ch6 cscs

Additional Studying ESC Page 126 - Table 6.2 ESC Page 127 - table 6.3 ESC Page 131 - Table - "What are the markers of aerobic overtraining?"

Additional Studying ESC Page 126 - Table 6.2 ESC Page 127 - table 6.3 ESC Page 131 - Table - "What are the markers of aerobic overtraining?"

Discuss the process of aerobic detraining. What can coaches do to prevent detraining? (ESC 131-132) Detraining -• The ? or complete ? of training-induced ? in response to an insufficient training ? -• Aerobic adaptations most susceptible due to their ? basis -• Exact cellular mechanisms ? -• In highly trained athletes: ----➢ Short term - decrease in VO2 max between #% and #% ----➢ Long term - decrease in VO2 max #% - #% -------▪ Result of: -• Decreased ? volume -• Decreased ? volume -• Decreased maximal ? output Preventing Detraining: -• Proper exercise ? -• Proper ? -• ? programs -• Active ?

Discuss the process of aerobic detraining. What can coaches do to prevent detraining? (ESC 131-132) Detraining -• The partial or complete loss of training-induced adaptations in response to an insufficient training stimulus -• Aerobic adaptations most susceptible due to their enzymatic basis -• Exact cellular mechanisms unknown -• In highly trained athletes: ----➢ Short term - decrease in VO2 max between 4% and 14% ----➢ Long term - decrease in VO2 max 6% - 20% -------▪ Result of: -• Decreased blood volume -• Decreased stroke volume -• Decreased maximal cardiac output Preventing Detraining: -• Proper exercise variation -• Proper intensity -• Maintenance programs -• Active recovery

List the factors that influence adaptations to aerobic endurance training. Describe what happens with each factor. Asexual Hawks Skewered Bisexual Gay Architects Savagely Factors that influence adaptations to aerobic endurance training: - Altitude: At altitudes more than # feet will increase pulmonary ? and ? output at ? and during ? exercise due to an increased ? rate. From ? exposure or training in high altitudes we see increases in ? output, ? heart rate, ? blood cell production, ?, and ?. We also see decreases in ? and ? volume. - Hyperoxic Breathing: Taking in ? rich in oxygen when ? may affect exercise performance ?. It isn't fully proven. - Smoking: Exercise performance will be acutely affected from ? smoking. - Blood Doping: This is the input of more of your own blood, or someone else's blood. It will stimulate the ? of red blood cells and improve ? performance over a ? period of time. - Genetic Potential: This dictates the level of adaptations to training. - Age and Sex: Max aerobic power ? the older you are. Women's aerobic power is #-#% of men's values. Physiologically, men and women have ? responses to training.

Factors that influence adaptations to aerobic endurance training: - Altitude: At altitudes more than 3,900 feet will increase pulmonary ventilation and cardiac output at rest and during Submax exercise due to an increased heart rate. From prolonged exposure or training in high altitudes we see increases in cardiac output, Submax heart rate, red blood cell production, hematocrit, and viscosity. We also see decreases in stroke and plasma volume. - Hyperoxic Breathing: Taking in gas rich in oxygen when resting may affect exercise performance positively. It isn't fully proven. - Smoking: Exercise performance will be acutely affected from tobacco smoking. - Blood Doping: This is the input of more of your own blood, or someone else's blood. It will stimulate the production of red blood cells and improve aerobic performance over a short period of time. - Genetic Potential: This dictates the level of adaptations to training. - Age and Sex: Max aerobic power decreases the older you are. Women's aerobic power is 73 - 85% of men's values. Physiologically, men and women have similar responses to training.

List the external and individual factors that influence aerobic adaptations. Describe the main considerations for each. (ESC 125-128) Altitude -• Elevations above # ft (# m) cause ? physiological adjustments to compensate for ? partial pressure of oxygen -• Immediate Adjustments: ----➢ Increased pulmonary ? at ? and during ? (?) ----➢ Caused by increased breathing ? ----➢ Over time, tidal volume will ? -• Increased ? and ? cardiac output: ----➢ Up to #-#% increase over sea level value ----➢ Reflects increased need for ? flow -• Longer Term Adjustments (#-# weeks): ----➢ HR and cardiac output ? to ? values (#-# days after altitude exposure) ----➢ Increased ? blood cell concentration - #-#% increase ----➢ Increased ? formation - #-#% increase ----➢ Increased ? capacity of ? through pulmonary ? ----➢ Increased ? excretion of ? to maintain ?-? balance ----➢ Improved performance relative to ? altitude --------▪ Generally still ? aerobic performance than at sea level Hyperoxic Breathing -• Breathing ?-enriched gas mixtures -• Performed during ? periods or following ? -• May positively affect some performance measures -• Effects not fully ? -• Sea level blood O2 saturation already near #% capacity Smoking -• Decreases performance via: ----➢ Increased airway ? from nicotine related ?? ----➢ Paralysis of ? on the respiratory ? ----➢ Carbon monoxide impairs the ? transport capacity of ? --------▪ CO has a higher affinity for ? the O2 Blood Doping -• Process of artificially increasing ? blood cell mass -• Accomplished through: ----➢ the infusion of ? cells from the ? or another ? ----➢ The administration of ? (?) - stimulates ? blood cell production -• Increases blood's ability to carry ? ----➢ More oxygen available for ? muscles -• Up to #% increased oxygen uptake from blood doping and/or EPO administration -• Decreases ? & blood ? levels -• ? pH levels -• Increases ? to ? impacts on performance ----➢ Decreases acute effects of ? ----➢ Increases ? exercise tolerance in ? conditions --------▪ Mostly applies to ? athletes -• Health Risks ----➢ Increased hematocrit increases the risks of: --------▪ Stroke, ? infarction,? vein ?, pulmonary ? -• EPO use may also result in ----➢ increased ? pressure ----➢ ?-like symptoms ----➢ Increased plasma ? levels Genetic Potential -• Limit of physical adaptations to exercise largely determined by ? potential ----➢ Gains harder to achieve as athletes get ? to the genetic potential ----➢ Small performance differences in elite athletes determine huge variations in victory --------▪ Careful program ? crucial to elite athletes Age and Sex -• Maximal aerobic power decreases with ? -• Women typically have #-#% of the values of men -• Physical responses to endurance training ? in men and women -• Max aerobic power difference in men and women may be caused by: ----➢ Higher body ? ----➢ Lower blood ? ----➢ Larger heart ? in men

List the external and individual factors that influence aerobic adaptations. Describe the main considerations for each. (ESC 125-128) Altitude -• Elevations above 3,900 ft (1,200 m) cause acute physiological adjustments to compensate for reduced partial pressure of oxygen -• Immediate Adjustments: ----➢ Increased pulmonary ventilation at rest and during exercise (hyperventilation) ----➢ Caused by increased breathing frequency ----➢ Over time, tidal volume will increase -• Increased resting and submaximal cardiac output: ----➢ Up to 30-50% increase over sea level value ----➢ Reflects increased need for blood flow -• Longer Term Adjustments (3-6 weeks): ----➢ HR and cardiac output return to normal values (10-14 days after altitude exposure) ----➢ Increased red blood cell concentration - 30-50% increase ----➢ Increased hemoglobin formation - 5-15% increase ----➢ Increased diffusing capacity of O2 through pulmonary membranes ----➢ Increased renal excretion of HCO3- to maintain acid-base balance ----➢ Improved performance relative to initial altitude --------▪ Generally still less aerobic performance than at sea level Hyperoxic Breathing -• Breathing oxygen-enriched gas mixtures -• Performed during rest periods or following exercise -• May positively affect some performance measures -• Effects not fully elucidated -• Sea level blood O2 saturation already near 98% capacity Smoking -• Decreases performance via: ----➢ Increased airway resistance from nicotine related bronchiole constriction ----➢ Paralysis of cilia on the respiratory surfaces ----➢ Carbon monoxide impairs the oxygen transport capacity of hemoglobin --------▪ CO has a higher affinity for hemoglobin the O2 Blood Doping -• Process of artificially increasing red blood cell mass -• Accomplished through: ----➢ the infusion of blood cells from the individual or another person ----➢ The administration of erythropoietin (EPO) - stimulates red blood cell production -• Increases blood's ability to carry oxygen ----➢ More oxygen available for working muscles -• Up to 11% increased oxygen uptake from blood doping and/or EPO administration -• Decreases HR, blood lactate levels -• Increases pH levels -• Increases resistance to environmental impacts on performance ----➢ Decreases acute effects of altitude ----➢ Increases submaximal exercise tolerance in hot conditions --------▪ Mostly applies to acclimatized athletes -• Health Risks ----➢ Increased hematocrit increases the risks of: --------▪ Stroke --------▪ Myocardial infarction --------▪ Deep vein thrombosis --------▪ Pulmonary embolism -• EPO use may also result in ----➢ Increased arterial pressure ----➢ Flu-like symptoms ----➢ Increased plasma potassium levels Genetic Potential -• Limit of physical adaptations to exercise largely determined by genetic potential ----➢ Gains harder to achieve as athletes get closer to the genetic potential ----➢ Small performance differences in elite athletes determine huge variations in victory --------▪ Careful program design crucial to elite athletes Age and Sex -• Maximal aerobic power decreases with age -• Women typically have 73%-85% of the values of men -• Physical responses to endurance training similar in men and women -• Max aerobic power difference in men and women may be caused by: ----➢ Higher body fat ----➢ Lower blood hemoglobin ----➢ Larger heart size in men

List the main phases and characteristics of each phase of overtraining. What is the general cause of overtraining? (ESC 129) Overtraining (OT) -• A continuum of ? to intensified training without proper ? ----1. Functional overreaching (FOR) --------• ? period of intensified training --------• Can be used ? before competition for a ? boost --------• Intense training followed by ? or ? of recovery and volume reduction is called ? --------• Leads to ? improvement ----2. Nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR) --------• An ?period of excessive training beyond ? overreaching --------• Leads to significant ? in performance --------• Requires ? to ? to return to baseline --------• Leads to ? when not managed ----3. Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) --------• Causes significant ? in performance --------• Altered ? system and ? function --------• Requires ? to return to baseline

List the main phases and characteristics of each phase of overtraining. What is the general cause of overtraining? (ESC 129) Overtraining (OT) -• A continuum of responses to intensified training without proper recovery ----1. Functional overreaching (FOR) --------• Short period of intensified training --------• Can be used strategically before competition for a performance boost --------• Intense training followed by days or weeks of recovery and volume reduction is called tapering --------• Leads to supercompensative improvement ----2. Nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR) --------• An extended period of excessive training beyond FOR --------• Leads to significant drop in performance --------• Requires weeks to months to return to baseline --------• Leads to OTS when not managed ----3. Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) --------• Causes significant drop in performance --------• Altered nervous system and immune function --------• Requires months to return to baseline

What is the difference in systolic and diastolic blood pressure? Systolic Blood Pressure is the amount of pressure that is put on the arterial ? when blood is ? being forced out during ventricular ?. This is the ? number in blood pressure readings. Diastolic Blood Pressure is the pressure that is put on the ? walls when the blood ? being forced out during contractions. This is the ? number in blood pressure readings. If the reading is 110/90, which is systolic and which is diastolic bp?

Systolic Blood Pressure is the amount of pressure that is put on the arterial walls when blood is ejected during ventricular contractions. This is the top number in blood pressure readings. Diastolic Blood Pressure is the pressure that is put on the arterial walls when the blood isn't being forced out during contractions. This is the bottom number in blood pressure readings.

Describe the chronic adaptations to aerobic exercise? The Chronic Adaptations to Aerobic Exercise are: Physiological adaptations: Poor Mulan Mocked Classy Bridesmaids -o Performance: There is an increase in ? power output for muscular endurance. An increase in aerobic ?, a possible decrease in ? force production rate, and slight increase in ? speed. -o Muscle Fibers: Possibly an increase in fiber ?. Increases in ? & ? density. -o Metabolic Energy store: There are increases in ...?, ?,?, and ? stores. -o Connective Tissue: Increases in ? & ? strength, and possibly ? density. -o Body Composition: A ? happens in percent body fat. Cardiovascular adaptations: We have to use p?, variation, s?, and overload. Respiratory Adaptations: Increases in ? volume and ? of breathing occur with ? exercise. Neural Adaptations: efficiency ?, and contractile mechanism ? is delayed. Muscular Adaptations: Increases in ? capacity of the trained muscles occur. Performing at given intensities of exercise become ?. Bone and Connective Adaptations: The extent of growth in these tissues is ? to the intensity. Endocrine Adaptations: Hormonal circulation ?, along with changes at the ? level.

The Chronic Adaptations to Aerobic Exercise are: Physiological adaptations: -o Performance: There is an increase in low power output for muscular endurance. An increase in aerobic power, a possible decrease in max force production rate, and slight increase in sprint speed. -o Muscle Fibers: Possibly an increase in fiber size. Increases in capillary density and mitochondrial density. -o Metabolic Energy store: There are increases in ATP, Creatine, glycogen, and triglyceride stores. -o Connective Tissue: Increases in ligament strength, tendon strength, and possibly bone density. -o Body Composition: A decrease happens in percent body fat. Cardiovascular adaptations: We have to use progression, variation, specificity, and overload. Respiratory Adaptations: Increases in tidal volume and frequency of breathing occur with max exercise. Neural Adaptations: efficiency increases, and contractile mechanism fatigue is delayed. Muscular Adaptations: Increases in aerobic capacity of the trained muscles occur. Performing at given intensities of exercise become easier. Bone and Connective Adaptations: The extent of growth in these tissues is proportional to the intensity. Endocrine Adaptations: Hormonal circulation increases, along with changes at the receptor level.

What are the acute responses to aerobic exercise? Expand on the details about Cardiac Output. How can we calculate cardiac output? What is a MET? The acute responses include: Colorful Saints Hated Obliging Brave Couples Cardiovascular responses: ? Output, ? Volume, ? Rate, ? Uptake, ? Pressure, and the control of ? circulation all increase as acute responses. Cardiac output is calculated by multiplying what and what...?. Stroke volume is the amount of blood ? with each ?. Heart Rate is how ? the heart beats. These two combined are Cardiac ?. At rest we are known as being at # MET. 1 MET is equal to # mL of ? per ? of body weight per ?. Respiratory responses: Large levels of ? diffuse from ? to the ?, increases in carbon ? levels from the blood to the ?, and some small increases in ? for good levels of ? concentrations of these gases. Gas responses: When exercising at high intensities, pressure gradients of both ? and carbon ? cause the ? to move across the cell ?. The diffusing capacities ? a lot when exercising. So, more ? happens. Blood transport of gases and metabolic by-products: Because of the other increases, we see the ? and ? by-product transport increase.

The acute responses include: Cardiovascular responses: Cardiac Output, Stroke Volume, Heart Rate, Oxygen Uptake, Blood Pressure, and the control of local circulation all increase as acute responses. Cardiac output is calculated by multiplying Stroke Volume and Heart Rate. Stroke volume is the amount of blood ejected with each beat. Heart Rate is how fast the heart beats. These two combined are Cardiac Output. At rest we are known as being at 1 MET. 1 MET is equal to 3.5 mL of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute. Respiratory responses: Large levels of oxygen diffuse from capillaries to the tissues, increases in carbon dioxide levels from the blood to the alveoli, and some small increases in ventilation for good levels of alveolar concentrations of these gases. Gas responses: When exercising at high intensities, pressure gradients of both oxygen and carbon dioxide cause the gases to move across the cell membranes. The diffusing capacities increase a lot when exercising. So, more exchange happens. Blood transport of gases and metabolic by-products: Because of the other increases, we see the gas and metabolic by-product transport increase.

What are some strategies for preventing OTS? (ESC 130) Strategies for Preventing OTS -• Follow proper ? guidelines -• Ensure sufficient ? and ? -• Provide variety in ? and ? -• Keep accurate performance ? to catch OTS ? -• Ensure athlete has access to multidisciplinary health ? ----➢ Coach ----➢ Physician ----➢ Nutritionist -----➢ Psychologist

What are some strategies for preventing OTS? (ESC 130) Strategies for Preventing OTS -• Follow proper nutritional guidelines -• Ensure sufficient sleep and recovery -• Provide variety in intensity and volume -• Keep accurate performance records to catch OTS early -• Ensure athlete has access to multidisciplinary health team ----➢ Coach ----➢ Physician ----➢ Nutritionist -----➢ Psychologist

What are the acute blood pressure responses to aerobic exercise? (ESC 117-118) Blood Pressure -• Systolic blood pressure = pressure during ? -• Systolic BP is Combined with HR to estimate ? consumption of the ? -• Rate-pressure product = what x what? -• Diastolic blood pressure = BP exerted on arterial walls when ? blood being ejected -• Typical resting BP = #mmHg/#mmHg -• Maximal exercise can raise BP to #-#mmHg/#mmHgdiastolic -• Mean arterial pressure= ? pressure throughout the ? cycle -• Typically, Mean arterial pressure is ? than average of systolic and diastolic -• MAP = ((?-?) / #) + ? Control of Local Circulation -• ? and ? are the primary mechanisms regulating blood flow -• Blood flow to active muscles increased via local ? of ? -• Restricted in other areas by ? of ? -• At rest, #-#% of cardiac output to muscles -• During work, up to #% of cardiac output to muscles

What are the acute blood pressure responses to aerobic exercise? (ESC 117-118) Blood Pressure -• Systolic blood pressure = pressure during contraction -• Combined with HR to estimate oxygen consumption of the heart -• Rate-pressure product = heart rate x systolic blood pressure -• Diastolic blood pressure = BP exerted on arterial walls when no blood being ejected -• Typical resting BP = 120mmHg/80mmHg -• Maximal exercise can raise BP to 220-260mmHg/90mmHgdiastolic -• Mean arterial pressure - average pressure throughout cardiac cycle -• Typically, lower than average of systolic and diastolic -• MAP = ((systolic - diastolic) / 3) + diastolic Control of Local Circulation -• Vasoconstriction and vasodilation are the primary mechanisms regulating blood flow -• Blood flow to active muscles increased via local dilation of arteries -• Restricted in other areas by constriction of arterioles -• At rest -15 - 20% of cardiac output to muscles -• During work - up to 90% of cardiac output to muscles

What are the acute cardiovascular responses to aerobic exercise? (ESC 116) The cardiovascular system delivers ? and nutrients while removing metabolites and ? products during ? exercise. Cardiac Output (Q) -• The amount of ? pumped by the ? in ? per minute. -• Q = what is the formula for cardiac output? -• Increases rapidly during ? aerobic activity -• Followed by a ? increase and ? -• Resting level = #L/min -• Can increase to a maximum of #-#L/minute Stroke Volume -• Rises during the ? of exercise -• Plateaus once oxygen uptake reaches #-#% maximum -• Untrained stroke volume of college men - #-#ml blood/beat -• Trained men = up to #-#ml per beat -• Women = #% less than men -• End-? volume and ? action determine stroke volume -• Venous return increased via: ----➢ ? (from ? activation) ----➢ Increased ??? ----➢ Increased respiratory ? and ? volume ----➢ Increased venous return results in more ? heart ? via the ?-? mechanism -▪ Increased end-diastolic volume stretches ? fibers resulting in more forceful ? and increased ?? -▪ Increased cardiac ejection characterized by increased ejection ?= the fraction of the end-? volume that is ? during heart ? Heart Rate -• Increased immediately ? and at the ? of exercise -• HR increases ? with exercise ?

What are the acute cardiovascular responses to aerobic exercise? (ESC 116) The cardiovascular system delivers oxygen and nutrients while removing metabolites and waste products during aerobic exercise. Cardiac Output (Q) -• The amount of blood pumped by the heart in liters per minute. -• Q = Stroke volume x heart rate -• Increases rapidly during initial aerobic activity -• Followed by a gradual increase and plateau -• Resting level = 5L/min -• Can increase to a maximum of 20-22L/minute Stroke Volume -• Rises during the onset of exercise -• Plateaus once oxygen uptake reaches 40%-50% maximum -• Untrained stroke volume of college men - 100-120ml blood/beat -• Trained men = up to 150-160ml per beat -• Women = 25% less than men -• End-diastolic volume and catecholamine action determine stroke volume -• Venous return increased via: ----➢ Vasoconstriction (from sympathetic activation) ----➢ Increased skeletal muscle pump ----➢ Increased respiratory frequency and tidal volume ----➢ Increased venous return results in more forceful heart contractions via the Frank-Starling mechanism -▪ Increased end-diastolic volume stretches myocardial fibers resulting in more forceful contraction and increased systolic ejection -▪ Increased cardiac ejection characterized by increased ejection fraction - the fraction of the end-diastolic volume that is ejected during heart contraction Heart Rate -• Increased immediately before and at the beginning of exercise -• HR increases linearly with exercise intensity

What are the acute oxygen uptake responses to aerobic exercise? (ESC 117) Oxygen uptake is the amount of ? consumed by body ?. -• Increases during ? bout of ? exercise -• Proportional to the ? of ? used -• Maximal oxygen uptake= greatest amount of ? usable at the ? level ----➢ Correlates with degree of physical ? ----➢ Related to the ? and ? system's ability to transport ? and body tissue's ability to ? it ----➢ Resting O2 uptake estimated= #mL O2/kg bodyweight per minute - defined as # metabolic equivalent (MET) ----➢ Normal VO2 max = #-#ml/kg/minute ----➢ Fick Equation- used to calculate ? uptake -▪ VO2 = formula is what x what? ----▪ a-vO2 =Arteriovenous difference - the difference in ? content of ? and ? blood ----▪ I.E. hr = 72BPM, Stroke volume = 65ml blood/beat, a-vO2 = 6, weight = 80kg ----▪ VO2 = 281 mL*O2/min / 80kg ----▪ VO2 =3.5 ml*kg

What are the acute oxygen uptake responses to aerobic exercise? (ESC 117) Oxygen uptake is the amount of oxygen consumed by body tissues. -• Increases during acute bout of aerobic exercise -• Proportional to the mass of muscle used -• Maximal oxygen uptake - greatest amount of O2 usable at the cellular level ----➢ Correlates with degree of physical conditioning ----➢ Related to heart and circulatory system's ability to transport O2 and body tissue's ability to use it ----➢ Resting O2 uptake estimated - 3.5mL O2/kg bodyweight per minute - defined as one metabolic equivalent (MET) ----➢ Normal VO2 max = 25-80ml/kg/minute ----➢ Fick Equation- used to calculate oxygen uptake -▪ VO2 = Q x a-vO2 difference ----▪ a-vO2 =Arteriovenous difference - the difference in O2 content of arterial and venous blood ----▪ I.E. hr = 72BPM, Stroke volume = 65ml blood/beat, a-vO2 = 6, weight = 80kg ----▪ VO2 = 281 mL*O2/min / 80kg ----▪ VO2 =3.5 ml*kg

What are the biological responses that occur during aerobic overtraining? (ESC 129-130) Cardiovascular Responses to Overtraining -• Decreased heart rate ? with onset of OTS ----➢ Indicates ? parasympathetic input or ? sympathetic input -• Lowered maximum ? from exercise -• Resting blood pressure generally ? ----➢ Potential for ? diastolic pressure, ? systolic pressure Biochemical Responses to Overtraining -• High level of ?? -• Decrease or no change in ? concentrations increase -• Blood lipids and lipoproteins ? -• Decreased muscle ? content ----➢ Often ?-related ----➢ May result in the lowered ? response Endocrine Responses to Overtraining -• Lowered total ? levels in men -• Decreased ?-? levels ----➢ Associated with a ? state ----➢ #% decrease in ratio from baseline may indicate what? -• Decreased growth hormone secretion from the ? gland -• Decreased nocturnal ?- represent basal levels -• Increased ? and ? responses to a given workload ----➢ Maximum levels ? change -• Decreased basal ? levels -• Decreased ? response to relative workloads

What are the biological responses that occur during aerobic overtraining? (ESC 129-130) Cardiovascular Responses to Overtraining -• Decreased heart rate variability with onset of OTS ----➢ Indicates reduced parasympathetic input or excessive sympathetic input -• Lowered maximum heartrate from exercise -• Resting blood pressure generally unaffected ----➢ Potential for increased diastolic pressure, no change in systolic pressure Biochemical Responses to Overtraining -• High level of creatine kinase -• Decrease or no change in lactate concentrations increase -• Blood lipids and lipoproteins unaffected -• Decreased muscle glycogen content ----➢ Often diet-related ----➢ May result in the lowered lactate response Endocrine Responses to Overtraining -• Lowered total testosterone levels in men -• Decreased testosterone-cortisol levels ----➢ Associated with a catabolic state ----➢ 30% decrease in ratio from baseline may indicate OTS -• Decreased growth hormone secretion from the pituitary gland -• Decreased nocturnal epinephrine - represent basal levels -• Increased epinephrine and norepinephrine responses to a given workload ----➢ Maximum levels do not change -• Decreased basal dopamine levels -• Decreased dopamine response to relative workloads

What are the mechanisms of blood transport of gases and metabolic byproducts? (ESC 120) Oxygen -• Either dissolved in ? or carried by ?. -• ? fluid solubility of oxygen - less than #ml oxygen per liter of plasma -• Most oxygen is carried in ? -• #-#g hemoglobin per 100mL blood in men -• #g hemoglobin/100mL blood in women -• One gram of hemoglobin can carry #mL of oxygen -• The oxygen capacity of 100mL blood around #mL in men and slightly ? in women Carbon dioxide -• Removal more ? than oxygen delivery -• Diffuses across ? and then transported to ? -• Around #% of metabolic CO2 in plasma -• Some CO2 removed via ? (? amount) -• Most CO2 removed via ?(?) -• Reversible reaction: ----1. Formation of ? acid with the ? in ? blood cells --------➢ Sped up by ?? ----2. Acid broken into ? and ? ----3. H + combines with ? due to its ? properties --------➢ Maintains blood ? ----4. Bicarbonate diffuses to ? while ? diffuses into ? blood cells -• ? acid begins to accumulate when ? availability cannot meet exercise ?

What are the mechanisms of blood transport of gases and metabolic byproducts? (ESC 120) Oxygen -• Either dissolved in plasma or carried by hemoglobin. -• Low fluid solubility of oxygen - less than 3ml oxygen per liter of plasma -• Most oxygen is carried in hemoglobin -• 15-16g hemoglobin per 100mL blood in men -• 14g hemoglobin/100mL blood in women -• One gram of hemoglobin can carry 1.34mL of oxygen -• The oxygen capacity of 100mL blood around 20mL in men and slightly less in women Carbon dioxide -• Removal more complex than oxygen delivery -• Diffuses across cell and then transported to lungs -• Around 5% of metabolic CO2 in plasma -• Some CO2 via hemoglobin (small amount) -• Most CO2 removed via bicarbonate (HCO3-) -• Reversible reaction: ----1. Formation of carbonic acid with the water in red blood cells --------➢ Sped up by carbonic anhydrase ----2. Acid broken into H+ and bicarbonate ----3. H + combines with hemoglobin due to its buffering properties --------➢ Maintains blood pH ----4. Bicarbonate diffuses to plasma while chloride diffuses into red blood cells -• Lactic acid begins to accumulate when O2 availability cannot meet exercise demands

What are the respiratory responses to aerobic exercise? (ESC 118-119) Significant increases in ? to tissues, ? production, and ? ventilation (? of air ? per ?) occur following the ? of aerobic exercise. -• During exercise breathing increases from #-# breaths to #-#breaths per minute -• Tidal volume (volume of air ? and ? with each ?) increases from between #-# L to upwards of # L or greater -• Low-moderate exercise increases ? uptake and ? removal in ? to increased ? -• Ventilatory equivalent (ratio of ? ventilation to ? uptake) ----➢ Ranges from #-# L air/liter of O2 consumed ----➢ Intense exercise increases the role of breathing ? --------▪ Minute ventilation rises ? to oxygen uptake --------▪ Parallels the rise in blood ? --------▪ Upwards of #-# L of air per liter of O2 during intense exercise -• Alveoli= ?l unit of ? system where ? exchange occurs -• Anatomical dead space - the area not ? for ? exchange (?,?,?) ----➢ # mL in young adults ----➢ ? with age ----➢ Area increases during ? breathing due to ? of ? ----➢ Decreases ? to tidal volume during ? breathing --------▪ Tidal volume increases ? than anatomical dead space -• Physiological dead space ----➢ PDS is Alveoli with ? blood flow, ?, or other ? ----➢ Lung diseases can ? physiological dead space -• Overall effects ----➢ ? amounts of O2 diffusion from capillaries to ? ----➢ Increased ? from blood to ? ----➢ Increased ? ventilation to maintain ? concentrations -• Gas Responses ----➢ ? diffusion of O2 and CO2 due to a ? in partial pressure of O2 (#mmHg - #mmHg) in interstitial fluid and ? in CO2 (#mmHg - #mmHg) partial pressure

What are the respiratory responses to aerobic exercise? (ESC 118-119) Significant increases in O2 to tissues, CO2 production, and minute ventilation (volume of air breathed per minute) occur following the beginning of aerobic exercise. -• During exercise breathing increases from 12-15 breaths to 35-45 breaths per minute -• Tidal volume (volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath) increases from between 0.4 and 1.0 L to upwards of 3 L or greater -• Low-moderate exercise increases O2 uptake and CO2 removal in proportion to increased ventilation -• Ventilatory equivalent (ratio of minute ventilation to oxygen uptake) ----➢ Ranges from 20-25 L air/liter of O2 consumed ----➢ Intense exercise increases the role of breathing frequency --------▪ Minute ventilation rises disproportionately to oxygen uptake --------▪ Parallels the rise in blood lactate --------▪ Upwards of 35-40 L of air per liter of O2 during intense exercise -• Alveoli - functional unit of pulmonary system where gas exchange occurs -• Anatomical dead space - the area not functional for gas exchange (trachea, nose, mouth) ----➢ 150 mL in young adults ----➢ Increases with age ----➢ Area increases during deep breathing due to stretching of passages ----➢ Decreases proportionally to tidal volume during deep breathing --------▪ Tidal volume increases more than anatomical dead space -• Physiological dead space ----➢ Alveoli with poor blood flow, ventilation, or other problems ----➢ Lung diseases can increase physiological dead space -• Overall effects ----➢ Larger amounts of O2 diffusion from capillaries to tissues ----➢ Increased CO2 from blood to alveoli ----➢ Increased minute ventilation to maintain gas concentrations -• Gas Responses ----➢ Increased diffusion of O2 and CO2 due to a decrease in partial pressure of O2 (40mmHg - 3mmHg) in interstitial fluid and increase in CO2 (46mmHg - 90mmHg) partial pressure

What chronic adaptations occur from aerobic exercise? (ESC 121-122) Cardiovascular Adaptations -• ? maximal cardiac output -• ? stroke volume -• Reduced ? and ? exercise heart rate -• ? capillary density in muscle fibers ----➢ Function of ? and ? of training ----➢ Decreases diffusion ? for ? and metabolic ? -Increasing ? oxygen uptake is crucial for aerobic performance -• Enhanced cardiac output results in lowering ? rate due to increased ?? -• Slow resting heart rate (?) seen in highly conditioned athletes (#-#bpm) -• ? HR rise in response to standardized ? efforts a hallmark of ? endurance training -• Over #-# months of aerobic training results in large increase in ?? ----➢ Increased ? ventricle chamber ? and wall ? increases ?? Respiratory Adaptations -• Increased ? volume with ? exercise -• Increased breathing ? with ? exercise -• Reduced ? volume and breath ? at ? exercise -• Adaptations largely occur in the ?? being trained Neural Adaptations -• Increased ? -• Delayed ? in ? mechanisms -• Rotations of neural activity between ? and ? units within the muscle ----➢ More ? locomotion and ? energy ? Muscular Adaptations -• Increase in ?-sparing (decreased ? use) -• Increased ?-utilization within the muscle ----➢ Raises the intensity at which ? occurs - up to #-#% aerobic capacity -• Increased ? capacity of type # muscle fibers ----➢ Reduced ? enzymes and some size ? will occur ----➢ Conversion of Type # to Type # fibers ----➢ No evidence of type # to type # transitions -• Some limited hypertrophy of Type # muscle fibers -• Increased ? density ----➢ Mitochondria produce ATP from oxidation of ? and ??? ----➢ In combination with increased O2 availability, more mitochondria increase the ? capacity of ? tissue -• Increased ? content= a ? that transports ? within the ? cell -• Increased activity of the ? involved in ? metabolism -• Increase in ? and ? stores Bone and Connective Tissue Adaptations -• Intense aerobic activities stimulate ? growth most successfully ----➢ Must exceed the minimum ? intensity and ? frequency for bone growth ----➢ Must systematically ? to continually overload the ? ----➢ Eventually, bone growth may be ? due to the inability to continually ? via aerobic exercise ----➢ High-intensity intervals provide greater ? stimulus along with the benefits of ? exercise ----➢ ?, tendons, and ? grow stronger in proportion to the ? --------▪ ?-bearing surfaces in joints show increased ? in response --------▪ Requires ? range of motion for optimum ? Endocrine Adaptations -• Increases in circulating ? -• Increased number of ? -• Increased hormone ? rate -• Increased ? secretion= increases ? activity ----➢ Offset by increased ? and ? ----➢ Net protein synthesis does occur in ?-trained athletes --------▪ Likely associated with increased ? proteins, not ? proteins

What chronic adaptations occur from aerobic exercise? (ESC 121-122) Cardiovascular Adaptations -• Increased maximal cardiac output -• Increased stroke volume -• Reduced resting and submaximal exercise heart rate -• Increase capillary density in muscle fibers ----➢ Function of volume and intensity of training ----➢ Decreases diffusion distance for oxygen and metabolic substrates -Increasing maximal oxygen uptake is crucial for aerobic performance -• Enhanced cardiac output results in lowering discharge rate due to increased stroke volume -• Slow resting heart rate (bradycardia) seen in highly conditioned athletes (40-60bpm) -• Slow HR rise in response to standardized submaximal efforts a hallmark of aerobic endurance training -• Over 6-12 months of aerobic training results in large increase in cardiac output ----➢ Increased left ventricle chamber volume and wall thickness increases stroke volume Respiratory Adaptations -• Increased tidal volume with maximal exercise -• Increased breathing frequency with maximal exercise -• Reduced tidal volume and breath frequency at submaximal exercise -• Adaptations largely occur in the specific muscles being trained Neural Adaptations -• Increased efficiency -• Delayed fatigue in contractile mechanisms -• Rotations of neural activity between synergists and motor units within the muscle ----➢ More efficient locomotion and lower energy expenditure Muscular Adaptations -• Increase in glycogen-sparing (decreased glycogen use) -• Increased fat-utilization within the muscle ----➢ Raises the intensity at which OBLA occurs - up to 80-90% aerobic capacity -• Increased oxidative capacity of type IIa muscle fibers ----➢ Reduced glycolytic enzymes and some size reduction will occur ----➢ Conversion of Type IIx to Type IIa fibers ----➢ No evidence of type II to type I transitions -• Some limited hypertrophy of Type I muscle fibers -• Increased mitochondrial density ----➢ Mitochondria produce ATP from oxidation of glycogen and free fatty acids ----➢ In combination with increased O2 availability, more mitochondria increase the oxidative capacity of muscle tissue -• Increased myoglobin content - a protein that transports oxygen within the muscle cell -• Increased activity of the enzymes involved in aerobic metabolism -• Increase in glycogen and triglyceride stores Bone and Connective Tissue Adaptations -• Intense aerobic activities stimulate bone growth most successfully ----➢ Must exceed the minimum threshold intensity and strain frequency for bone growth ----➢ Must systematically increase to continually overload the bone ----➢ Eventually, bone growth may be limited due to the inability to continually overload via aerobic exercise ----➢ High-intensity intervals provide greater osteogenic stimulus along with the benefits of aerobic exercise ----➢ Ligaments, tendons, and cartilage grow stronger in proportion to the intensity --------▪ Weight-bearing surfaces in joints show increased thickness in response --------▪ Requires full range of motion for optimum results Endocrine Adaptations -• Increases in circulating hormones -• Increased number of receptors -• Increased hormone turnover rate -• Increased cortisol secretion - increases catabolic activity ----➢ Offset by increased IGF and testosterone ----➢ Net protein synthesis does occur in endurance-trained athletes --------▪ Likely associated with increased mitochondrial proteins, not contractile proteins