers of preschoolers placed a very high value on education, believed they needed to engage in much time, effort, and sacrifice in order for their children to succeed. European American mothers of preschoolers also valued education and emphasized reading in the home. However, European American mothers also believed in less direct approach in instruction, showed greater concern for building the child's social skills and self esteem. They were concerned about burnout (pg 77-78)

recent findings have lead researches to argue that authoritative parenting..

may not consistently predict positive outcomes for all ethnic groups (example on pg 65)

the extended family is important for

means of transmitting cultural heritage from generation to generation. Can also act as a buffer to stresses of every day living (pg 71)

extended families include

members other than parents and children such as, aunts, uncles, cousins or grandparents (pg 71)

Research has found that Japanese and Chinese school children spend more days per year in school and

more hours per day in school, a greater proportion of time devoted to purely academic subjects and a greater proportion of time devoted to math (pg 78)

In five of the cultures of Whiting's six culture study other caretakers were

mostly siblings and were observed to be present an equal or greater amount of time with the young child compared with the mother (pg 69)

Another way to highlight education as an enculturation agent is that

not all cultures of the world rely solely on an institutionalized setting to teach math (pg 77)

Margaret Mead proposed that by...

observing parents we are observing the essence of a culture (pg 61)

HOME Inventory (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment)

one of the most widely used measure of home inventory (pg 67)

Most American parents believe that they should put babies in a separate room to sleep by themselves to teach them independence versus

other cultures such as Japanese who believe in allowing their children to sleep in the room with them to form a strong bond (pg 67)

parental ethnotheories

parental cultural belief systems; serve as a basis for guiding parenting practices that structure children's daily lives (pg 63)

All of these studies on parenting show that

parenting beliefs and practices tend to be congruent with developmental goals dictated by culture; that is cultural differences in specific values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors necessary for survival are associated with different developmental goals so that developing members of society can carry on culture relevant work related to survival (pg 68)

who is one of the most important of these socialization/enculturation agents?

parents (pg 60)

the grandmother in these three generation households

plays a very important role as a teacher and role model to her daughter and can provide favorable, positive social interaction for her grandchild (pg 72).

Also during class American teachers tend to use

praise to reward correct responses. Teachers in Japan however tend to focus on incorrect answers using them as examples to lead into discussion of the computational process and math concepts (pg 78)

Finally, cross cultural differences in the school environment has also been found. In japan

principals of eighth graders reported far fewer behaviors threatening a safe and orderly learning environment than in the U.S. (pg 79)

depending on the culture the extent to which children interact with their peers may be

quite significant. there are good examples of this on page 73

another example of siblings involved in caretaking includes..

Kwara'ae in the Solomon Islands. This culture responsibilities of caretaking are viewed as a training ground for siblings to become mutually dependent on another in adulthood (pg 70)

One study examined how older siblings influence younger siblings perspectives on gender

researchers found that younger siblings tended to model their older ones in terms of their gender role attitudes, gendered personality traits and gender stereotyped leisure activities (pg 70)

One of the most representative cultural differences in parenting behaviors concerns..

sleeping arrangements (pg 66) good examples of this on this page

Importantly it is the ability of humans to

so easily conform and desire to conform to peers that facilitates learning of norms and behaviors of specific social and cultural groups (pg 72)

another finding of six cultures study was

that women's work roles contributed to children's social behaviors (pg 62)

Levine theorizes that

the caregiving environment reflects a set of goals that are ordered in importance. First, physical health and survival. Next, a promotion of behaviors that lead to self-sufficiency. Last, the behaviors that promote other cultural values such as prestige (pg 62)

What was the big difference between the children and the apes?

the children were more sophisticated about the social world than the apes were (pg.58)

domain specific approach to parenting emphasizes

the complexity of the socialization process by distinguishing between distinct types or domains of parent-child socialization (pg 68)

These teaching differences speak to

the cultural emphasis in the U.S. on rewarding uniqueness and individualism and the emphasis in Japan and China on finding ways to engage in group process and sharing responsibility for mistakes with members of the group (pg 79)

By teaching a certain type of content..

the educational system reinforces a particular view of cognition and intelligence (pg 76)

Another important factor to consider regarding education is

the environmental setting in which education occurs (pg 76)

microsystem

the immediate surroundings such as family, school, peer group- direct interactions (pg 60)

socialization refers to

the process and mechanisms by which people learn the rules of society

socialization

the process by which we learn and internalize the rules and patterns of behavior that are affected by culture. This process which occurs over a long time involves learning, and mastering societal and cultural norms, attitudes, values and belief systems

Enculturation refers to

the products of the socialization process

Olweus conducted a study of bullying and it revealed that

the rate of bullying varies across cultures. However, cross-national comparisons may be problematic if bullying is defined in different ways (pg 74)

The Tomasello study also examined how chimpanzees and two year old children differ in how influential peers are to solving a problem. Research found that

the study involved dropping a ball into three different holes in order to receive a reward. Results showed that only human children were likely to switch by dropping the ball into the hole their peers did (pg 72)

Recent discussions on parenting and culture talk about..

the term "tiger mother" used to describe Aisan mothers. According to Chua tiger mother's are highly demanding and drive their children to high levels of academic stress while Western parents are much less demanding and are more concerned about their kids social and emotional well being (pg 66)

another study of dutch adolescents examined how older siblings delinquent behaviors related to

their younger siblings delinquent behaviors including getting into trouble with the law, alcohol and cigarettes (pg 70)

Keller's study on parenting in Germany and India found that

these different parenting goals translated into differences in how Berlin and Delhi mothers talked and played with their infants (pg 63)

Grusec and Davidow emphasized that

these five domains of socialization are universal but there are cultural variations (five domains listed below the description on this page) (pg 69)

Baumrid identified three general patterns of parenting based on..

two key dimensions: warmth/responsiveness and control. the three parenting styles= authoritative, permissive, and authoritarian (pg 64)

Maccoby and martin identified the fourth parenting type which is..

uninvolved (pg 64)

An example of how math is taught in other cultures is

with the Micronesian Islanders of Puluwat culture. They teach math skills through navigation and to coastal Ghananians by marketing fish (pg 77)

Macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

The cultural values, economic conditions, and other forms that shape a society. Ex: Religion (pg 60)

Exosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

The environments that indirectly influence the child. Ex: Extended family (pg 60)

socialization and enculturation agents

The people, institutions, and organizations that exist to help ensure that socialization and enculturation occurs. (pg 60)

con-figurative cultures

a culture in which change occurs rapidly. Both adults and peers socialize young people. young people may have to turn to one another for advice and information in this type of culture (pg 73)

The content of what is taught in schools reflects

a priori choices by that culture or society regarding what it believes is important to learn (pg 76)

Some researchers believe that Chinese authoritative parenting style may originate from..

a set of cultural beliefs that may differ greatly from European American cultural belief system. For instance, Chiao Shun or "training" in child rearing. training emphasizes very close parental supervision in order to promote children's obedience, discipline, and adherence to family obligation (pg 65)- Chao

univolved parenting

a style of parenting in which parents are often too absorbed in their own lives to respond appropriately to their children and may seem indifferent to them (pg 64).